I.
The Age of Social Change
Context: The French Revolution (1789) created the possibility of a dramatic change in
society, which had previously been controlled by the aristocracy and the church.
Political Traditions:
o Liberals: Wanted a nation that tolerated all religions and protected individual
rights against government power. They supported an elected parliamentary
government and an independent judiciary but were not democrats, as they
believed only men of property should vote and opposed voting rights for women.
o Radicals: Desired a government based on the majority of the population and
supported women’s suffragette movements. They opposed the concentration of
property in the hands of a few and the privileges of wealthy landowners.
o Conservatives: Initially opposed to change in the 18th century, they later
accepted that some shift was inevitable but believed the past had to be respected
and change should be a slow process.
II. Industrial Society and Social Change
Impact of Industrialization: New cities and industrial regions developed, bringing men,
women, and children to factories.
Social Issues: Workers faced long hours, poor wages, and unemployment; housing
and sanitation became major problems as towns grew rapidly.
Liberal/Radical Response: Many factory owners were liberals or radicals who believed
in individual effort and labor over aristocratic privileges. They felt that society would
develop if the workforce was healthy and citizens were educated.
III. The Coming of Socialism
Key Concept: Socialists were against private property, viewing it as the root of all
social ills because property owners focused on personal gain rather than the welfare of
workers.
Visions of the Future:
o Robert Owen: Sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony.
o Louis Blanc: Wanted the government to encourage cooperatives to replace
capitalist enterprises.
o Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels: Argued that workers must overthrow capitalism
and private property to create a radically socialist (communist) society where
property is socially controlled.
International Support: By the 1870s, socialists formed an international body called the
Second International.
IV. Russia Before the Revolution
Rule: In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled a vast, diverse empire including current-day
Finland, parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Central Asian states.
Economy: About 85 per cent of the population were agriculturists. Russia was a major
exporter of grain, and industry was limited to "pockets" like St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Social Divisions: Workers were divided by skill; for example, metalworkers considered
themselves "aristocrats". Women made up 31 per cent of the factory workforce but
earned significantly less than men.
Peasants: They were deeply religious but had little respect for the nobility. Uniquely,
they pooled land periodically in a commune called a mir.
V. The 1905 Revolution
Causes: A bad economic year in 1904 led to rising prices and falling wages.
Bloody Sunday: A procession led by Father Gapon was attacked by police, killing over
100 workers, which triggered nationwide strikes.
Outcomes: The Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament called the
Duma, but he later dismissed it and changed voting laws to favor conservatives.
VI. World War I and the Russian Empire
The War: Russia fought alongside the Allied Powers against the Central Powers.
Impact on Russia: The war led to 7 million casualties by 1917 and created 3 million
refugees.
Economic Collapse: Industrial equipment disintegrated, railway lines broke down, and
labor shortages occurred as men were called to war. Food riots at bread shops became
common by the winter of 1916.
VII. The 1917 Revolutions
The February Revolution:
o Food shortages in Petrograd led to strikes, often led by women workers.
o Soldiers joined the strikers, and they formed the Petrograd Soviet.
o Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March 1917, and a Provisional Government was
formed.
The October Revolution:
o Vladimir Lenin returned from exile and issued the April Theses, demanding an
end to the war, land for peasants, and bank nationalization.
o In October, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Leon Trotskii, seized power in a
swift uprising.
VIII. Post-Revolutionary Changes and Civil War
Bolshevik Actions: Banks and industries were nationalized; land was declared social
property; and the Bolshevik Party was renamed the Communist Party.
Civil War: Fighting broke out between the Bolsheviks (the ‘reds’), Socialist
Revolutionaries (the ‘greens’), and pro-Tsarists (the ‘whites’). By 1920, the Bolsheviks
controlled most of the former empire.
Formation of USSR: In December 1922, the Soviet Union (USSR) was created from the
Russian empire.
IX. Stalinism and Collectivisation
Emergency Measures: Facing grain shortages, Stalin introduced firm measures against
well-to-do peasants called kulaks.
Collectivisation: From 1929, the party forced peasants to work in collective farms
(kolkhoz).
Results: Resistance led to the destruction of livestock and a devastating famine (1930–
1933) that killed over 4 million people. Critics of these policies were imprisoned or
executed.s
X. Global Influence
Inspiration: The Russian Revolution inspired communist parties worldwide, including in
Great Britain and India.
Indian Perspectives: Figures like Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore
visited Russia and wrote about its social experiments.
Legacy: While the USSR became a great power with developed industry, it was
criticized for denying essential freedoms and using repressive policies.