Module 1: Electronics Fundamentals

Module Overview

Electric circuits are fundamental to understanding and working with electrical

systems, and several key concepts lay the groundwork for this knowledge. Current,
voltage, and resistance are basic terms that form the core of electrical
understanding. Current is the flow of electric charge, measured in amperes; voltage
is the electric potential difference, measured in volts; and resistance is the
opposition to the flow of current, measured in ohms. Ohm's Law succinctly
expresses their relationship: voltage equals current multiplied by resistance (V = I *
R).

Kirchhoff's laws, comprising Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff's Current
Law (KCL), are vital tools for circuit analysis. KVL states that the sum of voltages in
any closed loop of a circuit is zero, emphasizing energy conservation. KCL asserts
that the total current entering a node in a circuit equals the total current leaving the
node, adhering to the principle of charge conservation.

Mesh and nodal analysis are systematic approaches used to analyse complex
electrical circuits. Mesh analysis involves defining mesh currents and applying KVL
to formulate equations, while nodal analysis focuses on node voltages and applies
KCL to establish equations. Both methods simplify circuit analysis, providing
structured approaches to solve for unknowns in intricate networks.

Thevenin's theorem and Norton's theorem offer powerful simplification techniques

for circuits. Thevenin's theorem states that any linear circuit can be represented by
an equivalent circuit with a single voltage source and a single resistor. Norton's
theorem provides an alternative, expressing the same circuit as a current source in
parallel with a resistor. These theorems streamline circuit analysis, enabling
engineers to analyse and design circuits more efficiently by reducing complexity
while preserving essential characteristics. Together, these concepts form a
comprehensive understanding of electrical circuits, essential for engineers in
various fields.

Lesson 2: Circuit Analysis

Lesson Overview
This lesson covers the analysis of circuits through the application of diverse
methods, including Kirchhoff's laws, mesh and nodal analysis, as well as Thevenin
and Norton theorems.

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 Lesson Objectives

The learning objectives of Lesson 2 are as follows:

• Analyse and solve simple DC circuits using Kirchhoff's laws.
• Apply circuit theorems such as Thevenin's and Norton's theorems to simplify
circuits.

Topics to be covered
1.1 Important Terminologies
1.2 Kirchhoff’s laws
1.3 Dealing with Simultaneous Equations
1.4 Mesh Analysis
1.5 Nodal Analysis
1.6 Thevenin’s Theorem
1.7 Nortons Theorem

1.1 Important Terminologies:

Certain theorems, when applied to the solutions of electric networks, either simplify
the network or make their analytical solutions significantly more straightforward.
Before digging into the network theorems let us first discuss few terminologies.

Circuit: A circuit refers to a closed conducting pathway through which an electric

current either flows or is proposed to flow.

Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters like
resistance, inductance and capacitance.
Linear Circuit: A linear circuit is one in which its parameters remain constant,
meaning they do not vary with changes in voltage or current.

Non-linear Circuit: This type of circuit experiences changes in its parameters with
variations in voltage or current.

Bilateral Circuit: A bilateral circuit exhibits consistent properties or characteristics in

either direction. A typical example is a transmission line, which can effectively
perform its function in both directions.

Unilateral Circuit: A unilateral circuit is characterized by properties or characteristics

that alter with the direction of its operation. An instance is a diode rectifier, which
can only perform rectification in one direction.

Electric Network: An electric network is a combination of diverse electric elements

interconnected in any conceivable manner.

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
Passive Network: A passive network contains no source of electromotive force
(e.m.f.) within it.
Active Network: An active network incorporates one or more sources of
electromotive force (e.m.f.).

a b

Node: A node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are
connected.

Branch: A branch is the segment of a network situated between two junctions.

Loop: A loop is a closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered

more than once.

Mesh: A mesh is a loop that contains no other loop within it.

Sources: In any active network a source is a necessary element which supplies

energy to the circuit. There are two types of sources:

Independent Sources: An independent source, whether it's a voltage source or a

current source, is a component in a circuit whose output is not dependent on the
voltage or current in any other part of the circuit. In the case of an independent
voltage source, the voltage it generates is not influenced by the voltage or current
elsewhere in the circuit. Similarly, for an independent current source, the provided
current is not determined by the current or voltage in other circuit elements.

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 a b

Dependent Sources: Dependent sources are characterized by having their output voltage
determined by the voltage or current present in another segment of the circuit. They are further
classified as:
 Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)
 Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
 Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)
 Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)

Dependent Sources

1.2 Kirchhoff’s laws:

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): This law asserts that within any electrical
network, the algebraic sum of currents converging at a point (or junction) is zero.
This implies that the total current leaving a junction equals the total current
entering that junction.
incoming currents = outgoing currents

Consider the case of a circuit shown in figure below. In the given circuit branch
currents are assigned as I1, I2, I3, I4 & I5. If we consider node A and currents
meeting at this junction, we can say currents I3 and I5 are entering into the node
and I4 is leaving the node.
Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative,
we have
I3 + (− I4) + I5 = 0

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 or I3+ I5 = I4

We can express the above as : Σ I = 0 (i.e. algebraic sum of all currents)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is expressed as follows: The algebraic sum of the
products of currents and resistances within any closed path (or mesh) in a network,
combined with the algebraic sum of the electromotive forces ([Link].) along that
path, equals [Link] other words, Σ IR + Σ e.m.f. = 0
It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the
polarities of the voltage drop.

This law is founded on the principle that when we traverse a mesh starting from a
specific junction and return to the initial point, our potential must be identical to the
starting potential. Consequently, it implies that all encountered electromotive force
(e.m.f.) sources along the route must be inherently balanced by the voltage
variations across resistances, accounting for each voltage's appropriate sign,
whether positive or negative.
Assigning polarity in a KVL equation:
When employing Kirchhoff’s laws to solve specific problems, it is crucial to carefully
consider the algebraic signs associated with voltage drops and electromotive forces
([Link].). Failing to do so may lead to inaccurate results.
Following sign conventions is suggested:
(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.
As we move from the −ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal, there is a rise in
potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. If, on the other hand, we
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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
go from +ve terminal to −ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this
voltage should be assigned by a −ve sign. It is significant to note that the sign of
the battery e.m.f. is independent of the direction of the current through that branch.
(b) Sign of resistive Drop
If we move through a resistor in the same direction as the current, then there is a
fall in potential because current flows from a
higher to a lower potential. This fall in voltage is
taken −ve. Whereas, if we go in a direction
opposite to that of the current, then there is a rise
in voltage. This rise in voltage is assigned a
positive sign.
It is noticeable that the sign of voltage drop across
a resistor subjects to the direction of current via
that resistor.
Consider the circuit in upper figure aside. As we
travel around the loop in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will have
the following signs :
IR1 is − ve (Potential drop)
IR2 is − ve (Potential drop)
IR3 is - ve (Potential drop)
V1 is + ve (rise in potential)
V2 is − ve (Potential drop)
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get
− IR1 − IR2 − IR3 − V2 + V1 = 0
Now if we change the direction of movement in the
circuit and apply KVL we get:
IR1 + IR2+ IR3 + V2 - V1 = 0
IR1 is + ve (Potential rise)
IR2 is + ve (Potential rise)
IR3 is + ve (Potential rise)
V1 is - ve (Potential drop)
V2 is + ve (Potential rise)

1.3 Dealing with Simultaneous Equations:

Analysing electric circuits using Kirchhoff's laws typically requires solving two or
three simultaneous equations. While systematic elimination of variables is a
common approach, it can be tedious and error-prone. Determinants and Cramer's
rule offer a straightforward method for solving network equations by manipulating
their coefficients.
Determinants

The symbol is called a determinant of the second order (or 2 × 2

determinant)

because it contains two rows (ab and cd) and two columns (ac and bd). The
variables a, b, c and d are called the elements or constituents of the determinant.
Their count in the given matrix is 2 2 = 4.
A determinant like this can be solved by cross-multiplication as demonstrated below
:

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
The symbol represents a third-order determinant having 3 2 =
9 elements.

It can be solved as follows:

Consider following simultaneous equations:

ax + by = c
dx + ey = f
Here we have two unknown variables x and y and a, b, d and e are coefficients of
these unknowns c and f are constants.
Using determinants, the two simultaneous equations can be solved as follows:

Example 1: Find I1 and I2 by the method of determinants.

2I1 – 4I2 = 2
4I1 – 3I2 = 3

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
Example 2: Solve the following three simultaneous equations by the use of
determinants and Cramer’s rule
i1 + 3i2 + 4i3 = 14
i1 + 2i2 + i3 = 7
2i1 + i2 + 2i3 = 2

1.4 Mesh Analysis:

In this approach, loop or mesh currents are employed in lieu of branch currents.
These mesh or loop currents are considered specific dedicated loop currents and do
not divide at a junction like branch currents.

Above figure shows two batteries V1 and V2 connected in a network consisting of

five resistors. Let us assign the loop currents for the three meshes I1, I2 and I3.
Now considering currents in each resistor one by one:
Current in R1 = I1, R2 =I2, R3 = I3
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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
Current via R4 while seeing loop 1 is (I1 − I2) and when in loop 2 (I2 − I1).
Similarly current through R5 when in loop 2, is (I2 − I3) and when in loop 3, current
through it is (I3 − I2).
When we apply KVL to three loops, we get following equations:
KVL for Loop 1
V1 − I1R1 − R4 (I1 − I2) = 0
KVL for Loop 2
− I2R2 − R5 (I2 − I3) − R4 (I2 − I1) = 0
KVL for Loop 3
− I3R3 − V2 − R5 (I3 − I2) = 0
By solving the three equations, one can determine all the currents within the circuit.

1.5 Nodal Analysis:

The nodal-equation method directly relies on Kirchhoff's current law. The nodal
method offers the advantage of requiring a minimal number of equations to
determine unknown quantities. It is particularly well-suited for networks with
numerous parallel circuits sharing a common ground, such as electronic circuits.
In the application of this method, each junction in the network where three or more
branches meet is treated as a node. One of these nodes is designated as the
reference node, datum node, or zero-potential node. Consequently, the number of
simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n − 1), where n represents the
number of independent nodes.

Let us now consider above figure, and apply KCL at each node to obtain equations:
Node a
I1 − I2 – I4 = 0 or I1 = I2 + I4

Va
I 4=
R4
Va−Vb
I 2=
R2
V 1−Va
I1 =
R1
V 1−Va Va Va−Vb
= +
R1 R4 R2

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 Va ( R11 + R14 + R12 )− VR 11 − RVb2 =0
Node b: I 2+ I 3−I 5=0 or I 5=I 2+ I 3
Vb Va−Vb V 2−Vb
= +
R5 R2 R3
Vb
1
(
+
1
+
1
−
Va V 2
R5 R2 R3 R2 R3
− =0 )
By solving above two simultaneous equations we can find the node voltages.

Example 3 Use nodal analysis method to find currents in the various resistors of the
circuit
shown in Fig. (a) below.
Solution. The given circuit is redrawn in Fig. (b) with its different nodes marked 1, 2,
3 and
4, the last one being taken as the reference or datum node. The different node-
voltage equations are as under:
10 10

V 1 +10 V 2−13.5 V 3−20=0

The matrix form of the above three equations is

Node 1

( )
1 1 1 V2 V3
V1 + + − − =8
2 2 10 2 10

11V 1−5 V 2−V 3 −280=0

Node 2

( )
1 1 V1 V3
V2 + +1 − − =0
2 5 2 1

5 V 1−17 V 2 +10 V 3=0

Node 3

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 ( )
1 1 V2 V 1
V3 +1+ − − =−2
4 10 1 10

All the other nodes are at a higher potential with respect to the datum node. The
various
currents shown in Fig. (b) can now be found easily.
I 1=V 1 / 2=36 / 2=18 A
I 2=(V 1−V 2)/2=(36−20)/2=8 A
I 3=(V 1−V 3)/10=(36−16)/10=2 A
It is seen that total current, as expected, is 18+8+ 2=28 A
I 4=(V 2−V 3)/1=(20−16)/1=4 A
I 5=V 2/5=20 /5=4 A , I 6=V 3/ 4=16/4=4 A

1.6 Thevenin Theorem

It presents a mathematical approach to replace a given network, observed from two
output terminals, with a single voltage source with a series resistance. This
approach streamlines the rapid and upfront resolution of complex networks,
particularly in the realm of electronics.

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
To understand let us start with simple example:

Imagine the need to determine the current passing through the load resistance RL,
as illustrated in Fig. (a) above. The process will unfold as follows:

Step 1: Eliminate RL from the circuit terminals A and B and reconfigure the circuit,
as depicted in Fig. (b). Evidently, the terminals now exhibit an open-circuit
configuration.

Step 2: Compute the open-circuit voltage Voc, observed across terminals A and B
when they are open, meaning RL is absent. It is significant that Voc is equivalent to
the drop across R2, expressed as IR2, where I denote the circuit current in the
scenario where A and B are open. It is also called ‘Thevenin voltage’ Vth.
E
I=
R 1+ R 2+r

E R2
∴ V OC =I R 2=
R 1+ R 2+r

[r is the internal resistance of battery]

Step 3: Now remove Battery from the circuit, by its internal resistance r and redraw
the circuit, as shown in Fig. (c). While looking into the circuit through the terminals
A and B, the circuit consists of two parallel resistors: R2 II (R1 + r). The equivalent
resistance of the network, as viewed from these terminals is given as:

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 (R¿ ¿1+ r)
R=R 2 ǁ(R¿¿ 1+r )=R2 ¿¿
R 2 +(R ¿¿ 1+r )¿

Note: For an ideal voltage source, the internal resistance (if not mentioned) is zero.
This resistance is also called, Thevenin resistance R TH

Therefore, when observed from terminals A and B, the entire network (excluding R L)
can be simplified into a singular source, known as Thevenin's source and an internal
resistance equal to RTH (or Ri), as illustrated in Fig. above.

Step 4: Connect RL back across terminals A and B from where it was provisionally
removed earlier. Current flowing through RL is given by
V th
I=
R th + R L

Therefore, Thevenin's theorem, when applied to DC circuits, can be stated as

follows:

In any linear, active, bilateral network, the current flowing through a load resistance
(RL) connected across terminals A and B is governed by V TH / (RTH + RL). In this
expression, VTH denotes the open-circuit voltage (the voltage across the terminals
when RL is replaced with an open circuit), and R TH is the internal resistance of the
network when observed from terminals A and B, with all voltage sources substituted
by their internal resistance (if applicable) and current sources replaced by infinite
resistance (Open circuit).

Example 4: Convert the circuit shown in Fig. (a) below, to a single voltage source in
series with a single resistor.

Solution. Let us find thevenin’s equivalent. For this purpose, we have to calculate (i)
Vth or VAB and (ii) Rth or RAB. With terminals A and B open, the two voltage sources
are connected in subtractive series because they oppose each other.
Net voltage around the circuit is (15 − 10) = 5 V and total resistance is (8 + 4) = 12
Ω. Hence circuit current is = 5/12 A. Drop across 4 Ω resistor = 4 × 5/12 = 5/3 V
with the polarity as shown in Fig. (a).

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
∴ VAB = Vth = + 10 + 5/3 = 35/3 V.
Incidentally, we could also find V AB while going along the parallel route B-F-E-A.
Drop across 8 Ω resistor = 8 × 5/12 = 10/3 V. V AB equal the a9lgebraic sum of
voltages met on the way from B to A. Hence, VAB = (− 10/ 3) + 15 = 35/3 V.
As shown in Fig. (b) above, the single voltage source has a voltage of 35/3 V.
For finding Rth, we will replace the two voltage sources by short-circuits. In that
case, Rth = RAB
= 4 || 8 = 8/3 Ω.

1.7 Norton’s Theorem

While Thevenin's theorem transforms a two-terminal active network consisting of

linear resistances and generators into an equivalent constant-voltage source and
series resistance, Norton's theorem substitutes the network with an equivalent
constant-current source and parallel resistance.

Nortons theorem states that:

When observed from its output terminals, any two-terminal active network that
includes voltage sources and resistance can be represented as an equivalent circuit
comprising a constant-current source and a parallel resistance. The constant
current is equivalent to the current that would pass through a short circuit
connected across the terminals, and the parallel resistance is the resistance of the
network when examined from these open-circuited terminals after all voltage and
current sources have been substituted with their internal resistances.

Explanation:

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
Step 1: Replace load resistance with a short circuit (Short circuit at terminal A and
B) Fig. (a) above. The short-circuit current I SC gives the value of constant-current
source.

Step 2: For finding Ri (RN), replace all sources with their internal resistance as shown
in Fig. (b). The resistance of the network when looked into from terminals A and B
gives Ri.

Step 3: The Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (c). It consists of a constant-
current
source of infinite internal resistance having a resistance of Ri connected in parallel
with it.

Step 4: Place the load resistance back to the terminals A and B (Norton equivalent
circuit) and find current through it.

Example 5: Determine the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits between

terminals A and B for the voltage divider circuit of Fig. (a) below.
Solution. (a) Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Obviously, Vth = drop across R2 When battery is replaced by a short-circuit.

R2
Vth = drop across R2 = E
R 1+ R 2

When battery is replaced by a short-circuit.

Ri = R1 || R2 = R1 R2/(R1 + R2)
Hence, Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. (b) above.

(b) Norton Equivalent Circuit

A short placed across terminals A and B will short out R2 as well. Hence, I SC = E/R1.
The Norton equivalent resistance is exactly the same as Thevenin resistance except
that it is connected in parallel with the current source as shown in Fig. (c)

Example 6: Using Norton’s theorem calculate current flowing through 10Ω resistor
of Fig. (a).
Solution. (i) Remove 10Ω resistor and put a short across terminals A and B as shown
in Fig. (b). As seen, 10Ω resistor also becomes short-circuited.

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
(ii) Let us now find I SC. The battery sees a parallel combination of 4 Ω and 8 Ω in
series with a
4 Ω resistance. Total resistance seen by the battery = 4 + 4 || 8 = 20/3 Ω.
Hence, I = 20 + 20/3 = 3 A. This current divides at point C of Fig. (b). Current going
along path CAB gives ISC.
I SC= 3 × 4/12 = 1 A.

10

10

(iii) In Fig. (c), battery has been removed leaving behind its internal resistance
which, in this case, is zero. Resistance of the network looking into the terminals A
and B in Fig. (d) is
Ri = 10 || 10 = 5 Ω
(iv) Fig. (e) shows Norton’s equivalent circuit.
(v) Now, join the 10 Ω resistance back across terminals A and B. The current flowing
through
it, obviously, is IAB = 1 × 10/15 = 0.66 A.

Key Takeaways from the lesson:

● KCL and KVL: Fundamental laws for current and voltage analysis.
● Mesh and Nodal Analysis: Techniques for simplifying circuit analysis by
assigning currents or voltages to essential loops or nodes.
● Thevenin's Theorem: Simplifies circuits into equivalent voltage sources and
resistances.
● Norton's Theorem: Offers an alternative to Thevenin's theorem, providing
equivalent current sources and resistances.
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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 Reference links:

1. [Link]
Difference
2. Electrical Technology Vol-I by [Link]
3. Basic Electrical Engineering by U.A. Bakshi

Quiz:

1. What does Kirchhoff's Current Law state?

A. Voltage across a closed loop is zero.

B. The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the node.
C. The voltage across a resistor is proportional to the current through it.
D. The sum of voltages around a closed loop is equal to the total resistance.

Answer: B

2. Which statement best describes Kirchhoff's Voltage Law?

A. The sum of voltages across elements in a closed loop is zero.

B. The sum of currents in a closed loop is zero.

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 C. The voltage across a closed loop is equal to the product of current and
resistance.
D. The sum of voltage drops across elements in a closed loop is equal to the
sum of voltage rises.

Answer: D

3. What is a mesh?
A. A closed loop in a circuit.
B. A node with only two connecting elements.
C. A current-carrying loop that does not contain any other loops.
D. A point in the circuit where three or more elements meet.

Answer: C

4. What is the main principle behind nodal analysis?

A. Voltage across a resistor is proportional to the current through it.

B. The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the node.
C. The voltage drop across a closed loop is zero.
D. The sum of voltages around a closed loop is equal to the total resistance.

Answer: B

5. Two currents I1 and I2 are entering in a node. The Node is connecting 3

branches. What will be the value of current I3 leaving the node?
A. I1
B. I2-I1
C. I1-I2
D. I1+I2

6. While applying KVL, what sign is assigned to a drop in voltage across a

resistor?
A. Positive
B. No sign
C. Negative
D. Any one

7. The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of:

A. One resistor in series with another
B. One voltage source in series with resistor
C. One voltage source in parallel with resistor
D. One current source in series with resistor
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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
 8. Find the value of V if the current in the I2 =0.

I1 I2 I3

A. 3.5V
B. 6.5V
C. 7.5V
D. 8.5V

9. Calculate the Thevenin resistance across the terminal AB for the following
circuit.

A. 4.34 ohm
B. 3.67 ohm
C. 3.43 ohm
D. 2.32 ohm

[Link] we use Norton’s theorem on a circuit containing a BJT?

A. Yes
B. No
C. Depends on the BJT
D. Insufficient data provided

Quiz Answers

1. B

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts
2. D

3. C

4. B

5. D

6. C

7. B

8. C

9. B

10. B

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Lesson 1: Basic Electrical Concepts