Understanding M-values

By Erik C. Baker, P.E.

In conjunction with an array of hypothetical "tissue" compartments, gas
loading calculations and M-values compose the major elements of the
dissolved gas or "Haldanian" decompression model. Through the use of
widely-available desktop computer programs, technical divers rely on this
model for their decompression safety. A good understanding of M-values
can help divers to determine appropriate conservatism factors and evaluate
the adequacy of various decompression profiles for a particular dive.
ratio was used by Haldane to develop the
What are M-values? The term "M-value"
first decompression tables. In later years,
was coined by Robert D. Workman in the and up until the 1960's, other ratios were
mid-1960's when he was doing used by various modelers for the different
decompression research for the U.S. Navy half-time compartments. Most of the U.S.
Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU). Navy decompression tables were
Workman was a medical doctor with the calculated using this supersaturation ratio
rank of Captain in the Medical Corps of the method.
U.S. Navy.
However, there was a problem.
The "M" in M-value stands for Many of the tables produced by this
"Maximum." For a given ambient method were deficient when it came to
pressure, an M-value is defined as the deeper and longer dives. Robert
maximum value of inert gas pressure Workman began a systematic review of
(absolute) that a hypothetical "tissue" the decompression model including
compartment can "tolerate" without previous research that had been
presenting overt symptoms of performed by the U.S. Navy. He arrived at
decompression sickness (DCS). M-values some important conclusions. First of all,
are representative limits for the tolerated he recognized that Haldane's original ratio
gradient between inert gas pressure and of 2:1 (based on air) was really a ratio of
ambient pressure in each compartment. 1.58:1 if you considered only the partial
Other terms used for M-values are "limits pressure of the inert gas in air - nitrogen.
for tolerated overpressure," "critical [By that time in decompression research it
tensions," and "supersaturation limits." was known that oxygen was not a
The term M-value is commonly used by significant factor in DCS; it was the inert
decompression modelers. gases like nitrogen and helium
that were the culprits.] In his review of the
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND research data, Workman found that the
"tissue ratios" for tolerated overpressure
In the dissolved gas or "Haldanian" varied by half-time compartment and by
decompression model, gas loading depth. The data showed that the faster
calculations for each hypothetical "tissue" half-time compartments tolerated a greater
compartment are compared against overpressure ratio than the slower
"ascent limiting criteria" to determine the compartments, and that for all
safe profile for ascent. In the early years compartments the tolerated ratios became
of the model, including the method less with increasing depth. Then, instead
developed by John S. Haldane in 1908, of using ratios, Workman described the
the ascent limiting criteria was in the form maximum tolerated partial pressure of
of "supersaturation ratios." For example, nitrogen and helium for each compartment
Haldane found that a diver whose at each depth as the "M-value." Next, he
"tissues" were saturated by breathing air made a "linear projection" of these M-
at a depth of 33 fsw could ascend directly values as a function of depth and found
to the surface (sea level) without that it was a reasonably close match to the
experiencing symptoms of DCS. Because actual data. He made the observation that
the ambient pressure at 33 fsw depth is "a linear projection of M-values is useful
twice that at sea level, Haldane for computer programming as well."
concluded that a ratio of 2:1 for tolerated
overpressure above ambient could be
used as the ascent limiting criteria. This
approximate
THE WORKMAN M-VALUES This included M-values which expressed a
linear relationship between ambient
Workman's presentation of M-values in the pressure and tolerated inert gas pressure
form of a linear equation was a significant in the hypothetical "tissue" compartments.
step in the evolution of the dissolved gas The major difference between the two
decompression model. His M-values approaches was that Workman's M-values
established the concept of a linear were based on depth pressure (i.e.
relationship between depth pressure [or diving from sea level) and Buhlmann's M-
ambient pressure] and the tolerated inert values were based on absolute pressure
gas pressure in each "tissue" (i.e. for diving at altitude). This makes
compartment. This concept is an sense, of course, since Workman was
important element of the present-day concerned with the diving activities of the
dissolved gas model as applied by a U.S. Navy (presumably performed at sea
variety of modelers. level) while Buhlmann was concerned with
diving activities in the high mountain lakes
Workman expressed his M-values of Switzerland.
in the slope-intercept form of a linear
equation (see Figure 1). His surfacing Buhlmann published two sets of
value was M-values which have become well-known
designated MO [pronounced "M naught"]. in diving circles; the ZH-L12 set from the
This was the intercept value in the linear 1983 book, and the ZH-L16 set(s) from the
equation at zero depth pressure (gauge) at 1990 book (and later editions). The "ZH"
sea level. The slope in the linear equation in these designations stands for "Zurich"
was designated M [pronounced "delta M"] (named after his hometown), the "L"
and represented the change in M-value stands for "limits," and the "12" or "16"
with represents the number of pairs of
change in depth pressure. coefficients (M-values) for the array
of half-time compartments for helium and
THE BUHLMANN M-VALUES nitrogen. The ZH-L12 set has twelve
pairs of coefficients for sixteen half-time
Professor Albert A. Buhlmann, M.D., compartments and these M-values were
began doing decompression research in determined empirically (i.e. with actual
1959 in the Laboratory of Hyperbaric decompression trials). The ZH-L16A set
Physiology at the University Hospital in has sixteen pairs of coefficients for sixteen
Zurich, Switzerland. Buhlmann continued half-time compartments and these M-
his research for over thirty years and values were mathematically-derived from
made a number of important contributions the half-times based
to decompression science. In 1983 he on the tolerated surplus volumes and
published the first edition (in German) of a solubilities of the inert gases. The ZH-
successful book entitled Decompression - L16A set of M-values for nitrogen is further
Decompression Sickness. An English divided into subsets B and C because the
translation of the book was published in mathematically-derived set A was found
1984. Buhlmann's book was the first empirically not to be conservative enough
nearly complete reference on making in the middle compartments. The modified
decompression calculations that was set B (slightly more conservative) is
widely-available to the diving public. As a suggested for table calculations and the
result, the "Buhlmann algorithm" became modified set C (somewhat more
the basis for most of the world's in-water conservative) is suggested for use with in-
decompression computers and do-it- water decompression computers which
yourself desktop computer programs. calculate in real-time.
Three more editions of the book were
published in German in 1990, 1993, and Similar to the Workman M-values,
1995 under the name Tauchmedizin or the Buhlmann M-values are expressed in
"Diving Medicine." [An English translation the slope-intercept form of a linear
of the 4th Edition of the book (1995) is in equation (see Figure 1). The Coefficient a
preparation for publication]. is the intercept at zero ambient pressure
(absolute) and the Coefficient b is the
Buhlmann's method for reciprocal of the slope. [Note: the
decompression calculations was similar to Coefficient a does not imply that humans
the one that Workman had prescribed.
can withstand zero absolute pressure! Buhlmann M-values is on the order of 0.5
This is simply a mathematical requirement atm/bar.]
for the equation. The lower limit for
ambient pressure in the application of the

Pressure Graph: Workman-style M-values

versus Bühlmann-style M-values
y Surface Pressure at Sea Level
ne

ine

ne
Li

Li
eL
re

ue
su
Compartment Inert Gas Pressure, absolute

lu

al
s

va

-v
r e

M
P

M-
nt

n
e

an
an bi

m
rkm
Am

hl
Bü
Wo

y y
x x
slope = 1.0

Workman M=
slope

Workman M O = intercept at
y
zero depth pressure (gauge)
x

Bühlmann Coefficient b =
reciprocal of slope (1/b = slope)

Bühlmann Coefficient a = intercept at

zero ambient pressure (absolute)
0
0 x
Ambient Pressure, absolute

Figure1
many custom decompression tables in use
by technical divers.
DCAP AND DSAT M-VALUES
Many sport divers are familiar with
Many technical divers will recognize the the Recreational Dive Planner (RDP)
11F6 set of M-values used by Hamilton distributed by the Professional Association
Research's Decompression Computation of Diving Instructors (PADI). The M-
and Analysis Program (DCAP). This set values used for the RDP were developed
or "matrix" of M-values was determined by and tested by Dr. Raymond E. Rogers, Dr.
Dr. Bill Hamilton and colleagues during Michael R. Powell, and colleagues with
development of new air decompression Diving Science and Technology Corp.
tables for the Swedish Navy. In addition to (DSAT), a corporate affiliate of PADI. The
air diving, the 11F6 M-values have worked DSAT M-values were empirically verified
well for trimix diving and are the basis for with extensive in-water diver testing and
Doppler monitoring.
 been to become slightly more
COMPARISON OF M-VALUES conservative. This trend reflects
a more intensive validation process
Tables 1 thru 4 present a comparison of (empirical testing) and includes the use of
M-values for nitrogen and helium between Doppler ultrasound monitoring for the
the various Haldanian decompression presence and quantity of "silent bubbles"
algorithms (bubbles which are detectable in the
discussed in this article. All M-values are circulation but are not associated with
presented in Workman-style format. An overt symptoms of decompression
evolution or refinement in the M-values is sickness).
evident from Workman (1965) to
Buhlmann (1990). The general trend has

M-value Mathematics
Linear Equations: y = mx + b format x = (y - b) / m format
Workman-style: M= M Depth + M O Tolerated Depth = (P - M O ) / M
Bühlmann-style: [Link]. i.g. = (Pamb. / b) + a [Link]. = (Pt.i.g. - a) b

Workman to Bühlmann Conversions Bühlmann to Workman

a = MO - M Pamb. (surface at sea level) M O = a + Pamb. (surface at sea level) / b
b=1/ M M=1/b

for detailed comparisons and analysis.

Some of the early dive computers and
CONSISTENCY OF M-VALUES desktop computer programs used the
table format to "look up" M- values for
One observation that can be made about each stop during the calculation process.
the comparison between the M-values of Workman Definitions:
the various algorithms is that there is not a P = inert gas pressure (absolute)
great difference between them. In other in hypothetical "tissue"
compartment
words, there appears to be a certain
consistency between the values M = tolerated inert gas pressure
(absolute) in hypothetical
determined by various independent "tissue" compartment
researchers around the globe. This is a
Depth = depth pressure (gauge)
good sign as it indicates that the science measured from surface at sea
has determined a relatively consistent level
threshold for symptoms of decompression Tolerated Depth = tolerated depth
sickness across the human population. pressure (gauge) measured from
surface at sea level

FORMAT FOR M-VALUES M O = intercept at zero depth

pressure (gauge); surfacing
M-value at sea level
M-values are often expressed in the form M = slope of M-value line
of a linear equation as in the Workman-
style or the Buhlmann-style. This format is Bühlmann Definitions:
ideal for computer programming since it [Link]. i.g. = tolerated inert gas
allows the M-values to be calculated "on- pressure (absolute) in hypothetical
"tissue" compartment
the-fly" as they are needed. The linear
Pt.i.g. = inert gas pressure
format permits the display of M-value lines (absolute) in hypothetical "tissue"
on the pressure graph as well. compartment
Pamb. = ambient pressure (absolute)
M-values can also be expressed
[Link]. = tolerated ambient
in the form of a "matrix" or table. This is pressure (absolute)
simply where the M-values for each half- a = intercept at zero ambient
time compartment and each stop depth pressure (absolute)
are pre-calculated and arranged in b = reciprocal of slope of
columns and rows. This format is useful M-value line
 Table 1: Comparison of M-values for Nitrogen Between Various Haldanian Decompression Algorithms
American System of Pressure Units - feet of sea water (fsw)
Workman Bühlmann ZH-L 12 DSAT RDP DCAP MF11F6 Bühlmann ZH-L16
M-values (1965) M-values (1983) M-values (1987) M-values (1988) M-values (1990)
A B C
Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT MO Cpt HT MO M Cpt HT MO MO MO M
No. min fsw slope No. min fsw slope No. min fsw No. min fsw slope No. min fsw fsw fsw slope
1 2.65 111.9 1.2195
1 4.0 106.4 106.4 106.4 1.9082
1 5 104 1.8 1 5 99.08 1 5 104.0 1.30 1b 5.0 97.3 97.3 97.3 1.7928
2 10 88 1.6 2 7.94 89.1 1.2195 2 10 82.63 2 10 80.5 1.05 2 8.0 83.2 83.2 83.2 1.5352
3 12.2 75.2 1.2121 3 12.5 73.8 73.8 73.8 1.3847
3 20 72 1.5 4 18.5 68.8 1.1976 3 20 66.89 4 18.5 66.8 66.8 66.8 1.2780
5 26.5 63.5 1.1834 4 30 59.74 3 25 62.3 1.08 5 27.0 62.3 62.3 60.8 1.2306
4 40 56 1.4 6 37 57.3 1.1628 5 40 55.73 6 38.3 58.5 57.4 55.6 1.1857
7 53 53.2 1.1494 6 60 51.44 4 55 48.6 1.06 7 54.3 55.2 54.1 52.3 1.1504
5 80 54 1.3 8 79 51.9 1.1236 7 80 49.21 8 77.0 52.3 51.7 50.1 1.1223
8 100 47.85 5 95 45.4 1.04 9 109 49.9 49.9 48.5 1.0999
6 120 52 1.2 9 114 51.9 1.1236 9 120 46.93
7 160 51 1.15 10 146 50.2 1.0707 10 160 45.78 6 145 44.7 1.02 10 146 48.2 48.2 47.2 1.0844
8 200 51 1.1 11 185 50.2 1.0707 11 200 45.07 7 200 44.1 1.01 11 187 46.8 46.8 46.1 1.0731
9 240 50 1.1 12 238 47.3 1.0593 12 240 44.60 12 239 45.6 45.6 45.1 1.0635
13 304 42.6 1.0395 8 285 44.0 1.0 13 305 44.5 44.1 44.1 1.0552
14 397 42.6 1.0395 13 360 43.81 9 385 44.0 1.0 14 390 43.5 43.5 43.1 1.0478
15 503 42.6 1.0395 14 480 43.40 10 520 44.0 1.0 15 498 42.6 42.6 42.4 1.0414
16 635 42.6 1.0395 16 635 41.8 41.8 41.8 1.0359
11 670 43.5 1.0
Cpt = Compartment HT = Half-time M O = Surfacing M-value (sea level = 1 atm = 33 fsw = 1.01325 bar) M = slope of M-value line
Table 2: Comparison of M-values for Nitrogen Between Various Haldanian Decompression Algorithms
European System of Pressure Units - meters of sea water (msw)
Workman Bühlmann ZH-L 12 DSAT RDP DCAP MM11F6 Bühlmann ZH-L16
M-values (1965) M-values (1983) M-values (1987) M-values (1988) M-values (1990)
A B C
Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT MO Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT MO MO MO M
No. min msw slope No. min msw slope No. min msw No. min msw slope No. min msw msw msw slope
1 2.65 34.2 1.2195
1 4.0 32.4 32.4 32.4 1.9082
1 5 31.7 1.8 1 5 30.42 1 5 31.90 1.30 1b 5.0 29.6 29.6 29.6 1.7928
2 10 26.8 1.6 2 7.94 27.2 1.2195 2 10 25.37 2 10 24.65 1.05 2 8.0 25.4 25.4 25.4 1.5352
3 12.2 22.9 1.2121 3 12.5 22.5 22.5 22.5 1.3847
3 20 21.9 1.5 4 18.5 21.0 1.1976 3 20 20.54 4 18.5 20.3 20.3 20.3 1.2780
5 26.5 19.3 1.1834 4 30 18.34 3 25 19.04 1.08 5 27.0 19.0 19.0 18.5 1.2306
4 40 17.0 1.4 6 37 17.4 1.1628 5 40 17.11 6 38.3 17.8 17.5 16.9 1.1857
7 53 16.2 1.1494 6 60 15.79 4 55 14.78 1.06 7 54.3 16.8 16.5 15.9 1.1504
5 80 16.4 1.3 8 79 15.8 1.1236 7 80 15.11 8 77.0 15.9 15.7 15.2 1.1223
8 100 14.69 5 95 13.92 1.04 9 109 15.2 15.2 14.7 1.0999
6 120 15.8 1.2 9 114 15.8 1.1236 9 120 14.41
7 160 15.5 1.15 10 146 15.3 1.0707 10 160 14.06 6 145 13.66 1.02 10 146 14.6 14.6 14.3 1.0844
8 200 15.5 1.1 11 185 15.3 1.0707 11 200 13.84 7 200 13.53 1.01 11 187 14.2 14.2 14.0 1.0731
9 240 15.2 1.1 12 238 14.4 1.0593 12 240 13.69 12 239 13.9 13.9 13.7 1.0635
13 304 12.9 1.0395 8 285 13.50 1.0 13 305 13.5 13.4 13.4 1.0552
14 397 12.9 1.0395 13 360 13.45 9 385 13.50 1.0 14 390 13.2 13.2 13.1 1.0478
15 503 12.9 1.0395 14 480 13.33 10 520 13.40 1.0 15 498 12.9 12.9 12.9 1.0414
16 635 12.9 1.0395 16 635 12.7 12.7 12.7 1.0359
11 670 13.30 1.0
Cpt = Compartment HT = Half-time M O = Surfacing M-value (sea level = 10 msw = 1.0 bar) M = slope of M-value line
the dive. Some no-decompression
M-VALUE CHARACTERISTICS algorithms account for ascent and descent
rates in the calculations.
M-value sets can be classified into two
categories, no-decompression sets and Decompression M-values are
decompression sets. No-decompression characterized by having a slope parameter
M-values are surfacing values only. The which determines the change in M-value
DSAT RDP M-values are an example. with change
No-stop dive profiles are designed so that in ambient pressure. The value of the
the calculated gas loadings in the slope parameter will vary depending on
compartments do not exceed the surfacing the half-time of the hypothetical "tissue"
M-values. This allows for direct ascent to compartment. Generally, faster half-time
the surface at any time during compartments will have a greater slope
than slower half-time compartments. This
reflects the observation that faster collection of points where the
Table 3: Comparison of M-values for Helium compartment inert gas loading will be
Between Various Haldanian Decompression Algorithms equal to ambient pressure. This is
American System of Pressure Units - feet of sea water (fsw)
Workman Bühlmann ZH-L12 Bühlmann ZH-L16A important because when the inert gas
M-values (1965) M-values (1983) M-values (1990)
Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT MO M
loading in a compartment goes above the
No. min fsw slope No. min fsw slope No. min fsw slope ambient pressure line, an overpressure
1 1.0 111.9 1.2195 1 1.51 134.5 2.3557
1b 1.88 121.9 2.0964
gradient is created. An M-value line
2 3.0 89.1 1.2195 2 3.02 102.5 1.7400 represents the established limit for
1 5 86 1.5 3 4.6 75.2 1.2121 3 4.72 89.4 1.5321
4 7.0 68.8 1.1976 4 6.99 79.7 1.3845 tolerated overpressure gradient above the
2 10 74 1.4 5 10 63.5 1.1834 5 10.21 73.6 1.3189 ambient pressure line.
6 14 57.3 1.1628 6 14.48 68.2 1.2568
3 20 66 1.3 7 20 53.2 1.1494 7 20.53 63.7 1.2079

4 40 60 1.2
8 30 51.9 1.1236 8 29.11 59.8 1.1692
9 43 51.9 1.1236 9 41.20 57.1 1.1419
THE DECOMPRESSION ZONE
10 55 52.4 1.0799 10 55.19 55.1 1.1232
5 80 56 1.2 11 70 52.4 1.0799 11 70.69 54.0 1.1115
12 90 52.4 1.0799 12 90.34 53.3 1.1022
The "decompression zone" is the region
6 120 54 1.2 13 115 52.4 1.0799 13 115.29 53.1 1.0963 on the pressure graph between the
7 160 54 1.1 14 150 52.4 1.0799 14 147.42 52.8 1.0904
8 200 53 1.0 15 190 52.4 1.0799 15 188.24 52.6 1.0850 ambient pressure line and the M-value line
9 240 53 1.0 16 240 52.4 1.0799 16 240.03 52.3 1.0791 (see Figure 3). Within the context of the
Cpt = Compartment HT = Half-time M = slope of M-value line
M O = Surfacing M-value (sea level = 1 atm = 33 fsw = 1.01325 bar) dissolved gas model, this zone represents
Table 4: Comparison of M-values for Helium the functional area in which
Between Various Haldanian Decompression Algorithms decompression takes place. In theory, a
European System of Pressure Units - meters of sea water (msw)
Workman Bühlmann ZH-L12 Bühlmann ZH-L16A positive gradient above ambient pressure
M-values (1965) M-values (1983) M-values (1990)
Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT M O M Cpt HT MO M
is desireable in order for a compartment to
No. min msw slope No. min msw slope No. min msw slope "off-gas" or "decompress." In some
1 1.0 34.2 1.2195 1 1.51 41.0 2.3557
1b 1.88 37.2 2.0964
instances, such as with a high fraction of
2 3.0 27.2 1.2195 2 3.02 31.2 1.7400 oxygen in the mix, a compartment will be
1 5 26.2 1.5 3 4.6 22.9 1.2121 3 4.72 27.2 1.5321
4 7.0 21.0 1.1976 4 6.99 24.3 1.3845
able to off-gas even though the total inert
2 10 22.5 1.4 5 10 19.3 1.1834 5 10.21 22.4 1.3189 gas partial pressure is less than ambient
6 14 17.4 1.1628 6 14.48 20.8 1.2568
3 20 20.1 1.3 7 20 16.2 1.1494 7 20.53 19.4 1.2079 pressure. An "efficient" decompression
8 30 15.8 1.1236 8 29.11 18.2 1.1692 profile is characterized by leading
4 40 18.3 1.2 9 43 15.8 1.1236 9 41.20 17.4 1.1419
10 55 15.9 1.0799 10 55.19 16.8 1.1232 compartment gas loadings which plot
5 80 17.0 1.2 11 70 15.9 1.0799 11 70.69 16.4 1.1115 within the decompression zone. The gas
12 90 15.9 1.0799 12 90.34 16.2 1.1022
6 120 16.4 1.2 13 115 15.9 1.0799 13 115.29 16.1 1.0963 loadings for various half-time
7 160 16.4 1.1 14 150 15.9 1.0799 14 147.42 16.1 1.0904 ompartments will cross into and then
8 200 16.1 1.0 15 190 15.9 1.0799 15 188.24 16.0 1.0850
9 240 16.1 1.0 16 240 15.9 1.0799 16 240.03 15.9 1.0791 out of the decompression zone during the
Cpt = Compartment HT = Half-time M = slope of M-value line decompression profile depending upon
M O = Surfacing M-value (sea level = 10 msw = 1.0 bar)
which compartment is "leading" or
compartments tolerate greater
"controlling" at the time. Generally, the
overpressure than slower compartments.
faster compartments will cross into the
If the slope is greater than 1.0 then the M-
decompression zone first and be leading
value line "expands" on the pressure
(gas loadings closest to M-value lines) and
graph and that compartment will tolerate
then the rest of the decompression profile
greater overpressure gradientswith
will be controlled by the slower
increasing depth. A fixed slope of 1.0
compartments in sequence.
means that the compartment will tolerate
the same overpressure gradient
regardless of depth. In all cases, the MULTIPLE INERT GASES
value of the slope can never be less than
1.0. Otherwise, the M-value line would Present-day dissolved gas models employ
cross under the ambient pressure line at a concept for multiple inert gases which
some point and this would represent an states that the total inert gas pressure in a
"illogical" situation whereby the hypothetical "tissue" compartment is the
compartment could not tolerate even the sum of the partial pressures of the inert
ambient pressure. gases present in the compartment, even
though the various inert gases each have
a different half-time for that compartment.
THE AMBIENT PRESSURE LINE
Mixed gas decompression
The ambient pressure line is an all- algorithms must deal with more than one
important reference line on the pressure inert gas in the breathing mix, such as
graph. Passing through the origin, it has a helium and nitrogen in trimix. M-values for
slope of 1.0 and simply represents the
this situation are handled differently by the
 An M-value Concept: A solid line drawn through a fuzzy, gray area;
a representative threshold beyond which a high frequency of symptoms
of decompression sickness (DCS) can be expected in a majority of divers
DCS
Bubbles Symptoms Time Risk

Massive
Symptomatic Symptoms
Bubbles
M-value Limited
Line Symptoms
"Silent" Less
Safety Margin* Deco More
Bubbles
Actual Time Risk
Profile More Less
Deco Risk
No Time
Symptoms
Ambient
Pressure
Line

* varies according to individual disposition, physical condition, acceptable risk, etc.

various algorithms. Some methodologies Overall, the dissolved gas model

use the same M-values for both nitrogen has worked well for divers and the
and helium; usually they are based on the knowledge base has continued to grow.
M-values for nitrogen. In the Buhlmann For example, it was originally presumed
algorithm, an intermediate M- value is that all inert gas had to remain dissolved in
calculated which is an adjustment between solution and that any bubbles were
the separate M-values for nitrogen and indicative of DCS. However, we now
helium based on the proportion of these know that silent bubbles are present even
inert gases present in the compartment. during symptom-free dives. Thus, the
In the M-value linear equation, the reality is that there is a combination of two
Coefficient a (He+N2) and the Coefficient conditions during a dive - most of the inert
b (He+N2) are computed in accordance gas presumably in solution and some of
with the partial pressures of helium (PHe) the inert gas out of solution as bubbles.
and nitrogen (PN2) as follows: An M- value, therefore, represents not only
a (He+N2) = [a (He)úPHe + a (N2)úPN2] / a tolerable overpressure gradient, but a
[PHe + PN2]; tolerable amount of bubbles as well. M-
b (He+N2) = [b (He)úPHe + b (N2)úPN2] / values are empirically verified, meaning
[PHe + PN2]. that actual decompression trials are
carried out with human subjects. These
WHAT DO M-VALUES tests are conducted with a relatively small
REPRESENT? number of subjects intended to represent
the much larger population of divers.
A misconception among some divers is Even though good data is obtained about
that M-values represent a hard line the approximate threshold for symptoms of
between "getting the bends" and "not decompression sickness (M-values), this
getting the bends." This might explain why process cannot accurately predict or
some divers routinely push the limits of guarantee an absolute threshold for
their tables or dive computer. The everyone. Also, we know from experience
experience of diving medicine has shown that certain factors are predisposing for
that the established limits (M-values) are decompression sickness: lack of physical
sometimes inadequate. The degree of conditioning, fattiness, fatigue,
inadequacy is seen to vary with the drugs/alcohol, dehydration, over-exertion,
individual and the situation. Accordingly, it very cold water, open patent foramen
may be more appropriate to describe an ovale (PFO), etc. Individual susceptibility
M-value as "a solid line drawn through a can vary on a daily basis as well.
fuzzy, gray area" (see Figure 2). The
reasons for this lack of definitude involve M-VALUES AND
complex human physiology, variations CONSERVATISM
among individuals, and predisposing
factors for decompression sickness. Limited symptoms, if any, and a
reasonably low level of risk are associated
with M-values. This criteria, however, may Pressure Graph: M-value Relationships
not be entirely acceptable to all divers. y
"Decompression Zone" t e

e
Many divers would like to be in the range e n in

Lin
is between b i re L
Amssu

e
a lu
of "no symptoms" and "very low level of lines
e

Compartment Inert Gas Pressure, absolute

Pr

-v
M
risk" when it comes to their decompression

Surface Pressure
profiles. Fortunately, it is well understood M-value
inert gas
loading for
among decompression modelers and Gradient typical deco
profile
programmers that calculations Inert Gas
based on the established M-values alone Pressure
Gradient
cannot produce sufficiently reliable Safety
decompression tables for all individuals Margin Inert Gas
Pressure

Inert Gas Pressure

% M-value = x 100
and all scenarios. This is why M-value

decompression programs provide for a

M-value
Inert Gas
Pressure
means of introducing conservatism into % M-value Gradient
x 100
=
the calculations. Gradient M-value
Gradient
0
0 x
Some of the methodologies Ambient Pressure, absolute

include increasing the inert gas fractions

used in the calculations, applying a depth
safety factor which calculates for a ANALYSIS OF PROFILES
deeper-than-actual dive depth, calculating
for a longer-than-actual bottom time, and Many divers would like to know precisely
adjusting the half-times to be asymmetrical what the effect is of the conservatism
during off-gassing (slower). Some factors in their desktop decompression
programs use more than one of these program(s). They realize that longer and
methods combined. These methodologies deeper profiles are generated with
for conservatism are effective when increasing conservatism factors, but more
properly applied. The degree of fundamental information
"effectiveness" is usually gauged by is desired.
divers in terms of how much longer and
deeper the decompression profiles Both the Percent M-value and
become, and through individual Percent M-value Gradient relationships
experience with the outcome of the are useful for the analysis and evaluation
profiles. of decompression profiles. Using a
standard set of reference M-values,
M-VALUE RELATIONSHIPS different profiles can be evaluated on a
consistent basis. This includes
comparison of profiles generated by
Some fundamental relationships involving
entirely different programs, algorithms,
M-values and decompression calculations
and decompression models.
are indicated on the pressure graph in
Figure 3. The Percent M-value calculation
has been used by various decompression UNIVERSAL REFERENCE
modelers over the years. Professor VALUES
Buhlmann, for example, evaluated many
of his decompression trials on a Percent The Buhlmann ZH-L16 M-values are
M-value basis and reported the data as employed in most, if not all, of the desktop
such in his book(s). decompression programs in use by
technical divers. These M-values were
The Percent M-value Gradient developed and tested for a broad range of
calculation is a measure of how far a ambient pressure exposures; from high
decompression profile has entered into the altitude diving to deep sea
decompression zone." 0% M-value diving. When used with appropriate
Gradient is at the ambient pressure line conservatism, they have proven to be
and represents the bottom of the "reliable" for technical diving (to the extent
decompression zone. 100% M-value that something can be reliable in an
Gradient is at the M-value line and inexact science). They have become the
represents the top of the decompression de facto world-wide standard that can
zone. serve as universal reference values
for the comparison and evaluation of
decompression profiles.
 Table 5: Effect of Conservatism Factors in a Commercially-Available Program on Decompression Profiles
Referenced to Bühlmann ZH-L16 M-values (ZH-L16A Helium, ZH-L16B Nitrogen)
15/40 Trimix Dive (15% O 2 / 40% He) to 250 fsw for 30 min. Deco mixes - Nitrox 36% at 110 fsw, 100% O 2 at 20 fsw
0% Conservatism Factor 50% Conservatism Factor 100% Conservatism Factor
Maximum * Maximum * Maximum *
Deco Run Maximum * % M-value Deco Run Maximum * % M-value Deco Run Maximum * % M-value
Stop Time % M-value Gradient Stop Time % M-value Gradient Stop Time % M-value Gradient
(fsw) (min) (Cpt No.) (Cpt No.) (fsw) (min) (Cpt No.) (Cpt No.) (fsw) (min) (Cpt No.) (Cpt No.)
140 35 74.3% (4) 29.3% (3)
130 37 76.0% (4) 31.0% (3)
120 35 81.6% (4) 47.0% (3) 120 40 77.4% (4) 33.9% (4)
110 36 85.8% (4) 59.4% (4) 110 38 84.5% (4) 55.7% (4) 110 43 77.6% (4) 35.5% (4)
100 39 79.0% (5) 39.4% (4) 100 45 75.4% (5) 22.6% (4)
90 38 89.0% (4) 69.3% (4) 90 41 82.1% (5) 46.0% (4) 90 49 76.5% (6) 26.3% (5)
80 41 89.5% (5) 69.1% (4) 80 45 83.2% (5) 49.1% (5) 80 53 76.3% (6) 20.3% (5)
70 44 88.3% (5) 65.6% (5) 70 49 82.2% (6) 42.5% (5) 70 58 77.0% (6) 22.1% (6)
60 48 89.8% (6) 67.2% (6) 60 55 83.2% (6) 45.1% (6) 60 68 78.2% (7) 24.9% (6)
50 55 91.1% (6) 72.2% (6) 50 64 83.1% (7) 44.1% (6) 50 78 76.9% (7) 17.6% (7)
40 64 90.3% (7) 67.7% (7) 40 75 83.1% (7) 42.8% (7) 40 96 78.4% (8) 22.5% (7)
30 79 90.7% (7) 70.7% (7) 30 95 84.5% (8) 46.0% (7) 30 124 78.3% (8) 22.4% (8)
20 94 90.9% (8) 70.7% (8) 20 113 84.2% (9) 47.1% (8) 20 147 78.9% (9) 24.4% (9)
10 119 91.1% (9) 72.2% (9) 10 144 85.8% (10) 51.7% (10) 10 189 81.2% (11) 32.6% (10)
0 120 93.6% (11) 80.2% (11) 0 145 88.6% (12) 62.6% (12) 0 190 84.9% (13) 46.6% (13)
* Upon Arrival at the Stop
It is a relatively easy task for can determine personal decompression
programmers to include Percent M-value limits which are both well-defined and
and Percent M-value Gradient calculations transportable. The margin of safety
in summary form with the decompression selected will depend on individual
profiles. Table 5 is an example of this and disposition and prior experience
shows the effect of conservatism factors with profiles. An honest assessment of
used in a commercially-available desktop one's fitness for decompression diving is
decompression program. At 0% always in order. For example, this
Conservatism Factor, the decompression author/diver (an office worker) has chosen
profile is in the 90% M- value range and a personal limit of 85% M-value and 50-
has entered approximately 70% into the 60% M-value Gradient for typical trimix
decompression zone (70% M-value dives.
Gradient). It is evident that this program
employs a level of baseline conservatism To ensure a fixed margin of
since none of the values reaches 100%. safety, a decompression profile can be
At 50% Conservatism Factor (which is calculated directly to a predetermined
recommended in the user's manual), the percentage of the M- value Gradient. The
profile is in the 85% M-value range and advantage of this approach is complete
has entered approximately 40-50% into consistency across the entire ambient
the decompression zone. At 100% pressure range and precise control over
Conservatism Factor, the profile is in the the resultant profile.
77% M-value range and has entered
approximately 20-35% into the About the Author
decompression zone. Note that the values
given in Table 5 are upon arrival the Erik C. Baker is an electrical engineer with
respective stops which is the worst-case an architecture/engineering firm in
condition. This correlates with the edges Pennsylvania. He pursues research into
of the "stair-steps" in the gas loading decompression and diving physiology as a
profile on the pressure graph (see hobby, and has developed several
example in Figure 3). The highest values FORTRAN computer programs for
across all profiles are calculated upon decompression
arrival at the surface which illustrates why calculation and analysis. Erik is a certified
a very slow final ascent from the last cave diver and trimix diver.
decompression stop to the surface is
always prudent. Decompression References:
MARGIN OF SAFETY Bennett PB, Elliott DH, eds. 1993. The
Physiology and Medicine of Diving.
Using the M-value relationships and a London: WB Saunders.
standard set of reference M-values, divers
Boycott AE, Damant GCC, Haldane JS.
1908. The prevention of compressed air
illness. J Hyg (London) 8:342-443.

Buhlmann, AA. 1984. Decompression-

Decompression Sickness. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.

Buhlmann, AA. 1995. Tauchmedizin.

Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Hamilton RW, Muren A, Rockert H,

Ornhagen H. 1988. Proposed new
Swedish air decompression tables. In:
Shields TG, ed.
XIVth Annual Meeting of the EUBS.
European Undersea Biomedical Society.
Aberdeen: National Hyperbaric Center.

Hamilton RW, Rogers RE, Powell MR,

Vann RD. 1994. Development and
validation of no-stop decompression
procedures for
recreational diving: The DSAT
Recreational Dive Planner. Santa Ana,
CA: Diving Science and Technology Corp.

Schreiner HR, Kelley PL. 1971. A

pragmatic view of decompression. In:
Lambertsen CJ, ed. Underwater
Physiology IV. New
York: Academic Press.

Wienke BR. 1991. Basic decompression

theory and application. Flagstaff, AZ:
Best.

Wienke BR. 1994. Basic diving physics

and applications. Flagstaff, AZ: Best.

Workman RD. 1965. Calculation of

decompression schedules for nitrogen-
oxygen and helium-oxygen dives.
Research Report
6-65. Washington: Navy Experimental
Diving Unit.

Workman RD. 1969. American

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Bennett PB, Elliott DH, eds. The
physiology and
medicine of diving and compressed air
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