I.
Reproductive System monthly shedding of the uterine
lining
sex cells (gametes)
Stages of the Menstrual Cycle (with
fertilization Days)
growth and development 1. Menstrual Phase (Days: 1–7)
A. Male Reproductive System o Endometrium is shed
Main Parts and Functions 2. Follicular Phase (Days: 1–13)
Testes –sperm cells, hormone o uterine lining starts to thicken
testosterone
3. Ovulation (Day 14)
Scrotum – Holds the testes
regulates temperature o What happens: Mature egg is
released from the ovary
Epididymis – Stores and matures
sperm 4. Luteal Phase (Days: 15–28)
Vas deferens – Transports sperm o Uterus prepares for possible
from epididymis to urethra pregnancy; if no cycle restarts
Seminal vesicles – Add nutrient- II. Endocrine System
rich fluid to sperm
A system of ductless glands that
Prostate gland – Produces fluid that release hormones directly into the
protects and activates sperm bloodstream.
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands Regulates body processes
– Release fluid that lubricates and
neutralizes acidity homeostasis
Urethra – Passageway Controls growth, metabolism,
reproduction, and stress response
Penis –deliver sperm
Exocrine vs Endocrine
B. Female Reproductive System
Exocrine: Uses ducts (sweat, tears,
Main Parts and Functions digestive juices)
Ovaries –egg cells ,estrogen and Endocrine: No ducts, releases
progesterone hormones into blood
Fallopian tubes (Oviducts) –
Transport; site of fertilization
III. Major Endocrine Glands
and Hormones
Uterus – Muscular organ where the
fetus develops Hypothalamus
Endometrium – Inner lining of Controls pituitary gland
uterus
Links nervous and endocrine systems
Cervix – Lower opening of uterus
connecting to vagina Pituitary Gland (Master Gland)
Vagina – Receives sperm; birth canal Controls other endocrine glands
Vulva – External female reproductive Growth Hormone (GH)
organs (labia, clitoris) o Too much → Gigantism
Menstruation o Too little → Dwarfism
Other hormones: ADH, Oxytocin, Disorder Cause Gland/Hormone
FSH, LH, Prolactin
Excess
Gigantism Pituitary
Thyroid Gland GH
thyroxine (metabolism) Iodine
Goiter deficienc Thyroid
calcitonin (calcium regulation) y
Parathyroid Glands Calcium
Thyroid/
Osteoporosis imbalanc
Parathyroid
parathyromone (PTH) e
Increases calcium levels High
PCOS Ovaries
androgen
Affects bones, intestines, kidneys
VI. Biodiversity and
Thymus
Evolution
thymosin
Fossils
Helps immune system development
Preserved remains of organisms
Adrenal Glands
Provide evidence of evolution
epinephrine and norepinephrine
Comparative Anatomy
fight-or-flight response
Homologous structures →
Pancreas Common ancestry (divergent
Regulates blood sugar evolution)
Insulin → lowers blood glucose Analogous structures → Same
function, different origin (convergent
Glucagon → raises blood glucose evolution)
Reproductive Glands (Gonads)
VII. Dna, Protein
Testes: Testosterone (male traits,
sperm production)
Synthesis,
I. DNA and Genes
Ovaries: Estrogen and progesterone
(female traits, egg development) DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) –
Contains genetic instructions of an
IV. Glucose Regulation organism
After eating: High glucose → Insulin Genes – Segments of DNA that code
released for proteins
Between meals: Low glucose → Proteins – Determine traits and
Glucagon released perform life functions
Controlled through hormonal Components of DNA
feedback mechanism
1. Nucleotides
V. Endocrine Disorders DNA is made up of nucleotides, each
(Hormonal Imbalance) consisting of:
Disorder Cause Gland/Hormone Phosphate group
Low Deoxyribose sugar
Diabetes Pancreas
insulin
Nitrogenous base
Dwarfism Low GH Pituitary
Nitrogenous Bases Manufactured by ribosomes
Four Bases in DNA Functions of Proteins
Adenine (A) 1. Help fight disease (antibodies)
Thymine (T) 2. Build and repair body tissues
Cytosine (C) 3. Act as enzymes (speed up chemical
reactions)
Guanine (G)
4. Form components of cell
Base Pairing Rule
membranes
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine
III. Protein Synthesis (Gene
(T)
Expression)
Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine
Two Major Steps
(G)
A. Transcription (First Step)
➡ This is called complementary base
pairing Occurs in the nucleus
DNA Structure DNA unzips and serves as a
template
Shape: Double helix (twisted
ladder) Genetic code is copied from DNA →
mRNA
Sugar–phosphate backbone forms
the sides of the ladder Happens because:
Base pairs form the rungs of the o DNA is too large to leave the
ladder nucleus
Held together by hydrogen bonds o RNA is single-stranded and
can leave
Why Base Pairing Matters
mRNA exits the nucleus through
Ensures accurate DNA replication
nuclear pores
Maintains correct genetic code
mRNA carries instructions to the
Allows transcription to occur ribosome
correctly
B. Translation (Second Step)
RNA vs DNA (Important Comparison)
Occurs at the ribosome (cytoplasm)
Feature DNA RNA
mRNA code is decoded into a
Sugar
Deoxyribos
Ribose
protein
e
tRNA (transfer RNA):
Strands Double Single
o Carries amino acids from the
Bases A, T, C, G A, U, C, G
cytoplasm
Replaced by Uracil
Thymine Present
(U)
o Matches its anticodon with the
mRNA codon
II. Proteins (Review)
Codon – A sequence of 3 bases on
20 different amino acids mRNA that codes for one amino acid
Different combinations produce Amino acids are linked together to
different proteins form a polypeptide
Where Proteins Are Made Polypeptide = Protein
Important Notes B. Gene Mutations
Amino acids come from food Changes in the nucleotide sequence of a
single gene
Proteins we eat are broken down and
reassembled Point mutation – Change in one
nucleotide
Start codon: AUG (Methionine)
o Substitution
Stop codons: signal end of protein
synthesis o Insertion
VII. Mutations o Deletion
Changes in the nucleotide Frameshift mutation
sequence of DNA o Insertion or deletion shifts
o Somatic cells – not inherited reading frame
o Gametes – passed to o Alters entire amino acid
offspring sequence
Causes of Mutations Example
Copying errors Sickle cell anemia – caused by one
nucleotide substitution in
Chemicals hemoglobin gen
Viruses
UV radiation
Effects of Mutations
Most are neutral
Some are harmful (cancer,
diseases)
Some are beneficial (increase
survival)
Chromosome Mutations
Involve changes in chromosome structure
or number
1. Deletion – Loss of a chromosome
segment
2. Inversion – Segment breaks, flips,
and reattaches
3. Duplication – Repeated gene
sequence
4. Translocation – Exchange between
non-homologous chromosomes
5. Nondisjunction – Failure of
chromosomes to separate during
meiosis
o Results in too many or too few
chromosome