Module-II

Quantum Physics
PART-B Long Answer Questions

1. Compare a particle with a wave and discuss about dual nature of radiation.
Ans. Wave:-
• A wave is not located at a definite point, instead it is spread out over a relatively large
region of space.
• A wave is nothing but spreading of disturbance in a medium. The characteristics/properties
of waves are 1)Amplitude (A) 2) Time period 3) Frequency (υ) 4) Wavelength (λ) 5)Phase
velocity (v) 6)Intensity (I).
• Generally, the displacement regarding wave is
𝑦=𝐴 sin𝜔𝑡.
Particle:-
• It has mass and is located at a definite point, and can move from one place to another.
It gives energy when slowed down or stopped.
• The particle is specified by1) Mass (m) 2) velocity (v) 3) Momentum (P) 4) Energy (E) etc.
• The motion of particle can be explained by Newton’s second law of motion
𝐹=𝑑𝑃/𝑑𝑡=𝑚 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡=𝑚𝑎.
Radiation: Wave-Particle Duality
• The photo electric effect and the Compton Effect established that light behaves as a flux of
photons.
• On the other hand, the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization can be
explained only when light is treated as a continuous wave.
• Neither of the modes can separately explain all the experimental facts.
• The particle nature and wave nature appear mutually exclusive.
• So, Light exhibits both wave nature and particle nature i.e., called as wave-particle duality.

2. Enlist physical significance of wave function according to Schrodinger and Max –Born
Interpretation
Ans. Physical Significance of wave function:
Wave function is a mathematical tool used in quantum mechanics to describe any physical
system and it is denoted by ‘𝛹′.
❖ The wave nature of matter introduced an uncertainty in the location of the position of the
particle because a wave cannot be set exactly at this position (or) at that position.
❖ The amplitude of the wave tells us about the probability of finding particle in space at a
particular instant. A large wave amplitude means a large probability of finding the particle
at that position.
❖ Mathematically, to explain it, scientists introduced a new physical quantity called wave
function.
❖ It is a variable quantity i.e., associated with a moving particle at any position (x,y,z) and
time t and it relates probability of a finding the particle at that point and time.
❖ It must be well behaved it is single valued and continuous everywhere.
❖ It is a complex quantity and individually has no meaning.
❖ To explain it, Max Born suggested a new idea about the physical significance of 𝛹which
is generally accepted now a days.
❖ According to Max Born 𝛹 𝛹*=|𝜓|^2 is real and positive, it has physical meaning. It
represents the probability of finding the particle in the state 𝛹.
❖ Since the wave function is a complex quantity, it may be expressed in terms of
❖ 𝛹(x,y,z) = (a+ib)
❖ Where a,b are real function of the variables (x,y,z,t) and i = √(−1)

❖ The complex conjugate of 𝛹 is given by

❖ 𝛹*(x,y,z) = (a-ib)

Multiplying the two equations, we have

* 2 2
𝛹 𝛹 = (a+ib)(a-ib) = a +b

According to Max Born

Thus the product of 𝛹 and ᴪ∗ is real and positive if 𝛹 ≠ 0

And is known as the probability density of the particle associated with the de-Broglie wave.

The probability of the finding the particle in a volume dv = [Link] is given by

Probability (p) = |𝜓|2dxdydz

For the total probability of finding the particle somewhere is

p =∫ ∫ ∫|𝜓|2 dxdydz =1
A wave function 𝜓 satisfying the above relation is called a normalized wave function.

3. Matter waves are new kind of waves. Justify this concept by discussing different
properties of matter waves.
Ans.
Matter Waves or de-broglie-waves: The waves associated with a material particle are called as
matter waves.
Properties of Matter Waves:
❖ Lighter is the particle, smaller the value of mass m, greater is the wavelength associated
with it. Therefore wave behavior is significant for micro particles whereas wave associated
with macro bodies can never be detected.
❖ If v = 0, then λ = ∞ , i.e. wave becomes indeterminate.
❖ This shows that matter waves are generated only when material particles are in motion.
❖ Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
❖ Matter waves are produced by the motion of particles and are independent of charge. (λ =
h/mv). i.e., matter waves are neither electromagnetic waves nor acoustic waves but they
are a new kind of waves.
❖ It can be shown that the matter waves can travel faster than light i.e. the velocity of matter
waves can be greater than the velocity of light .
❖ No single phenomenon exhibits both particle nature and wave nature simultaneously.

4. Using Planck’s and Einstein’s theory of radiation, Show that the wavelength associated
𝒉
with an electron of mass ‘m’ and kinetic energy ‘E’ is given by
√𝟐𝒎𝑬

Ans.

❖ The waves associated with the material particles are called as de-Broglie waves or matter
waves & the wave length associated with matter waves are called as de-Broglie wave-
length or matter wave-length (λ).
ℎ ℎ
de-broglie wave-length is given by 𝜆 =𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

According to the planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of photon is given by

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ----(1)
𝜆

h- planck’s constant, ν-frequency of photon

According to Einstein mass energy relation
 E = mC2-----(2)
m-mass of a photon
c-velocity of light

From equation of (1) & (2)

Where p-momentum of of photon = mc
m-mass of photon, c-speed of light
But according to de-broglie theory
Momentum of electron particle(p) = mv
m-mass of e’s , v-velocity of electron particle
ℎ ℎ
de-broglie wave-length(λ) =𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ------(4)

Eq.(4) gives the expression for de-broglie wave-length.

1 2
we know that the kinetic energy of particle i.e. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 … … … (5)

Multiply Eq-(5) by ‘m’ on both sides, we get

5. Determine an expression for the wavelength associated with an electron, accelerated by a

potential V.

Ans.

If a charged particle is accelerated through a potential difference(V), then the kinetic energy of the
particle is given as
E = eV
1
But we have kinetic energy (E) of particle i.e. E = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
 1
eV = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

2eV = mv2
Multiply by ‘m’ on both sides we get
2meV = m2v2
mv = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
-34
h = 6.6× 10 J-S
ℎ ℎ
We have de-broglie wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
12.27
𝜆= 𝐴°
√𝑉
-34
h = 6.625×10 Js
-31
m = 9.1×10 kg
-19
e = 1.6 ×10 c

6. Explain the difference between a matter wave and an electromagnetic wave.

Ans.
7. Describe Davisson Germer experiment with a neat diagram and explain how it
established the proof for wave nature of electrons.
Davisson and Germer’s experiment:-
First practical evidence for the wave nature of matter waves was given by C.J. Davisson and L.H.
Germer in 1927. This was the first experimental support to debroglie’s hypothesis.
Principle: The electrons which are coming from the source are incident on the target and the
electrons get diffracted. These diffracted electrons produce a diffraction pattern. It shows(explains)
the wave nature of matter waves.
Experimental Arrangement:-

Electron gun G
Filament F.
Target T (large single crystal of Ni)
Faraday cylinder C
Semi circular Scale S
Galvanometer G

Working:
❖ When tungsten filament ‘F’ is heated by a LTB then e’s are produced. These e’s are
accelerated by High voltage(HTB).
❖ The accelerated e’s are collimated into a fine beam of pencil by passing them
through a system of pin-holes.
❖ This beam of electrons is allowed to incident on nickel crystal which acts as target.
Then e’s are scattered in all the directions.
❖ The intensity of scattered e’s is measured by the circular scale arrangement. In this
arrangement, an electron or movable collector (Double walled faraday cylinder) is
fixed to circular scale which can collect the electrons and
can move along the circular scale.
➢ The electron collector (Double walled faraday cylinder)
is connected to a sensitive galvanometer to measure the
intensity of electron beam entering the collector at
different scattering angles(∅).
 ➢ A graph is plotted between the scattering angle (∅) and the number of scattered
electron’s as shown in above figure.
➢ The intensity of scattered electrons is maximum at ∅ = 50° & accelerating voltage
=54V.
❖ A bump is started at 44
volts and it is gradually
increases become
maximum at 54 volts
beyond that bump
decreases at 60V and
disappear on further
increasing the voltage.

If θ is the correspondence angle of

180−Φ
diffraction at the Bragg’s plane then θ and Φ are related as θ= 2

So if θ is diffraction angle, n is order of maxima, then from Bragg’s law 2dsinθ = nλ.
Davisson & Germer observed that maximum diffraction occurs at
0 0
Φ=50 & d=0.91 A .
0 180−50 0
Now, Φ=50 => θ= =65 .
2

Therefore, λ=2dsinθ {for n=1}

= > 2×0.91×sin 65
0
= 1.65 A .
From de-broglie wave length(𝝀):
12.27
λ=
√𝑉

But V = 54v
12.27
λ= = 1.67 𝐴°
√54

λ = 1.67 𝐴°
It has been proved both the practical & theoretical wavelengths are almost equal. Hence the wave
nature of particle is proved experimentally.
8. Considering dual nature of electron, derive Schrodinger’s time independent wave
equation for the motion of an electron.
Ans.
SCHRODINGER TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION
If a particle of mass ‘𝑚’ moving with velocity ‘𝑣’ is associated with a group of waves, let 𝜓 be
the wave function of the particle. Also let us consider a simple form of progressing wave
represented by the eqn,
wave function 𝜓 = 𝜓0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)--------------> (1)
Where 𝛹 = 𝛹(𝑥)
𝛹 is amplitude,
0
𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆,
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 = ,
𝑇

The Schrödinger wave equation is a linear partial differential equation that governs the wave
function of a quantum-mechanical system.
Now, differentiating (1) with respect to ‘x’ we get
𝜕𝛹
= −𝐾𝜓0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝜓
=> = −𝐾 2 𝜓0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝐾𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝜓
=> = −𝐾 2 𝛹 [from (1)
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝜓
=> +𝐾 2 𝛹 = 0 ----------------- (2)
𝜕𝑥 2

OR
𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
=> + Ψ = 0 --------------- (3)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2

we know that Debroglie wavelength λ= h/mv

𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑣 2
+ 𝜓 = 0 ------------------ (4)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

Now, we know that the total energy E of the particle is sum of its kinetic energy K and potential
energy V
Therefore,
2
E = K + V and K= ½ mv =>
2 2
m v = 2m (E-V)--------- (5)
From (4) & (5)
𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
+ 𝛹= 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

The value of h/2π is considered as ℏ

Therefore, ℏ=h/2π
𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
+ 𝛹= 0 ---------- (6)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2

This is Schrodinger time independent wave equation in 1-D

In three dimensional it can be written as
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
+ + + 𝛹= 0 ---------- (7)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 ℏ2

9. Assuming that a particle of mass m is confined in a field free region between impenetrable
walls in infinite height at x = 0 and x = a, show that the permitted energy levels of a particle
are given by n2h2/8ma2

Ans.

➢ Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ along x-direction and
is confined between to infinite potential rigid walls, so that the particle has no chance
of escaping from them. Therefore, the particle bounces back and forth between two
walls as shown in fig.
➢ Let the potential energy of electron inside the box is constant and can be taken as zero
for simplicity.
Inside the box

The particle exist inside the box; therefore the probability of finding the electron inside the box is
not equal to zero and the potential energy is zero.

i.e., 𝛹(x) ≠0 when x>0 and x<L

V(x) = 0
To calculate the probability of finding particle within the box, let us consider one dimensional
time independent Schrodinger wave equation

Boundary condition at x =0
At x = 0, the probability of the finding the electron is zero, i.e., Ψ(x) = 0
Equation (4) becomes
0 = A sinK(0) + B cosK(0)
0=0+B
∴𝐵=0 ………………….(5)
Boundary condition at x =L
At x = L, the probability of finding the electron is zero, i.e., Ψ(x) = 0
Equation (4) becomes
0= A sinK(L) + B cosK(L)
0 = A sinK(L) + (0) cosK(L)
A sinK(L) = 0
 If L = a
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎2
 10. Discuss the results from the eigen values, eigen functions and probability density
for a particle in a one dimensional potential box of infinite height. Also sketch the
figures.

➢ Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ along x-direction and
is confined between to infinite potential rigid walls, so that the particle has no chance
of escaping from them. Therefore, the particle bounces back and forth between two
walls as shown in fig.
➢ Let the potential energy of electron inside the box is constant and can be taken as zero
for simplicity.
Inside the box

The particle exist inside the box; therefore the probability of finding the electron inside the box is
not equal to zero and the potential energy is zero.

i.e., 𝛹(x) ≠0 when x>0 and x<L

V(x) = 0

To calculate the probability of finding particle within the box,

let us consider one dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation
Boundary condition at x =0
At x = 0, the probability of the finding the electron is zero, i.e., Ψ(x) = 0
Equation (4) becomes
0 = A sinK(0) + B cosK(0)
0=0+B
∴𝐵=0 ………………….(5)
Boundary condition at x =L
At x = L, the probability of finding the electron is zero, i.e., Ψ(x) = 0
Equation (4) becomes
0= A sinK(L) + B cosK(L)
0 = A sinK(L) + (0) cosK(L)
A sinK(L) = 0
11. Show that the energies of a particle confined between two rigid walls of infinite potential
are quantized.

Ans. Write 10th Question Answer.

12. What is de-Broglie wave? Derive expression for de Broglie wavelength associated with a
particle having mass m and velocity v.

Ans.

Matter Waves or de-broglie-waves: The waves associated with a material particle are called as
matter waves.
de-broglie concept of dual nature of matter waves:-
In 1924 ,Louis de-broglie suggested that matter waves also exhibit dual nature like radiation(light).
They are
I. Wave nature
II. Particle nature
Wave nature of matter waves is verified by Davisson & Germer experiment, [Link]
experiment etc.
Particle nature of matter waves is verified by photo-electric effect, Compton effect etc.
de-broglie hypothesis:-
1) The universe consists of matter and radiation(light) only
2) Matter waves also exhibit dual nature like radiation.
3) The waves associated with the material particles are called as de-Broglie waves or matter waves
& the wave length associated with matter waves are called as de-Broglie wave-length or matter
wave-length (λ).
ℎ ℎ
4) de-broglie wave-length is given by 𝜆 =𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Expression for de-broglie wave-length(λ) in various form:-

According to the planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of photon is given by
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ----(1)
𝜆

h- planck’s constant, ν-frequency of photon

According to Einstein mass energy relation
2
E = mc -----(2)
m-mass of a photon
c-velocity of light
From equation of (1) & (2)
ℎ𝑐 2
= 𝑚𝑐
𝜆

Where p-momentum of of photon = mc

m-mass of photon, c-speed of light
But according to de-broglie theory
Momentum of electron particle(p) = mv
m-mass of e’s , v-velocity of electron particle
ℎ ℎ
de-broglie wave-length(λ) =𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ------(4)

Eq.(4) gives the expression for de-broglie wave-length.

13. Discuss different phenomenon’s that show the behavior of light radiation interacting with
matter.

Ans. Blackbody Radiation:

• An object might absorb some and reflect

 some of the radiation.
● An idealized blackbody is a material object that absorbs all of the radiation falling on it, and
hence appears as black under reflection when illuminated from outside.
● Blackbody is a perfect absorber as well as a perfect emitter of radiation
● Practical blackbody: A hollow cavity with
internal walls that perfectly reflect EM
radiation and has a small hole on its surface.
● The radiation entered through this hole
gets completely absorbed due to successive
reflections.
● The hole behaves as a perfect emitter when this cavity is
heated to a temperature T, and the hole will eventually begin to
glow as T increases.
● A blackbody emits thermal
radiation on heating.
● This radiation consists of a
continuous distribution of
frequencies ranging from
infrared to ultraviolet.
●Classical Physics failed to
explain continuous distribution
of frequencies.
● Stefan-Boltzmann law,
𝑃 = 𝑎𝜎𝑇 4
● Wien’s energy distribution, 𝑢(𝜈, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝜈 3 𝑒 −𝛽𝜈/𝑇
● Rayleigh-Jean’s energy distribution
8𝜋𝜈 2
𝑢(𝜈, 𝑡) = 3 𝑘𝑇.
𝑐

Planck’s Quantum Theory

● Planck postulated that energy of radiation emitted by oscillating charges must integer
multiples of h𝜈:
𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝜈, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
where h is a universal constant and ℎ𝜈is the energy of a “quantum” of radiation.
● Planck’s energy distribution,
8𝜋𝜈 2 ℎ𝜈
𝑢(𝜈, 𝑡) = 3 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇 .
𝑐 𝑒 −1

Photoelectric Effect

● Hertz observed that when a metal is irradiated with light, electrons were ejected from it.
Experimental Observations:
● If frequency of the incident radiation 𝜈 is smaller than metal’s threshold frequency 𝜈0 , no electron
can be emitted irrespective of the intensity I.
● At 𝜈 > 𝜈0, number of electrons ejected increases with I of light but does not depend on 𝜈.
● In experiments, increasing intensity alone does not help in ejecting the electron from a metal.
● These experimental facts indicate that concept of gradual accumulation, continuous absorption,
of energy by the electron, as predicted by classical physics is indeed erroneous.
● Einstein assumed that light is made of particles each carrying an energy ℎ𝜈, called a photon.
● When beam of light of 𝜈 is incident on a metal, each photon transmits all its energy ℎ𝜈 to an
electron near the surface.
● So, photon is entirely absorbed by the electron. The electron thus absorb energy only in quanta
of ℎ𝜈, irrespective of I of incident radiation.
● If ℎ𝜈>W, metal’s work function (energy required to dislodge electron from metal)
electron will then be knocked out.
●If,ℎ𝜈 < 𝑊, No electron emits.
ℎ𝜈 = 𝑊 + 𝐾 ;
K is K.E of ejected electron.
This gives proper explanation that K.E of the ejected electron
increases linearly with 𝜈.
Atomic Stability:

●Classical Physics to electrons

*Atom consists of (+ve) nucleus and (–ve) electrons.
*The attraction b/n +ve & –ve →collapse of atom.
*Electron experiences a centripetal force.
An accelerated charged particle radiates energy as
EM waves → collapse of atom.
Atom is not stable???
Classical Physics fails.
●Following Planck’s QUANTA concept and Einstein’s PHOTON concept, Bohr’s model for
Hydrogen atom.
●He argued that atoms can be found only in discrete states of energy.
●The emission or absorption of radiation takes place only in discrete amounts ℎ𝜈 that results
from the transitions b/n various discrete states of energy.
So, Atoms are stable.

● Blackbody radiation, Photoelectric effect, Atomic model predicts the particle behavior of
radiation.
14. Write major differences between classical mechanics and quantum mechanics.

15. Differentiate between ψ and |ψ|2.

Ans. Wave function:

● The quantity whose variations make up matter waves is called the wave function and denoted
by 𝜓.
● It connects the particle nature and its associated wave nature.
● Wave functions are usually complex with both real and imaginary parts.
𝜓 = 𝐴 + 𝑖𝐵
Physical Significance of Wave function

●𝜓 itself doesn’t have any physical meaning, the square of its absolute magnitude |𝜓|2 , is
proportional to the probability of finding the particle.
●It is usually convenient to have |𝜓|2 be equal to the probability density 𝑃of finding the particle
rather than merely proportional to 𝑃 as particle exists somewhere over t.
+∞

∫ |𝜓|2 𝑑𝑉 = 1. (1)
−∞

This is a normalized wave function.

16. Highlight the conditions for an acceptable wave function.

Ans. Properties of Wave function: Write 2nd Question Answer

17. Extend the one dimensional problem to 3 dimensions and hence give the equations for
eigen values and eigen functions.

Ans. Write 10th Question Answer

18. Why matter waves are observed for particles of atomic or nuclear size.

Ans. Write 3rd Question Answer.

19. Explain the concept of phase velocity and group velocity deduce a relation between them

Ans. Group Velocity, V :

gr

The group of waves, as a whole must travel with the particle velocity v. Hence the group velocity
of the matter waves,
𝑣𝑔𝑟 = 𝑣̅
̅̅̅̅
Phase Velocity, V :
ph

Each wave of the group of matter waves travel with a velocity is known as the phase velocity of
the wave. It is given by
𝝎
v =
ph 𝒌

Relation between Group velocity and Phase velocity

20. Derive the equation for energy of a particle confined in a 1-D infinite square well and
explain energy quantization, zero-point energy and spatial nodes.

Ans. Write 9th Question Answer and

The quantum behavior in the box include

Energy quantization: It is not possible for the particle to have any arbitrary definite energy.
Instead only discrete definite energy levels are allowed.

Zero-point Energy: The lowest possible energy level of the particle, called the zero-point energy,
is non-zero.

Spatial-nodes: In contrast to classical mechanics the Schrodinger equation predicts that for some
energy levels there are nodes, implying positions at which the particle can never be found.
 PART-C Short Answer Questions
1. Relate the dependency of wavelength of matter waves on velocity and mass of material
particle.

Ans.
Properties of Matter Waves:
❖ Lighter is the particle, smaller the value of mass m, greater is the wavelength associated
with it. Therefore wave behavior is significant for micro particles whereas wave associated
with macro bodies can never be detected.
❖ If v = 0, then λ = ∞ , i.e. wave becomes indeterminate.
❖ This shows that matter waves are generated only when material particles are in motion.
❖ Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
❖ It can be shown that the matter waves can travel faster than light i.e. the velocity of matter
waves can be greater than the velocity of light .
2. Write an expression for de-Broglie wavelength in terms of momentum and kinetic
energy.
ℎ ℎ
de-broglie wave-length is given by 𝜆 =𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

According to the planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of photon is given by

ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ----(1)
𝜆

h- planck’s constant, ν-frequency of photon

According to Einstein mass energy relation
E = mC2-----(2)
m-mass of a photon
c-velocity of light

From equation of (1) & (2)

Where p-momentum of of photon = mc
m-mass of photon, c-speed of light
But according to de-broglie theory
 Momentum of electron particle(p) = mv
m-mass of e’s , v-velocity of electron particle
ℎ ℎ
de-broglie wave-length(λ) =𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ------(4)

Eq.(4) gives the expression for de-broglie wave-length.

1 2
we know that the kinetic energy of particle i.e. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 … … … (5)

Multiply Eq-(5) by ‘m’ on both sides, we get

3. Explain the conception of light behaving both as a particle and wave.

Ans. Radiation: Wave-Particle Duality
• The photo electric effect and the Compton Effect established that light behaves as a flux of
photons.
• On the other hand, the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization can be
explained only when light is treated as a continuous wave.
• Neither of the modes can separately explain all the experimental facts.
• The particle nature and wave nature appear mutually exclusive.
• So, Light exhibits both wave nature and particle nature i.e., called as wave-particle duality.

4. Explain the concept of Heisenberg uncertainity principle

✓ If ′Δx′ & ′Δp′ are uncertainties in the measurement of position & momentum of
the particle then mathematically this uncertainties of this physical variables is
written as
ℎ
𝛥𝑥. 𝛥𝑝 ≥ … … … (1)
4𝜋
Explanation:-
(i)If Δx = 0. i.e., the position of a particle is measured accurately, then from eq-(1).
ℎ
𝛥𝑝 =
𝛥𝑥. 4𝜋
ℎ
𝛥𝑝 = =∞
0
It means that, the momentum of the particle can’t be measured.
(ii)If Δp = 0. i.e., the momentum of a particle is measured accurately, then from eq-(1).
ℎ
𝛥𝑥 =
𝛥𝑝. 4𝜋
ℎ
𝛥𝑝 = =∞
0
✓ From the above said observations made by Heisenberg, he clearly states that it is
impossible to design an experiment to prove the wave & particle nature of matter
at any given instant of time.
✓ If one measures position or momentum accurately, then there will be an
uncertainty in the other.
5. Prove that matter waves travel with a velocity greater than velocity of light. Also justify
it.

Ans. Group Velocity, V :

gr

The group of waves, as a whole must travel with the particle velocity v. Hence the group velocity
of the matter waves,
𝑣𝑔𝑟 = 𝑣̅
̅̅̅̅
Phase Velocity, V :
ph

Each wave of the group of matter waves travel with a velocity is known as the phase velocity of
the wave. It is given by
𝝎
v =
ph 𝒌

Relation between Group velocity and Phase velocity

6. Write one dimensional time independent Schrodinger equation associated with matter
wave.
Ans. If a particle of mass ‘𝑚’ moving with velocity ‘𝑣’ is associated with a group of waves, let 𝜓
be the wave function of the particle. Also let us consider a simple form of progressing wave
represented by the eqn,
wave function 𝜓 = 𝜓0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)--------------> (1)
Where 𝛹 = 𝛹(𝑥)

Now, differentiating (1) with respect to ‘x’ we get

𝜕𝛹
= −𝐾𝜓0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝜓
=> = −𝐾 2 𝜓0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝐾𝑥)
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝜓
=> = −𝐾 2 𝛹 [from (1)
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕2𝜓
=> +𝐾 2 𝛹 = 0 ----------------- (2)
𝜕𝑥 2

OR
𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2
=> + Ψ = 0 --------------- (3)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2

we know that Debroglie wavelength λ= h/mv

𝜕2𝜓 4𝜋 2 𝑚2 𝑣 2
+ 𝜓 = 0 ------------------ (4)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

Now, we know that the total energy E of the particle is sum of its kinetic energy K and potential
energy V
Therefore,
2
E = K + V and K= ½ mv =>
2 2
m v = 2m (E-V)--------- (5)
From (4) & (5)
𝜕2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
+ 𝛹= 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ℎ2

The value of h/2π is considered as ℏ

Therefore, ℏ=h/2π
𝜕2𝜓 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
+ 𝛹= 0 ---------- (6)
𝜕𝑥 2 ℏ2
This is Schrodinger time independent wave equation in 1-D
7. Explain the feature of wave function which connects the particle nature and wave
nature of matter wave.
❖ The wave nature of matter introduced an uncertainty in the location of the position of the
particle because a wave cannot be set exactly at this position (or) at that position.
❖ The amplitude of the wave tells us about the probability of finding particle in space at a
particular instant. A large wave amplitude means a large probability of finding the particle
at that position.
❖ Mathematically, to explain it, scientists introduced a new physical quantity called wave
function.
❖ It is a variable quantity i.e., associated with a moving particle at any position (x,y,z) and
time t and it relates probability of a finding the particle at that point and time.
❖ It must be well behaved it is single valued and continuous everywhere.
❖ It is a complex quantity and individually has no meaning.
❖ To explain it, Max Born suggested a new idea about the physical significance of 𝛹which
is generally accepted now a days.
❖ According to Max Born 𝛹 𝛹*=|𝜓|^2 is real and positive, it has physical meaning. It
represents the probability of finding the particle in the state 𝛹.

8. Describe behavior of matter waves by giving any two of its properties.

Matter Waves or de-broglie-waves: The waves associated with a material particle are called as
matter waves.
Properties of Matter Waves:
❖ Lighter is the particle, smaller the value of mass m, greater is the wavelength associated
with it. Therefore wave behavior is significant for micro particles whereas wave associated
with macro bodies can never be detected.
❖ If v = 0, then λ = ∞ , i.e. wave becomes indeterminate.
❖ This shows that matter waves are generated only when material particles are in motion.
❖ Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
9. Define Phase Velocity associated with a matter wave.
Ans.
Each wave of the group of matter waves travel with a velocity is known as the phase velocity of
the wave. It is given by
 𝝎
v =
ph 𝒌

10. Define Group velocity associated with a matter wave.

Ans. The group of waves, as a whole must travel with the particle velocity v. Hence the group
velocity of the matter waves,
𝑣𝑔𝑟 = 𝑣̅
̅̅̅̅
11. Write expressions for eigen function and eigen values for a particle in one dimensional
square well box of infinite potential.
Ans.
12. Discuss about Normalization condition as postulated by Max Born.
❖ According to Max Born 𝛹 𝛹*=|𝜓|2 is real and positive, it has physical meaning. It
represents the probability of finding the particle in the state 𝛹.
❖ Since the wave function is a complex quantity, it may be expressed in terms of
❖ 𝛹(x,y,z) = (a+ib)
❖ Where a,b are real function of the variables (x,y,z,t) and i = √(−1)

❖ The complex conjugate of 𝛹 is given by

❖ 𝛹*(x,y,z) = (a-ib)

Multiplying the two equations, we have

* 2 2
𝛹 𝛹 = (a+ib)(a-ib) = a +b

According to Max Born

Thus the product of 𝛹 and ᴪ∗ is real and positive if 𝛹 ≠ 0

And is known as the probability density of the particle associated with the de-Broglie wave.

The probability of the finding the particle in a volume dv = [Link] is given by

Probability (p) = |𝜓|2dxdydz

For the total probability of finding the particle somewhere is

p =∫ ∫ ∫|𝜓|2 dxdydz =1
A wave function 𝜓 satisfying the above relation is called a normalized wave function.

13. What is the Schr¨odinger’s interpretation of complex and not observable wave
function?
Ans. Physical Significance of wave function:
Wave function is a mathematical tool used in quantum mechanics to describe any physical
system and it is denoted by ‘𝛹′.
❖ The wave nature of matter introduced an uncertainty in the location of the position of the
particle because a wave cannot be set exactly at this position (or) at that position.
❖ The amplitude of the wave tells us about the probability of finding particle in space at a
particular instant. A large wave amplitude means a large probability of finding the particle
at that position.
 ❖ Mathematically, to explain it, scientists introduced a new physical quantity called wave
function.
❖ It is a variable quantity i.e., associated with a moving particle at any position (x,y,z) and
time t and it relates probability of a finding the particle at that point and time.
❖ It must be well behaved it is single valued and continuous everywhere.
❖ It is a complex quantity and individually has no meaning.
❖ To explain it, Max Born suggested a new idea about the physical significance of 𝛹which
is generally accepted now a days.
❖ According to Max Born 𝛹 𝛹*=|𝜓|2 is real and positive, it has physical meaning. It
represents the probability of finding the particle in the state 𝛹.
❖ Since the wave function is a complex quantity, it may be expressed in terms of
❖ 𝛹(x,y,z) = (a+ib)
❖ Where a,b are real function of the variables (x,y,z,t) and i = √(−1)

14. How energy of a particle confined in a potential box is related to the width of the box.
Ans.

15. Write about probability density of moving material particle as explained by Born and
Schrodinger.

According to Max Born

Thus the product of 𝛹 and ᴪ∗ is real and positive if 𝛹 ≠ 0

And is known as the probability density of the particle associated with the de-Broglie wave.

The probability of the finding the particle in a volume dv = [Link] is given by

 Probability (p) = |𝜓|2dxdydz

For the total probability of finding the particle somewhere is

p =∫ ∫ ∫|𝜓|2 dxdydz =1
A wave function 𝜓 satisfying the above relation is called a normalized wave function.

16. What is the minimum energy possessed by the particle in an infinitely deep potential
well?

Zero-point Energy: The lowest possible energy level of the particle, called the zero-point energy,
is non-zero.

17. Discuss about the nature of the walls of the box in which a particle is bound.
The quantum behavior in the box include

Energy quantization: It is not possible for the particle to have any arbitrary definite energy.
Instead only discrete definite energy levels are allowed.

Zero-point Energy: The lowest possible energy level of the particle, called the zero-point energy,
is non-zero.

Spatial-nodes: In contrast to classical mechanics the Schrodinger equation predicts that for some
energy levels there are nodes, implying positions at which the particle can never be found.

18. What happens to the wavefunction associated with a particle in an infinitely deep
potential well
Probability of the location of the particle
The probability of finding a particle over a small distance dx at x is given by
Thus the probability density for one dimensional motion is
2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝐿 𝐿
The probability density is maximum when
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
= 2, 2, 2
𝐿
𝐿 3𝐿 5𝐿
𝑥= , ,
2𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛

𝐿
Case 1: If n =1, then the probability of position of the particle is at x =2
𝐿 3𝐿
Case 2 : If n =2, then the probability of position of the particle is at x =4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4
Case 3: If n =3, then the probability of position of the particle is at
𝐿 3𝐿 5𝐿
x =6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6

19. What is the boundary condition for normalized wave function?

According to Max Born

Thus the product of 𝛹 and ᴪ∗ is real and positive if 𝛹 ≠ 0

And is known as the probability density of the particle associated with the de-Broglie wave.

The probability of the finding the particle in a volume dv = [Link] is given by

Probability (p) = |𝜓|2dxdydz

For the total probability of finding the particle somewhere is

p =∫ ∫ ∫|𝜓|2 dxdydz =1
A wave function 𝜓 satisfying the above relation is called a normalized wave function.

20. Define square well potential associated with a bound electron moving along one
dimension.
➢ Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ along x-direction and
is confined between to infinite potential rigid walls, so that the particle has no chance
of escaping from them. Therefore, the particle bounces back and forth between two
walls as shown in fig.
 ➢ Let the potential energy of electron inside the box is constant and can be taken as zero
for simplicity.
Inside the box

The particle exist inside the box; therefore the probability of finding the electron inside the box is
not equal to zero and the potential energy is zero.

i.e., 𝛹(x) ≠0 when x>0 and x<L

V(x) = 0

To calculate the probability of finding particle within the box,

let us consider one dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation

Boundary condition at x =0
At x = 0, the probability of the finding the electron is zero, i.e., Ψ(x) = 0
Equation (4) becomes
0 = A sinK(0) + B cosK(0)
 0=0+B
∴𝐵=0 ………………….(5)
Boundary condition at x =L
At x = L, the probability of finding the electron is zero, i.e., Ψ(x) = 0
Equation (4) becomes
0= A sinK(L) + B cosK(L)
0 = A sinK(L) + (0) cosK(L)
A sinK(L) = 0
 If L = a
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎2