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Gas detector

Portable gas detector

A gas detector is a device that detects the presence of gases in an area, often as
Optimised just now
[Link]
View original

Gas detector

Portable gas detector

A gas detector is a device that detects the presence of gases in an area, often as part of a safety
system. This type of equipment is used to detect a gas leak or other emissions and can interface
with a control system so a process can be automatically shut down. A gas detector can sound an
alarm to operators in the area where the leak is occurring, giving them the opportunity to leave.
This type of device is important because there are many gases that can be harmful to organic
life, such as humans or animals.
Gas detectors can be used to detect combustible, flammable and toxic gases, and oxygen
depletion. This type of device is used widely in industry and can be found in locations, such as on
oil rigs, to monitor manufacture processes and emerging technologies such as photovoltaic.
They may be used in firefighting.
Gas leak detection is the process of identifying potentially hazardous gas leaks by sensors. These
sensors usually employ an audible alarm to alert people when a dangerous gas has been
detected. Exposure to toxic gases can also occur in operations such as painting, fumigation, fuel
filling, construction, excavation of contaminated soils, landfill operations, entering confined
spaces, etc. Common sensors include combustible gas sensors, photoionization detectors,
infrared point sensors, ultrasonic sensors, electrochemical gas sensors, and semiconductor
sensors. More recently, infrared imaging sensors have come into use. All of these sensors are
used for a wide range of applications and can be found in industrial plants, refineries,
pharmaceutical manufacturing, fumigation facilities, paper pulp mills, aircraft and shipbuilding
facilities, hazmat operations, waste-water treatment facilities, vehicles, indoor air quality testing
and homes.
History
Gas leak detection methods became a concern after the effects of harmful gases on human
health were discovered. Before modern electronic sensors, early detection methods relied on
less precise detectors. Through the 19th and early 20th centuries, coal miners would bring
canaries down to the tunnels with them as an early detection system against life-threatening
gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane. The canary, normally a very
songful bird, would stop singing and eventually die if not removed from these gases, signaling
the miners to exit the mine quickly.
The first gas detector in the industrial age was the flame safety lamp (or Davy lamp) was
invented by Sir Humphry Davy (of England) in 1815 to detect the presence of methane
(firedamp) in underground coal mines. The flame safety lamp consisted of an oil flame adjusted
to specific height in fresh air. To prevent ignition with the lamps flame was contained within a
glass sleeve with a mesh flame arrestor. The flames height varied depending on the presence of
methane (higher) or the lack of oxygen (lower). To this day, in certain parts of the world flame
safety lamps are still in service.
The modern era of gas detection started in 1926-1927 with the development of the catalytic
combustion (LEL) sensor by [Link] Johnson. Dr Johnson was an employee of Standard Oil
Company in California (now Chevron), he begun research and development on a method to
detect combustible mixtures in air to help prevent explosions in fuel storage tanks. A
demonstration model was developed in 1926 and denoted as the Model A. The first practical
"electric vapor indicator" meter begun production in 1927 with the release of the Model B.
The worlds first gas detection company, Johnson-Williams Instruments (or J-W Instruments) was
formed in 1928 in Palo Alto, CA by Dr Oliver Johnston and Phil Williams. J-W Instruments is
recognized as the first electronics company in Silicon Valley. Over the next 40 years J-W
Instruments pioneered many "firsts" in the modern age of gas detection, including making
instruments smaller and more portable, development of a portable oxygen detector as well as
the first combination instrument that could detect both combustible gases/vapors as well as
oxygen.
Before the development of electronic household carbon monoxide detectors in the 1980s and
1990s, carbon monoxide presence was detected with a chemically infused paper that turned
brown when exposed to the gas. Since then, many electronic technologies and devices have
been developed to detect, monitor, and alert the leak of a wide array of gases.
As the cost and performance of electronic gas sensors improved, they have been incorporated
into a wider range of systems. Their use in automobiles was initially for engine emissions
control, but now gas sensors may also be used to ensure passenger comfort and safety. Carbon
dioxide sensors are being installed into buildings as part of demand-controlled ventilation
systems. Sophisticated gas sensor systems are being researched for use in medical diagnostic,
monitoring, and treatment systems, well beyond their initial use in operating rooms. Gas
monitors and alarms for carbon monoxide and other harmful gases are increasingly available for
office and domestic use, and are becoming legally required in some jurisdictions.
Originally, detectors were produced to detect a single gas. Modern units may detect several
toxic or combustible gases, or even a combination.[1] Newer gas analyzers can break up the
component signals from a complex aroma to identify several gases simultaneously.[2]
Types
Gas detectors can be classified according to the operation mechanism (semiconductors,
oxidation, catalytic, photoionization, infrared, etc.). Gas detectors come packaged into two main
form factors: portable devices and fixed gas detectors.
Portable detectors are used to monitor the atmosphere around personnel and are either hand-
held or worn on clothing or on a belt/harness. These gas detectors are usually battery operated.
They transmit warnings via audible and visible signals, such as alarms and flashing lights, when
dangerous levels of gas vapors are detected.
Fixed type gas detectors may be used for detection of one or more gas types. Fixed type
detectors are generally mounted near the process area of a plant or control room, or an area to
be protected, such as a residential bedroom. Generally, industrial sensors are installed on fixed
type mild steel structures and a cable connects the detectors to a SCADA system for continuous
monitoring. A tripping interlock can be activated for an emergency situation.
Electrochemical
Main article: Electrochemical gas sensor
Electrochemical gas detectors work by allowing gases to diffuse through a porous membrane to
an electrode where it is either chemically oxidized or reduced. The amount of current produced
is determined by how much of the gas is oxidized at the electrode,[3] indicating the
concentration of the gas. Manufactures can customize electrochemical gas detectors by
changing the porous barrier to allow for the detection of a certain gas concentration range. Also,
since the diffusion barrier is a physical/mechanical barrier, the detector tended to be more
stable and reliable over the sensor's duration and thus required less maintenance than other
early detector technologies.
However, the sensors are subject to corrosive elements or chemical contamination and may last
only 1–2 years before a replacement is required.[4] Electrochemical gas detectors are used in a
wide variety of environments such as refineries, gas turbines, chemical plants, underground gas
storage facilities, and more.
Catalytic bead (pellistor)
Catalytic bead sensors are commonly used to measure combustible gases that present an
explosion hazard when concentrations are between the lower explosion limit (LEL) and upper
explosion limit (UEL). Active and reference beads containing platinum wire coils are situated on
opposite arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit and electrically heated, up to a few hundred
degrees C. The active bead contains a catalyst that allows combustible compounds to oxidize,
thereby heating the bead even further and changing its electrical resistance. The resulting
voltage difference between the active and passive beads is proportional to the concentration of
all combustible gases and vapors present. The sampled gas enters the sensor through a sintered
metal frit, which provides a barrier to prevent an explosion when the instrument is carried into
an atmosphere containing combustible gases. Pellistors measure essentially all combustible
gases, but they are more sensitive to smaller molecules that diffuse through the sinter more
quickly. The measureable concentration ranges are typically from a few hundred ppm to a few
volume percent. Such sensors are inexpensive and robust, but require a minimum of a few
percent oxygen in the atmosphere to be tested and they can be poisoned or inhibited by
compounds such as silicones, mineral acids, chlorinated organic compounds, and sulfur
compounds.
Photoionization
Photoionization detectors (PIDs) use a high-photon-energy UV lamp to ionize chemicals in the
sampled gas. If the compound has an ionization energy below that of the lamp photons, an
electron will be ejected, and the resulting current is proportional to the concentration of the
compound. Common lamp photon energies include 10.0 eV, 10.6 eV and 11.7 eV; the standard
10.6 eV lamp lasts for years, while the 11.7 eV lamp typically last only a few months and is used
only when no other option is available. A broad range of compounds can be detected at levels
ranging from a few ppb to several thousand ppm. Detectable compound classes in order of
decreasing sensitivity include: aromatics and alkyl iodides; olefins, sulfur compounds, amines,
ketones, ethers, alkyl bromides and silicate esters; organic esters, alcohols, aldehydes and
alkanes; H2S, NH3, PH3 and organic acids. There is no response to standard components of air
or to mineral acids. Major advantages of PIDs are their excellent sensitivity and simplicity of use;
the main limitation is that measurements are not compound-specific. Recently PIDs with pre-
filter tubes have been introduced that enhance the specificity for such compounds as benzene
or butadiene. Fixed, hand-held and miniature clothing-clipped PIDs are widely used for industrial
hygiene, hazmat, and environmental monitoring.
Infrared point
Main article: Infrared point sensor
Infrared (IR) point sensors use radiation passing through a known volume of gas; energy from
the sensor beam is absorbed at certain wavelengths, depending on the properties of the specific
gas. For example, carbon monoxide absorbs wavelengths of about 4.2-4.5 μm.[5] The energy in
this wavelength is compared to a wavelength outside of the absorption range; the difference in
energy between these two wavelengths is proportional to the concentration of gas present.[5]
This type of sensor is advantageous because it does not have to be placed into the gas to detect
it and can be used for remote sensing. Infrared point sensors can be used to detect
hydrocarbons[6] and other infrared active gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. IR
sensors are commonly found in waste-water treatment facilities, refineries, gas turbines,
chemical plants, and other facilities where flammable gases are present and the possibility of an
explosion exists. The remote sensing capability allows large volumes of space to be monitored.
Engine emissions are another area where IR sensors are being researched. The sensor would
detect high levels of carbon monoxide or other abnormal gases in vehicle exhaust and even be
integrated with vehicle electronic systems to notify drivers.[5]
Infrared imaging
Main article: Thermographic camera
Infrared image sensors include active and passive systems. For active sensing, IR imaging sensors
typically scan a laser across the field of view of a scene and look for backscattered light at the
absorption line wavelength of a specific target gas. Passive IR imaging sensors measure spectral
changes at each pixel in an image and look for specific spectral signatures that indicate the
presence of target gases.[7] The types of compounds that can be imaged are the same as those
that can be detected with infrared point detectors, but the images may be helpful in identifying
the source of a gas.
Semiconductor
Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place when the gas comes
in direct contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most common material used in
semiconductor sensors,[8] and the electrical resistance in the sensor is decreased when it comes
in contact with the monitored gas. The resistance of the tin dioxide is typically around 50 kΩ in
air but can drop to around 3.5 kΩ in the presence of 1% methane.[9] This change in resistance is
used to calculate the gas concentration. Semiconductor sensors are commonly used to detect
hydrogen, oxygen, alcohol vapor, and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide.[10] One of the
most common uses for semiconductor sensors is in carbon monoxide sensors. They are also
used in breathalyzers.[9] Because the sensor must come in contact with the gas to detect it,
semiconductor sensors work over a smaller distance than infrared point or ultrasonic detectors.
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic gas leak detectors are not gas detectors per se. They detect the acoustic emission
created when a pressured gas expands in a low pressure area through a small orifice (the leak).
They use acoustic sensors to detect changes in the background noise of its environment. Since
most high-pressure gas leaks generate sound in the ultrasonic range of 25 kHz to 10 MHz, the
sensors are able to easily distinguish these frequencies from background acoustic noise which
occurs in the audible range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.[11] The ultrasonic gas leak detector then
produces an alarm when there is an ultrasonic deviation from the normal condition of
background noise. Ultrasonic gas leak detectors cannot measure gas concentration, but the
device is able to determine the leak rate of an escaping gas because the ultrasonic sound level
depends on the gas pressure and size of the leak.[11]
Ultrasonic gas detectors are mainly used for remote sensing in outdoor environments where
weather conditions can easily dissipate escaping gas before allowing it to reach leak detectors
that require contact with the gas to detect it and sound an alarm. These detectors are
commonly found on offshore and onshore oil/gas platforms, gas compressor and metering
stations, gas turbine power plants, and other facilities that house a lot of outdoor pipeline.
Holographic
Holographic gas sensors use light reflection to detect changes in a polymer film matrix
containing a hologram. Since holograms reflect light at certain wavelengths, a change in their
composition can generate a colorful reflection indicating the presence of a gas molecule.[12]
However, holographic sensors require illumination sources such as white light or lasers, and an
observer or CCD detector.
Calibration
All gas detectors must be calibrated on a schedule. Of the two form factors of gas detectors,
portables must be calibrated more frequently due to the regular changes in environment they
experience. A typical calibration schedule for a fixed system may be quarterly, bi-annually or
even annually with more robust units. A typical calibration schedule for a portable gas detector
is a daily "bump test" accompanied by a monthly calibration.[13] Almost every portable gas
detector requires a specific calibration gas which is available from the manufacturer. In the US,
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) may set minimum standards for
periodic recalibration.[citation needed]
Challenge (bump) test
Because a gas detector is used for employee/worker safety, it is very important to make sure it
is operating to manufacturer's specifications. Australian standards specify that a person
operating any gas detector is strongly advised to check the gas detector's performance each day
and that it is maintained and used in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and
warnings.[14]
A challenge test should consist of exposing the gas detector to a known concentration of gas to
ensure that the gas detector will respond and that the audible and visual alarms activate. It is
also important inspect the gas detector for any accidental or deliberate damage by checking
that the housing and screws are intact to prevent any liquid ingress and that the filter is clean,
all of which can affect the functionality of the gas detector. The basic calibration or challenge
test kit will consist of calibration gas/regulator/calibration cap and hose (generally supplied with
the gas detector) and a case for storage and transport. Because 1 in every 2,500 untested
instruments will fail to respond to a dangerous concentration of gas, many large businesses use
an automated test/calibration station for bump tests and calibrate their gas detectors daily.[15]
Oxygen concentration
Oxygen deficiency gas monitors are used for employee and workforce safety. Cryogenic
substances such as liquid nitrogen (LN2), liquid helium (He), and liquid argon (Ar) are inert and
can displace oxygen (O2) in a confined space if a leak is present. A rapid decrease of oxygen can
provide a very dangerous environment for employees, who may not notice this problem before
they suddenly lose consciousness. With this in mind, an oxygen gas monitor is important to have
when cryogenics are present. Laboratories, MRI rooms, pharmaceutical, semiconductor, and
cryogenic suppliers are typical users of oxygen monitors.
Oxygen fraction in a breathing gas is measured by electro-galvanic oxygen sensors. They may be
used stand-alone, for example to determine the proportion of oxygen in a nitrox mixture used in
scuba diving,[16] or as part of feedback loop which maintains a constant partial pressure of
oxygen in a rebreather.[17]
Hydrocarbons and VOCs
Further information: Volatile organic compound § VOC sensors
Detection of hydrocarbons can be based on the mixing properties of gaseous hydrocarbons – or
other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) – and the sensing material incorporated in the sensor.
The selectivity and sensitivity depends on the molecular structure of the VOC and the
concentration; however, it is difficult to design a selective sensor for a single VOC. Many VOC
sensors detect using a fuel-cell method.
VOCs in the environment or certain atmospheres can be detected based on different principles
and interactions between the organic compounds and the sensor components. There are
electronic devices that can detect ppm concentrations despite not being particularly selective.
Others can predict with reasonable accuracy the molecular structure of the volatile organic
compounds in the environment or enclosed atmospheres[18] and could be used as accurate
monitors of the chemical fingerprint and further as health monitoring devices.
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) techniques are used to collect VOCs at low concentrations
for analysis.[19]
Direct injection mass spectrometry techniques are frequently utilized for the rapid detection
and accurate quantification of VOCs.[20] PTR-MS is among the methods that have been used
most extensively for the on-line analysis of biogenic and antropogenic VOCs.[21] Recent PTR-MS
instruments based on time-of-flight mass spectrometry have been reported to reach detection
limits of 20 pptv after 100 ms and 750 ppqv after 1 min measurement (signal integration) time.
The mass resolution of these devices is between 7000 and 10,500 m/Δm, thus it is possible to
separate most common isobaric VOCs and quantify them independently.[22]
Considerations for detection of hydrocarbon gases/risk control
Methane is lighter than air (possibility of accumulation under roofs)
Ethane is slightly heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
Propane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
Butane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
Ammonia
Gaseous ammonia is continuously monitored in industrial refrigeration processes and biological
degradation processes, including exhaled breath. Depending on the required sensitivity,
different types of sensors are used (e.g., flame ionization detector, semiconductor,
electrochemical, photonic membranes[23]). Detectors usually operate near the lower exposure
limit of 25ppm;[24] however, ammonia detection for industrial safety requires continuous
monitoring above the fatal exposure limit of 0.1%.[23]
Combustible
Catalytic bead sensor
Explosimeter
Infrared point sensor
Infrared open path detector
Other
Flame ionization detector
Nondispersive infrared sensor
Photoionization detector
Zirconium oxide sensor cell
Catalytic sensors
Metal oxide semiconductor
Gold film
Colorimetric detector tubes
Sample collection and chemical analysis
Piezoelectric microcantilever
Holographic sensor
Thermal conductivity detector
Electrochemical gas sensor
Household safety
There are several different sensors that can be installed to detect hazardous gases in a
residence. Carbon monoxide is a very dangerous, but odorless, colorless gas, making it difficult
for humans to detect. Carbon monoxide detectors can be purchased for around US$20–60.
Many local jurisdictions in the United States now require installation of carbon monoxide
detectors in addition to smoke detectors in residences.
Handheld flammable gas detectors can be used to trace leaks from natural gas lines, propane
tanks, butane tanks, or any other combustible gas. These sensors can be purchased for US$35–
100.
Research
The European Community has supported research called the MINIGAS project that was
coordinated by VTT Technical Research Center of Finland.[25] This research project aims to
develop new types of photonics-based gas sensors, and to support the creation of smaller
instruments with equal or higher speed and sensitivity than conventional laboratory-grade gas
detectors.[25] part of a safety system. This type of equipment is used to detect a gas leak or
other emissions and can interface with a control system so a process can be automatically shut
down. A gas detector can sound an alarm to operators in the area where the leak is occurring,
giving them the opportunity to leave. This type of device is important because there are many
gases that can be harmful to organic life, such as humans or animals.
Gas detectors can be used to detect combustible, flammable and toxic gases, and oxygen
depletion. This type of device is used widely in industry and can be found in locations, such as on
oil rigs, to monitor manufacture processes and emerging technologies such as photovoltaic.
They may be used in firefighting.
Gas leak detection is the process of identifying potentially hazardous gas leaks by sensors. These
sensors usually employ an audible alarm to alert people when a dangerous gas has been
detected. Exposure to toxic gases can also occur in operations such as painting, fumigation, fuel
filling, construction, excavation of contaminated soils, landfill operations, entering confined
spaces, etc. Common sensors include combustible gas sensors, photoionization detectors,
infrared point sensors, ultrasonic sensors, electrochemical gas sensors, and semiconductor
sensors. More recently, infrared imaging sensors have come into use. All of these sensors are
used for a wide range of applications and can be found in industrial plants, refineries,
pharmaceutical manufacturing, fumigation facilities, paper pulp mills, aircraft and shipbuilding
facilities, hazmat operations, waste-water treatment facilities, vehicles, indoor air quality testing
and homes.
History
Gas leak detection methods became a concern after the effects of harmful gases on human
health were discovered. Before modern electronic sensors, early detection methods relied on
less precise detectors. Through the 19th and early 20th centuries, coal miners would bring
canaries down to the tunnels with them as an early detection system against life-threatening
gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane. The canary, normally a very
songful bird, would stop singing and eventually die if not removed from these gases, signaling
the miners to exit the mine quickly.
The first gas detector in the industrial age was the flame safety lamp (or Davy lamp) was
invented by Sir Humphry Davy (of England) in 1815 to detect the presence of methane
(firedamp) in underground coal mines. The flame safety lamp consisted of an oil flame adjusted
to specific height in fresh air. To prevent ignition with the lamps flame was contained within a
glass sleeve with a mesh flame arrestor. The flames height varied depending on the presence of
methane (higher) or the lack of oxygen (lower). To this day, in certain parts of the world flame
safety lamps are still in service.
The modern era of gas detection started in 1926-1927 with the development of the catalytic
combustion (LEL) sensor by [Link] Johnson. Dr Johnson was an employee of Standard Oil
Company in California (now Chevron), he begun research and development on a method to
detect combustible mixtures in air to help prevent explosions in fuel storage tanks. A
demonstration model was developed in 1926 and denoted as the Model A. The first practical
"electric vapor indicator" meter begun production in 1927 with the release of the Model B.
The worlds first gas detection company, Johnson-Williams Instruments (or J-W Instruments) was
formed in 1928 in Palo Alto, CA by Dr Oliver Johnston and Phil Williams. J-W Instruments is
recognized as the first electronics company in Silicon Valley. Over the next 40 years J-W
Instruments pioneered many "firsts" in the modern age of gas detection, including making
instruments smaller and more portable, development of a portable oxygen detector as well as
the first combination instrument that could detect both combustible gases/vapors as well as
oxygen.
Before the development of electronic household carbon monoxide detectors in the 1980s and
1990s, carbon monoxide presence was detected with a chemically infused paper that turned
brown when exposed to the gas. Since then, many electronic technologies and devices have
been developed to detect, monitor, and alert the leak of a wide array of gases.
As the cost and performance of electronic gas sensors improved, they have been incorporated
into a wider range of systems. Their use in automobiles was initially for engine emissions
control, but now gas sensors may also be used to ensure passenger comfort and safety. Carbon
dioxide sensors are being installed into buildings as part of demand-controlled ventilation
systems. Sophisticated gas sensor systems are being researched for use in medical diagnostic,
monitoring, and treatment systems, well beyond their initial use in operating rooms. Gas
monitors and alarms for carbon monoxide and other harmful gases are increasingly available for
office and domestic use, and are becoming legally required in some jurisdictions.
Originally, detectors were produced to detect a single gas. Modern units may detect several
toxic or combustible gases, or even a combination.[1] Newer gas analyzers can break up the
component signals from a complex aroma to identify several gases simultaneously.[2]
Types
Gas detectors can be classified according to the operation mechanism (semiconductors,
oxidation, catalytic, photoionization, infrared, etc.). Gas detectors come packaged into two main
form factors: portable devices and fixed gas detectors.
Portable detectors are used to monitor the atmosphere around personnel and are either hand-
held or worn on clothing or on a belt/harness. These gas detectors are usually battery operated.
They transmit warnings via audible and visible signals, such as alarms and flashing lights, when
dangerous levels of gas vapors are detected.
Fixed type gas detectors may be used for detection of one or more gas types. Fixed type
detectors are generally mounted near the process area of a plant or control room, or an area to
be protected, such as a residential bedroom. Generally, industrial sensors are installed on fixed
type mild steel structures and a cable connects the detectors to a SCADA system for continuous
monitoring. A tripping interlock can be activated for an emergency situation.
Electrochemical
Main article: Electrochemical gas sensor
Electrochemical gas detectors work by allowing gases to diffuse through a porous membrane to
an electrode where it is either chemically oxidized or reduced. The amount of current produced
is determined by how much of the gas is oxidized at the electrode,[3] indicating the
concentration of the gas. Manufactures can customize electrochemical gas detectors by
changing the porous barrier to allow for the detection of a certain gas concentration range. Also,
since the diffusion barrier is a physical/mechanical barrier, the detector tended to be more
stable and reliable over the sensor's duration and thus required less maintenance than other
early detector technologies.
However, the sensors are subject to corrosive elements or chemical contamination and may last
only 1–2 years before a replacement is required.[4] Electrochemical gas detectors are used in a
wide variety of environments such as refineries, gas turbines, chemical plants, underground gas
storage facilities, and more.
Catalytic bead (pellistor)
Catalytic bead sensors are commonly used to measure combustible gases that present an
explosion hazard when concentrations are between the lower explosion limit (LEL) and upper
explosion limit (UEL). Active and reference beads containing platinum wire coils are situated on
opposite arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit and electrically heated, up to a few hundred
degrees C. The active bead contains a catalyst that allows combustible compounds to oxidize,
thereby heating the bead even further and changing its electrical resistance. The resulting
voltage difference between the active and passive beads is proportional to the concentration of
all combustible gases and vapors present. The sampled gas enters the sensor through a sintered
metal frit, which provides a barrier to prevent an explosion when the instrument is carried into
an atmosphere containing combustible gases. Pellistors measure essentially all combustible
gases, but they are more sensitive to smaller molecules that diffuse through the sinter more
quickly. The measureable concentration ranges are typically from a few hundred ppm to a few
volume percent. Such sensors are inexpensive and robust, but require a minimum of a few
percent oxygen in the atmosphere to be tested and they can be poisoned or inhibited by
compounds such as silicones, mineral acids, chlorinated organic compounds, and sulfur
compounds.
Photoionization
Photoionization detectors (PIDs) use a high-photon-energy UV lamp to ionize chemicals in the
sampled gas. If the compound has an ionization energy below that of the lamp photons, an
electron will be ejected, and the resulting current is proportional to the concentration of the
compound. Common lamp photon energies include 10.0 eV, 10.6 eV and 11.7 eV; the standard
10.6 eV lamp lasts for years, while the 11.7 eV lamp typically last only a few months and is used
only when no other option is available. A broad range of compounds can be detected at levels
ranging from a few ppb to several thousand ppm. Detectable compound classes in order of
decreasing sensitivity include: aromatics and alkyl iodides; olefins, sulfur compounds, amines,
ketones, ethers, alkyl bromides and silicate esters; organic esters, alcohols, aldehydes and
alkanes; H2S, NH3, PH3 and organic acids. There is no response to standard components of air
or to mineral acids. Major advantages of PIDs are their excellent sensitivity and simplicity of use;
the main limitation is that measurements are not compound-specific. Recently PIDs with pre-
filter tubes have been introduced that enhance the specificity for such compounds as benzene
or butadiene. Fixed, hand-held and miniature clothing-clipped PIDs are widely used for industrial
hygiene, hazmat, and environmental monitoring.
Infrared point
Main article: Infrared point sensor
Infrared (IR) point sensors use radiation passing through a known volume of gas; energy from
the sensor beam is absorbed at certain wavelengths, depending on the properties of the specific
gas. For example, carbon monoxide absorbs wavelengths of about 4.2-4.5 μm.[5] The energy in
this wavelength is compared to a wavelength outside of the absorption range; the difference in
energy between these two wavelengths is proportional to the concentration of gas present.[5]
This type of sensor is advantageous because it does not have to be placed into the gas to detect
it and can be used for remote sensing. Infrared point sensors can be used to detect
hydrocarbons[6] and other infrared active gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. IR
sensors are commonly found in waste-water treatment facilities, refineries, gas turbines,
chemical plants, and other facilities where flammable gases are present and the possibility of an
explosion exists. The remote sensing capability allows large volumes of space to be monitored.
Engine emissions are another area where IR sensors are being researched. The sensor would
detect high levels of carbon monoxide or other abnormal gases in vehicle exhaust and even be
integrated with vehicle electronic systems to notify drivers.[5]
Infrared imaging
Main article: Thermographic camera
Infrared image sensors include active and passive systems. For active sensing, IR imaging sensors
typically scan a laser across the field of view of a scene and look for backscattered light at the
absorption line wavelength of a specific target gas. Passive IR imaging sensors measure spectral
changes at each pixel in an image and look for specific spectral signatures that indicate the
presence of target gases.[7] The types of compounds that can be imaged are the same as those
that can be detected with infrared point detectors, but the images may be helpful in identifying
the source of a gas.
Semiconductor
Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place when the gas comes
in direct contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most common material used in
semiconductor sensors,[8] and the electrical resistance in the sensor is decreased when it comes
in contact with the monitored gas. The resistance of the tin dioxide is typically around 50 kΩ in
air but can drop to around 3.5 kΩ in the presence of 1% methane.[9] This change in resistance is
used to calculate the gas concentration. Semiconductor sensors are commonly used to detect
hydrogen, oxygen, alcohol vapor, and harmful gases such as carbon monoxide.[10] One of the
most common uses for semiconductor sensors is in carbon monoxide sensors. They are also
used in breathalyzers.[9] Because the sensor must come in contact with the gas to detect it,
semiconductor sensors work over a smaller distance than infrared point or ultrasonic detectors.
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic gas leak detectors are not gas detectors per se. They detect the acoustic emission
created when a pressured gas expands in a low pressure area through a small orifice (the leak).
They use acoustic sensors to detect changes in the background noise of its environment. Since
most high-pressure gas leaks generate sound in the ultrasonic range of 25 kHz to 10 MHz, the
sensors are able to easily distinguish these frequencies from background acoustic noise which
occurs in the audible range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.[11] The ultrasonic gas leak detector then
produces an alarm when there is an ultrasonic deviation from the normal condition of
background noise. Ultrasonic gas leak detectors cannot measure gas concentration, but the
device is able to determine the leak rate of an escaping gas because the ultrasonic sound level
depends on the gas pressure and size of the leak.[11]
Ultrasonic gas detectors are mainly used for remote sensing in outdoor environments where
weather conditions can easily dissipate escaping gas before allowing it to reach leak detectors
that require contact with the gas to detect it and sound an alarm. These detectors are
commonly found on offshore and onshore oil/gas platforms, gas compressor and metering
stations, gas turbine power plants, and other facilities that house a lot of outdoor pipeline.
Holographic
Holographic gas sensors use light reflection to detect changes in a polymer film matrix
containing a hologram. Since holograms reflect light at certain wavelengths, a change in their
composition can generate a colorful reflection indicating the presence of a gas molecule.[12]
However, holographic sensors require illumination sources such as white light or lasers, and an
observer or CCD detector.
Calibration
All gas detectors must be calibrated on a schedule. Of the two form factors of gas detectors,
portables must be calibrated more frequently due to the regular changes in environment they
experience. A typical calibration schedule for a fixed system may be quarterly, bi-annually or
even annually with more robust units. A typical calibration schedule for a portable gas detector
is a daily "bump test" accompanied by a monthly calibration.[13] Almost every portable gas
detector requires a specific calibration gas which is available from the manufacturer. In the US,
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) may set minimum standards for
periodic recalibration.[citation needed]
Challenge (bump) test
Because a gas detector is used for employee/worker safety, it is very important to make sure it
is operating to manufacturer's specifications. Australian standards specify that a person
operating any gas detector is strongly advised to check the gas detector's performance each day
and that it is maintained and used in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and
warnings.[14]
A challenge test should consist of exposing the gas detector to a known concentration of gas to
ensure that the gas detector will respond and that the audible and visual alarms activate. It is
also important inspect the gas detector for any accidental or deliberate damage by checking
that the housing and screws are intact to prevent any liquid ingress and that the filter is clean,
all of which can affect the functionality of the gas detector. The basic calibration or challenge
test kit will consist of calibration gas/regulator/calibration cap and hose (generally supplied with
the gas detector) and a case for storage and transport. Because 1 in every 2,500 untested
instruments will fail to respond to a dangerous concentration of gas, many large businesses use
an automated test/calibration station for bump tests and calibrate their gas detectors daily.[15]
Oxygen concentration
Oxygen deficiency gas monitors are used for employee and workforce safety. Cryogenic
substances such as liquid nitrogen (LN2), liquid helium (He), and liquid argon (Ar) are inert and
can displace oxygen (O2) in a confined space if a leak is present. A rapid decrease of oxygen can
provide a very dangerous environment for employees, who may not notice this problem before
they suddenly lose consciousness. With this in mind, an oxygen gas monitor is important to have
when cryogenics are present. Laboratories, MRI rooms, pharmaceutical, semiconductor, and
cryogenic suppliers are typical users of oxygen monitors.
Oxygen fraction in a breathing gas is measured by electro-galvanic oxygen sensors. They may be
used stand-alone, for example to determine the proportion of oxygen in a nitrox mixture used in
scuba diving,[16] or as part of feedback loop which maintains a constant partial pressure of
oxygen in a rebreather.[17]
Hydrocarbons and VOCs
Further information: Volatile organic compound § VOC sensors
Detection of hydrocarbons can be based on the mixing properties of gaseous hydrocarbons – or
other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) – and the sensing material incorporated in the sensor.
The selectivity and sensitivity depends on the molecular structure of the VOC and the
concentration; however, it is difficult to design a selective sensor for a single VOC. Many VOC
sensors detect using a fuel-cell method.
VOCs in the environment or certain atmospheres can be detected based on different principles
and interactions between the organic compounds and the sensor components. There are
electronic devices that can detect ppm concentrations despite not being particularly selective.
Others can predict with reasonable accuracy the molecular structure of the volatile organic
compounds in the environment or enclosed atmospheres[18] and could be used as accurate
monitors of the chemical fingerprint and further as health monitoring devices.
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) techniques are used to collect VOCs at low concentrations
for analysis.[19]
Direct injection mass spectrometry techniques are frequently utilized for the rapid detection
and accurate quantification of VOCs.[20] PTR-MS is among the methods that have been used
most extensively for the on-line analysis of biogenic and antropogenic VOCs.[21] Recent PTR-MS
instruments based on time-of-flight mass spectrometry have been reported to reach detection
limits of 20 pptv after 100 ms and 750 ppqv after 1 min measurement (signal integration) time.
The mass resolution of these devices is between 7000 and 10,500 m/Δm, thus it is possible to
separate most common isobaric VOCs and quantify them independently.[22]
Considerations for detection of hydrocarbon gases/risk control
Methane is lighter than air (possibility of accumulation under roofs)
Ethane is slightly heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
Propane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
Butane is heavier than air (possibility of pooling at ground levels/pits)
Ammonia
Gaseous ammonia is continuously monitored in industrial refrigeration processes and biological
degradation processes, including exhaled breath. Depending on the required sensitivity,
different types of sensors are used (e.g., flame ionization detector, semiconductor,
electrochemical, photonic membranes[23]). Detectors usually operate near the lower exposure
limit of 25ppm;[24] however, ammonia detection for industrial safety requires continuous
monitoring above the fatal exposure limit of 0.1%.[23]
Combustible
Catalytic bead sensor
Explosimeter
Infrared point sensor
Infrared open path detector
Other
Flame ionization detector
Nondispersive infrared sensor
Photoionization detector
Zirconium oxide sensor cell
Catalytic sensors
Metal oxide semiconductor
Gold film
Colorimetric detector tubes
Sample collection and chemical analysis
Piezoelectric microcantilever
Holographic sensor
Thermal conductivity detector
Electrochemical gas sensor
Household safety
There are several different sensors that can be installed to detect hazardous gases in a
residence. Carbon monoxide is a very dangerous, but odorless, colorless gas, making it difficult
for humans to detect. Carbon monoxide detectors can be purchased for around US$20–60.
Many local jurisdictions in the United States now require installation of carbon monoxide
detectors in addition to smoke detectors in residences.
Handheld flammable gas detectors can be used to trace leaks from natural gas lines, propane
tanks, butane tanks, or any other combustible gas. These sensors can be purchased for US$35–
100.
Research
The European Community has supported research called the MINIGAS project that was
coordinated by VTT Technical Research Center of Finland.[25] This research project aims to
develop new types of photonics-based gas sensors, and to support the creation of smaller
instruments with equal or higher speed and sensitivity than conventional laboratory-grade gas
detectors.[25]
Electrochemical Sensors
General Gas Education

The basic components of an electrochemical sensor are a working (or sensing) electrode, a
counter electrode and usually a reference electrode as well. These electrodes are enclosed in
the sensor housing in contact with a liquid electrolyte. The working electrode is on the inner
face of a Teflon membrane that is porous to gas, but impermeable to the electrolyte.

The gas diffuses into the sensor and through the membrane to the working electrode. When the
gas reaches the working electrode, an electrochemical reaction occurs; either an oxidation or
reduction depending on the type of gas. For example, carbon monoxide may be oxidized to
carbon dioxide, or oxygen may be reduced to water. An oxidation reaction results in the flow of
electrons from the working electrode to the counter electrode through the external circuit; and
conversely a reduction reaction results in flow of electrons from the counter electrode to the
working electrode. This flow of electrons constitutes an electric current, which is proportional to
the gas concentration. The electronics in the instrument detects and amplifies the current and
scales the output according to the calibration. The instrument then displays the gas
concentration in, for example, parts per million (PPM) for toxic gas sensors and percent volume
for oxygen sensors.
Introduction
Electrochemical gas sensors are gas detectors used for measuring the concentration of a target
gas by oxidizing or reducing the gas at an electrode and measuring the resulting current. The
first electrochemical sensors were developed in 1950s for monitoring oxygen.
By the mid-1980s, miniaturized electrochemical sensors came into existence for detecting
various toxic gases. Currently, a wide range of electrochemical sensors are being used for
various applications.
Construction
The sensor consists of two or three electrodes that are in contact with an electrolyte. The
electrodes are made of porous hydrophobic membrane fixed with a high surface area precious
metal.
The most commonly used electrolyte is a mineral acid. The electrodes are usually located in a
plastic housing that consists of a gas entry hole and electrical contacts.
In some cases, a scrubber filter is also fixed in front of the sensor to filter unwanted gases. The
most commonly used filter medium is an activated charcoal.
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Working Principle
Electrochemical sensors are operated based on the diffusion of gas of interest into the sensor,
which results in the production of an electrical signal that is proportional to the gas
concentration.
Gas coming in contact with the sensor passes via a small capillary-type opening and diffuses via
a hydrophobic barrier to reach the electrode surface. As a result, a sufficient amount of gas is
allowed to react at the sensing electrode to produce a sufficient electrical signal. The diffused
gas in turn gets oxidized or reduced at the sensing electrode.
With the help of resistor connected between the electrodes, the current flowing between the
anode and cathode can be measured to determine the gas concentration.
Applications
Electrochemical sensors make use of minimal power for their operation. In fact, the power
consumption of this sensor is the lowest of all gas monitoring sensors. For this reason,
electrochemical sensors are widely used in confined space applications such as monitoring
indoor air quality and gas leaks, and with portable instruments consisting of multiple sensors.
Biosensor
A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical substance, that
combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector.[1][2] The sensitive biological
element, e.g. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic
acids, etc., is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts, binds, or
recognizes with the analyte under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be created
by biological engineering. The transducer or the detector element, which transforms one signal
into another one, works in a physicochemical way: optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical,
electrochemiluminescence etc., resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological
element, to easily measure and quantify. The biosensor reader device with the associated
electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a
user-friendly way.[3] This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device,
however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive
element (holographic sensor). The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to
suit the different working principles of biosensors.