LESSON 1 SELECTING RELEVANT LITERATURE

What is a Literature Review?

A literature review provides an overview of what has been written about a specifi
c [Link] review of literature includes practically all the information and data which a
re authoritative and relevant to the topic of the study as in the case of research and
similar scholarly undertakings. The literature can cover a range of sources, namely:

o ·journal articles
o ·monographs
o -computerized databases
▪ conference proceedings
▪ theses and dissertations
▪ empirical studies
▪ government reports and reports from other bodies
o ·historical records
o ·statistical handbooks

Since there are varying sources from which you can deduce, base and derive litera
ture review, here are some questions that can help lead you to your choice.
[Link] you clearly indicated the scope and purpose of the review?
[Link] you included a balanced coverage of what is available?
[Link] you included enough materials to show the development and limitations in
this area?
4. Have you included the most recent and relevant studies?
5. Have you indicated the source of the literature by referencing accurately?
6. Have you used mostly primary sources or appropriate secondary sources?

Why do a Literature Review?

Literature reviews may be great way to help you come up with enriching your
research idea. There are also means of ensuring that your idea/s has not been resea
rched on by someone elsc. Hence, there is a need to conduct a literature review. D
empster and Hannah (2016)provide some reasons why a reyiew is done. These are t
he following:
⚫ To indicate the research that has been conducted in the area before, to
ensure that you're not 'reinventing the wheel'.
⚫ To demonstrate that you're aware of important and recent studies in your study
area. This way, you ensure that you haven't missed an important study that
makes your research idea seem less brilliant than you first imagined.
⚫ To ensure that you haven't missed literature detailing a novel way for you to
conduct your study,or pointing you to a data-collection tool that is most
appropriate for your study.
⚫ To explain the theoretical background to your proposed research project.
 447

⚫ To demonstrate your ability to critically analyze the literature in your study [Link]
indicates that your research idea is based on a good understanding of previous research in
the area, and it also demonstrates your ability to highlight the existing gap or any
disagreements in the research area that your study addresses.

Kinds of Literature Review

After having answered the questions above and having known the reasons for
doing a literature review, you should note the kinds of literature review. These are
the following:
1. Traditional. Also referred to as narrative literature review, it provides a quick overv
iew of current studies. It helps explain why your study is important in the context of
the literature, and can also help you identify areas that need further research.
2. Integrative. This review synthesizes findings from different approaches (Whittemore
&Knafl,2005) This approach allows for the integration of qualitative with quantitative
studies.
3. Syntactic. This review synthesizes high quality empirical information to answer a giv
en research question. Conducting a systematic review involves following rigorous,prede
fined protocols "that minimize bias and ensure transparency" ([Link]/[Link]?
?g=48030p=3053671)
4. Scoping. This review involves a broad research question that explores the current e
vidence base (Armstrong, Hall, Doyle & Waters, 2011). It can help inform areas that
are appropriate for a systematic review.
Characteristics of a Good Literature Review
Consider now the materials you may cite or had cited, relative to your study by
using the characteristics that define a good litcrature review. These characteristics can
serve as criteria in selecting materials for a review of litcrature.
1. Materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the ch
anges that are going on. Sources to be looked into must give information th
at are attuned to the time frame indicated in the study.
2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Avoid data and ma
terials which are extremely one-sided.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study. Whatever kind of materials is need
ed to explain or support the study must have a bearing on the topic.
4. Materials must not be too few but nor too many. Use your discretion on h
ow much or many to include but there should be enough materials included
for the researcher to be able to offer insights on the study. The availability
of materials will also be a determining factor.
Types of Sources
The other element in selecting relevant materials for the literature review is the t
ypes of sources with which you have to be familiar with. Searching for information rel
ated to the research being undertaken needs time and much thought. The sources can
be classified into the following:
[Link] sources - publications in which researchers report the results of their
studies. Findings are communicated by the authors directly to the readers.
Most materials that fall under this type are journals which are usually publis
hed monthly,quarterly or bi-annually. Each article deals with a particular rese
arch or study.
2. Secondary sources - publications in which authors describe the work of other
s (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2008). Textbook is a familiar example of this type. Thi
s is also used for different courses offered in the curriculum. Other example
s used are encyclopedias,research reviews and yearbooks.
There is also a mention of general references which can direct you in what other
materials you can get information from related to your topic. These may be articles,
monographs, books,and other documents. Most general references are either indexes,
which list the author, title and place of publication of articles and other materials or
abstracts, which give a brief summary of various publications, as well as their author,
title and place of publication. An example frequently used by researchers in education
is Current Indexes to Journals in Education. A commonly used abstract is Psychological
Abstracts (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2008).
In effect, researchers when preparing a literature review need to refer any or all
of these sources to ensure that other works dealing with their intended study can she
d light on their own, as well as glean information from them and evaluate their curre
nt work.

Using Computer for Literature Review

With the easy accessibility to the use of computers, they have become one of the rich sour
ces for writing a review of literature. They are available in school libraries and most public libra
ries. Various online computer terminals are linked to one or more retrieval systems that draw fr
om a number of databases. A most commonly used database is Education Resources Information
Center (ERIC). Information that can be located are from data that date back to 1966. Printouts
can be obtained from the search engine for the desired references. A vast reservoir of informati
on on all sorts of topics which should be considered is the World Wide Web (WWW) which is
part of the internet. You can locate information on various topics with just a few clicks of the
mouse button.
 On the other hand, if you want more specific information, such as the life history of Georg
e Bernard Shaw, you should use a search engine. This computer feature searches all the contact
s of a Website. An example is Google.
Often, you can tell whether the material is relevant or not from reading the title, if not, th
e abstract of the article which may help you decide whether the article is relevant. Keep a reco
rd of the materials you identify as relevant for your review.
A literature review will try to look for as much material as possible of this existing research
. It will review major scholarly books in the relevant area, but will also take a keen interest in
journal articles, which in many subjects give more up-to date material.
Preparing a literature review thus involves:
·Searching for reliable, accurate and up-to-date material on the topic or subject
·Reading and summarising the key points from this literature
·Synthesising these key ideas, theories and concepts into a summary of what is known
·Discussing and evaluating these ideas, theories and concepts
·Identifying particular areas of debate or controversy
·Preparing the ground for the application of these ideas to new research
 LESSON 2 CITING RELATED LITERATURE
USING STANDARD STYLE

INTRODUCTION
Research makes use of previous information and data from statements of experts
which are expressed in various sources most common of which are books,journals and c
omputer databases. These data are utilized both for qualitative and quantitative research
[Link] qualitative research, previous studies do not only serve as a basis for the current
study but more significantly, information culled from the said sources can support in the
process of interpretation and analysis of data. It is necessary that proper citations are
followed. Without library resources, researchers will find great difficulty in doing a study.
This lesson presents the varied sources that can be used for doing a literature review
and how they are cited in the text and reference list.

What am I Citing?
Books Magazines

A collection of books that provides i

nformation about a certain topic. A popular work published periodically
(weekly, monthly, etc) focusing on a
specific subject of interest.

Newspaper Computer

A periodical publication containing news, A collection of electronic materials that

events,interview and opinion article.
 provides information about a certain

Source:[Link] [Link]/apa/cite-a book

These are the different sources of information that you can use for your literature r
[Link] alphabetical list of the references you cite in the text of your report should be
provided for. This section explains how to appropriate format for the different types of
sources in your reference section. (Dempster and Hanna,2016)
The reference in your text and your reference section must match perfectly, as well
as the citations. Check on the style used to ensure that each reference is formatted corr
ectly.

Referencing Styles
Here are the styles for indicating your sources both in the body of the report or in
the reference section at the end of your research paper.
·APA is an author/date based style. This means emphasis is placed on the author
and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it.
·MLA is most often applied in the arts and humanities, particularly in the U.S.A.
·HARVARD is very similar to APA. It is the most well used referencing style in th
e UK and Australia, and it is encouraged for use with the humanities.
·CHICAGO AND TURABIAN are two separate styles but very similar. They are also
widely used for history and economics.
Though there are choices from different referencing styles, you should use th
e particular style your school recommends. Avoid mixing or combining referencing
style ([Link]/guides).
Ways of Citing Related Literature
1. By author or writer
Example: According to Felipe (2015).
2. By topic
Example: It has been found out that.. (Felipe,2015)
3. By Chronology - according to the year, the literatures were written,usually from ea
rliest to the latest.
Only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles or conclusions in related mat
erials relevant to the problem should be cited. A material may be quoted if the idea conv
eyed is so perfectly stated and is not too long.
Example: According to Felipe, “pregnancy is a condition where women should take e
xtra care of themselves, there is also a need to consult with a doctor to check if everythi
ng, if both the mother and the baby are doing fine” (Felipe,2015).

Samples of Citations
BOOKS
Last name, First name (year). Book Title. Subtitle, (edition) Place: Publisher
When entering more than one in-text citation within thesame parenthesis, enter them
in the same order as the reference list. Reference list is the list of the sources you used
with your [Link] list at the end of your paper. Observe the following:

·Title your list of sources References

·List your sources alphabetically by author
·Double-space your reference list

In-Text:
Example: Vega, Prieto, Carreon, 2009; Corpuz and Salandanan, 2013

Reference List:
Examples: Corpuz B. & Salandanan G.(2013) Principles of teaching 1.
Quezon City:LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
Vega V., Prieto N., and Carreon M,2009 (Revised Edition) Social dimensions
of education Quezon City: LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
When citing a reference, another researcher has cited or you need to refer to a work t
hat has been cited in a paper you have read, but not the work cited, then the cited work is
only referred to as part of the in-text citation. The reference list is for the paper you have r
ead.
In-text:
O'Reilly (as cited in Bryme, 2008) argues that.
 Reference List:
Bryme, A. (2008) web 2.0 strategies in libraries and information services. The Austra
lia Library Journal, 57(4),365-376

WEBSITES
For a passing reference to a website in-text, the URL is sufficient, no reference list is
needed.([Link]/learn/[Link])
Example: Gussie-Fink-Nottie has set up a discussionr forum for the new financiers.(ht
tp://[Link])
However, when you are citing a particular document or piece of information
from a website, include both a reference list entry and an in-text citation. Th
e key to creating the reference list entry is to determine the type of content
on the web page. Basically, you should provide the following pieces of infor
mation.
Example: Author, (date). Title of document [(formal description)]. Retrieved from htt
p://XXXXX

E-BOOKS
The reference list entries for an, e-book for a whole e-book and a chapter in an e-bo
ok are exemplified as:
Whole e-book:
Author, Initial. (date). Title of book. Retrieved from [Link] Chapter in an
e-book:
Author,Initial.(date). Title of Chapter. In E. Editor (Ed.) Title of Book (pp xx-xx).Retrie
ved from [Link]
The in-text citation includes the author and date or with any othervAPA style.

YouTube Video
Author's Last Name, First Initial (Screen Name) (Year, Month, day ofnupload) Titleof
Video.[Video Title] Retrieved from http:// [Link]/xxxxxx

Greenland, B. [bryangreenland] (2012, January 13). Funny library montage. (year))[vid

eo file) Retrieved from https:/[Link]/watch?=7a70TEnLg Audiobook
or CD

Author's Last Name,First Initial (year). Book Title. Place: Publisher

Eide, B.E. & Eide, F.F. (2011). The dyslexic advantage: Unlocking the hidden potentia
l of the dyslexic brain. (CD audiobook), Old Say brook CT: Tantor Audio
 OTHER CITATIONS

ENCYCLOPEDIA ENTRY,PRINT
Author's last name, First initial (year) Article title:
Editors 1st initial. Last name (Ed); Encyclopedia Title: (#ed; Vol.# pp#-#)
place: Publisher

Entry Sample:Melzshack, R. (2010) Pain theories. In I.B. Weiner & W.E. Craighead (eds
.), The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology(4th ed.) Vol.3, pp. 1139-1141 Habeoken,
N.J.,Wiley.

MAGAZINE ARTICLE
Entry Sample:
White, C. (2008,April). The spirit of disobedience, Atlantic, 312 (1871), 31-40.

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Entry Sample:
Knotts, H.G. & Haspel, M. (2006). The impact of gentrification on voter turnout. Soci
al science quarterly, 87(1),110-121.

A word of caution on the use of secondary sources: Try to keep their use to a minimum by getting
hold of and reading the primary source. Primary sources contain more information which allows you to
critically evaluate and interpret the information yourself rather than relying on another author's
second-hand and possibly biased account (Dempster and Hanna, 2016).They further added that too
many secondary sources can give the impression that you have not really engaged with the process of
researching and reviewing the literature available.
It is acceptable to use secondary sources if: You can't get hold of the original source (
for example, it may be out of print)
The originaI source is in a language you can't understand
The original is very complex (for example, some statistical journal articles can b
e hard getting).
A good literature review, if done scientifically, will give credence to your study. Using
sources to enrich and support ideas and information in your investigation,particularly the w
ords of critics in the field. However, correct citation of these sources needs to be observed
.
 Lesson 3 SYNTHESIZING INFORMATION FROM RELEVANT
LITERATURE
What is a Synthesis?
A synthesis is a discussion that draws on one or more sources. Your ability to infer relationships among
sources such as essays, articles, fiction and also non-written sources such as lectures, interviews and
observations will be helpful in synthesizing information taken from your review of literature. Inferring
relationships like comparing between the teaching styles of your favourite and least favourite instructors is
something that is familiar to you. When synthesizing information you have gathered, it is vital that you select
the ideas and information from each source that will make you achieve your purpose.

It is your purpose that determines not only what parts of your sources you will use but also how you will
relate them to one another. Have a bass on which to combine what you have gathered. Hence, find out what
relationships exist among the materials and sources you have reviewed.

Synthesis refers to the bringing together of materials from different sources, and the creation of an
integrated whole. In the case of your research, the “whole" is your structured review of relevant works and
your coherent argument for the study that you are doing.
Types of Synthesis
You may choose from these two types of synthesis.
1. Explanatory synthesis. It helps the readers to understand a topic. Its primary aim
is to present the facts in a reasonably objective manner. Explanations given may
entail descriptions, sequence of events or state of affairs.
2. Argument synthesis. Its purpose is for you to present your own point of view wit
h the support of relevant facts drawn from services and presented in a logical m
[Link] is presented may be debatable.

Categories of Sources
Fraenkel (2015) enumerates the categories of sources from where your culled data and
information in the literature review may have been taken.
1. Documents- These include written or printed materials that have been produced in
some form or another such as annual reports, books, artwork, cartoons, circulars,r
ecords, diaries, notebooks, etc. They may be published or unpublished, intended f
or private or public consumption; they may be original works or copies.
2. Numerical Records-They may be considered as a separate type of source in and of
themselves or as a subcategory of documents. Several records include any type of
numerical data in printed form: test scores, attendance figures,census reports,sch
ool budgets and the like.
 C11

3. Oral Statements - These may include stories, myths, tales, legends, chants, songs,an
d other forms of oral expressions. These materials leave a record for future gener
ations.
4. Relics- These are formaltypes of historical sources.. A relic is any object where phy
sical or visual characteristics can provide some information about the [Link]
s: furniture, artwork, clothing, buildings or equipment.

The review of related literature and studies must contain substantial information to help in
understanding the subject or topic being written about and be guided to determine the gaps to be filled in
by the study undertaken. This section in the research report also serves as the foundational knowledge or
the springboard for the study.
Finally, all information about the subject or problem discussed in the review are presented,organized
and summarized further in the synthesis. This particular section is referred to as the “synthesis of the art”.
It is through the review of literature that the research is able to connect the past with the findings of the
present and show the difference between the data and information collected in the present study.

As to the presentation, the procedures and findings taken from the reviewed liter
ature are presented in the past tense. The present tense form of the verbs is used in
the discussions of the analyses,comments, correlations and integrations and the related l
iterature.
This section, therefore, analyzes and synthesizes the related literature in the light
of the problem and the research framework of the study. It further points out the resu
lts which are proven and accepted as facts.

How to Write a Synthesis

The procedure that you can follow in writing the synthesis of your literature review includes the following:

1. Consider your purpose in writing.

2. Select and read carefully your sources, according to your purpose.
3. Formulate a thesis. It is the main ideas that you want to present in your synthesis.
4. Decide how you will use your source materials and take down notes.
5. Develop an organizational plan according to your thesis.
6. Write the first draft of your synthesis, following your organizational plan.
7. Revise your synthesis.

Techniques for Writing a Syntesis

1. Summary- It is the simplest way of organizing a synthesis. Here, you write one
after the other the most relevant information and sources you gathered.
2. Example or Illustration-It is a reference to a particularly illuminating example or
illustration that you have included in your review. You need to credit your
source/s.
 3. Two (or more) Reasons - This approach can be an effective method by simply
stating your thesis, then give reasons why it is true. Your reasons need to be
supported by evidence from your data and sources.
4. Comparison and Contrast- These techniques will lead to examining two subjects
or data in terms of one another. Comparison considers similarities while contr
ast,highlights differences.

Preparing a Synthesis Matrix

After gathering all the materials needed for the literature review, you have to orga
nize them according to each subtopic discussed about the larger topic. One way that se
ems to be particularly helpful in organizing the literature review is the synthesis matrix.(
http.//writing

[Link]/resources/synthesis-matrix-2pdf).
The synthesis matrix is a chart that will allow you to sort and categorize the d
ifferent opinions and arguments given on an issuc relation to your study. Across the
top of the chart are the spaces to record sources and along the side of the chart
are the spaces to record the main points on the topic being undertaken.

Here is a suggested format for creating your own synthesis matrix:

Topic:

Label: Author's last name and/or few keywords from the title of the work.

Label: Main ideas that your source discussed about your topic.

Main Idea Source #1 Source #2 Source #3 Source #4

A

Main Idea
B
 表 0 日

Then,fill up the chart with notes discussed in the work being examined.

Samples of Literature Review Synthesis

Here is an excerpt of a synthesis taken from a literature review,"World War T
wo and its Effect on Women”(http//[Link]/resource/synthesismatrix-2p
df)
While the articles used in this research agree that women made many advances during the Word
War II period, it is crucial to realize that not all these changes were [Link] most cases women
faced discrimination from just about everyone around them. Women in the workplace were often
placed in positions of inferiority or treated as being less physically able to do the same work the
men did. Many women were often not trained because they were viewed as temporary employees
who were only there for the duration of the war (Bruley, 2003,pp.221-222). Women were very
rarely given equal pay as men, even though some of them did the same work. Women in the
military faced not only mental abuse but also physical harm from their male counterparts.
According to Cornelsen (2005), there were many instances where female aviators were injured or
killed due to being made to fly ill-maintained aircrafts or aircrafts that had been sabotaged.p114

The sample shows not only the similarity between the two articles mentioned but it also points
out to how they are similar. The excerpt is not a summary of ideas but draws comparisons between
the two articles and synthesizing the two works.
Examine the following two passages taken from student researches. Student A is
merely describing the literature while Student B takes a more analytical and evaluative
approach by using the technique of comparison and contrast.

Student A:
Smith (2000) concludes that personal privacy in their living quarters is the most importa
nt factor in nursing home residents' perception of their [Link] suggests that the
physical environment in the more public spaces of the building did not have much impa
ct on their perceptions. Neither the layout of the building, nor the activities available
seem to make much difference. Jones and Johnstone make the claim that the need to
control one's environment is a fundamental need of life (2001), and suggest that the
approach of most institutions, which is to provide total care, may be as bad as no car
e at all. If people have no choices or think that they have none, they become depresse
d.

Student B:
After studying residents and staff from two intermediate care facilities in Calgary, Albert
a, Smith (2000) came to the conclusion that except for the amount of personal privacy
available to residents, the physical environment of these institutions had minimal if any
effect on their perceptions of control (autonomy). However, French (1998) and Haroon (
2000) found that availability of private areas is not the only aspect of the physical envi
ronment that determines residents' autonomy. Haroon interviewed 115 residents from 32
different nursing homes known to have different levels of autonomy (2000). It was foun
d that physical structures, such as standardized furniture,heating that could not be indiv
idually regulated, and no possession of a house key for residents limited their feelings
of independence. Moreover, Hope (2002),who interviewed 225 residents from various nur
sing homes, substantiates the claim that characteristics of the institutional environment
such as the extent of resources in the facility, as well as its location, are features whic
h residents have indicated as being of great importance to their independence.
 LESSON 4 WRITING COHERENT REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Structure of a Literature Review

Use the three main components consistent across literature reviews namely: the in
troduction, body and conclusion.([Link]/documents/Effective_Literature_Reviews.
pdf)
The introduction to the review of literature is often a single paragraph that introd
uces the general topic and provides scholarly or societal (e.g. policy, practice) context f
or the review. It also identifies the overall statement of knowledge about the topic (e.g
. methodology,evidence,problem or opportunity.
In the body of the literature review, you need to address previous research on th
e topic grouped according to theme, theoretical, perspective, method used or chronolog
ical development. This section draws together the significance of previous individual stu
dies by highlighting the main themes, issues and knowledge gaps. You must the connec
t the literature to the proposed research objectives within this parts and describe previ
ous work you have accomplished related to your proposed study.
The conclusion to the literature review is often a single paragraph that provides a
summary statement of the overall state of knowledge about the topic. This section sho
uld reconnect ideas to your introduction. It should establish the potential significance or
importance of your proposed study relative to the current stae of knowledge.
Remember to use accurate in text citations. A literature review must contain complet
e and correct citations for every source.

Guidelines in Writing a Literature Review

Following are some rules that can guide you in the writing of a literature [Link] of
these rules can help you towards preparing a sound and relevant literature.
Rule 1. Define the topic and the audience. When defining a topic, consider factors su
ch as Interest, importance and recency.
Rule 2. Search and re-search reference lists
Rule 3. Prepare a conceptual diagram of the need for the different types of liter
ature review.
Rule 4. Take notes while reading.
Rule 5. Choose the type of review you wish to write.
Rule 6. Keep the review focused and make t of broad interest
Rule 7. Be critical and consistent.
Rule 8. Find a logical structure.
Rule 9. Make use of feedback.
 For a coherent presentation, it is suggested to use phrases suggesting the ten
tative character of the research literature such as:

1. There appears to be strong evidence that.....

2. The literature has shown.....
3. The foregoing literatures have shown....
4. The data supporting the hypothesis are....

Index cards are among the most handy research tools ever invented Here's the ho
w of recording your sources' bibliographic information.

·Make a separate card for each source.

·Give each source a racking number.
·For a book include the author, title, date and pace of publication and publisher.
·For a periodical,also include the page numbers of the article.
·For a website, include the title, the sponsors and authors or editors, if known; the
site and date when it was created or update and the date when you accessed th
e site.

Using index cards will help facilitate the writing of and effective review of [Link]
tant features and contents can be outlined and recorded on these cards. Doing this will make
it easy for you, the researcher to organize and put together the needed information for this s
ection of the research paper.

[Link] you found the information

[Link]
[Link] information found
[Link] you found the fact on

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1
AN EXAMPLE OF AN INDEX CARD
Sample Literature Review Text(Https://[Link]/[Link].)
Aquino (1992) suggested the following contents and format in outlining
reviewed literature, particularly related studies in the form of a thesis or
dissertation
1) bibliographical entry of the material, which should be written on thetopm
ost left-had corner of the index card;
2) the problem or question of the research study being reviewed
3) the research design which includes description of the sources of data and
sample;methodology or instruments used, data gathering procedures and
statistical treatment applied;and
4) the results, conclusions and recommendations and analysis, comments and
reactions to the concerned areas.
Here is an example of a coherent review of literaure.

Literature Review of Relevant Research

The overall goals of this chapter were firstly to establish the significance of the general fiel
d of study, then identify a place where a new contribution could be made. The bulk of the
chapter was on critically evaluating the different methodologies used in this field so as to id
entify the appropriate approach for investigating the research question(s).
[Link] research territory. 1."Approximately 77,000 individuals are arrested in the
United States each year based primarily on
eyewitness testimony (ref.).... Given the pivotal
role that eyewitness testimony plays in some
trials, it is important to establish whether or not
the jury's faith in this testimony is warranted."

2. Establishes significance of ter 2."One study has shown that eyewitness errors are
ritory. the most common cause of false convictions
(ref.). Almost all innocent individuals exonerated
by DNA evidence had been convicted primarily
as a result of erroneous eyewitness evidence
(ref.) Consequently, a great deal of research
has focussed on the unreliability of eyewitness
testimony (refs.).”
[Link] research niche.(Briefly 3."The current thesis examines the third way that p
reviews what has been ostevent misinformation may be encountered:
found,and then identifies through other witnesses. This area has been
a gap. Discusses what has surprisingly neglected until recently, as the
been found,but points out majority of the literature on eyewitness testimony
inconsistency of results.) has focussed on the effect of questions and media
reports containing misleading information."

4. Motivates next part of literature 4."Yarmey and Morris (1998) suggest that, 'The cap
review. ricious results among these investigations
are probably due to methodological differences
and variability in subject matter' (p. 1638). To
appreciate the effects of co-witness information
on eyewitness reports, we must examine,in
detail,the different methodologies that have been
used to investigate this topic."
[Link] justifies the need to inv 5."Traditionally, researchers in memory have aimed to
estigate the impact of social keep procedures free from contamination, such as ot
influences on memory. her people's memories (ref.). However, such a narro
w focus may not fully explain how people
remember (ref.). Because such 'contamination'
is common to memory, understanding its effects
enables greater knowledge of memory itself (ref.)....
Therefore, instead of intentionally avoiding the social
aspects of memory,they should be explored in their
own right."

6. Reviews the chronological d 6. "While the above studies provide valuable

evelopment of research in information regarding the social aspects
of
this area (an approach that is
memory, cautionneeds to be exercised before
useful at times, but not always
applying these results to thejudicial [Link]
the best). Discusses one key
should not assume the results obtained from
paper at a time by describing
studies using stories and word lists as stimuli can
its methods and key findings,
be generalised to forensic contexts."... "That is,
but then identifies weaknesses
the differences found between individuals and
in the method and/or limitations in
groups could simply be due to the participants
the findings. Then discusses
giving their reports for a second time..."..."A
how the next researchers tried
limitation of this research on collaborative
to address these problems.
memory is that the memory of groups is compared with
that of individuals.... group performance
should not be compared with individual
performance but rather with 'nominal groups'
comprised of pooled, non-redundant data from th
e same number of people tested individually."
7. Repeats 6 for another sub-topic. 7....
8. Overall conclusion/summary wh 8."...Most research involving the Experimentally In
ich indicated why she duced Information methodology seeks to
was going to use a particular identify the influence of misinformation presented
methodological approach to her by one witness to another, and therefore the
research. assumption is made that discussion between
witnesses is a detrimental process. It may
therefore be advantageous to also investigate
the effects of co-witness information using Natural
Discussion Groups as this methodology has
high ecological [Link], few studies
have used this methodology, and those that have,
have yielded mixed [Link],future
investigation using the Natural Discussion Group
methodology would be helpful to better understand
the effects of discussion on memory."
LESSON 5 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN WRITING RELATED
LITERATURE

Ethics and Research

The most common way of defining ethics is that it refers to norms for conduct that distinguish between
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. It also refers to rules in making a distinction between right and
wrong such as the Golden Rule; a code of professional conduct like the Hippocrates' Oath; a religious
creed like the Ten Commandments or wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius in The Analects.
There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when doing a senior high
school research or an under graduate thesis. At the core, these ethical principles stress the need to a)
do good (known as beneficiaries) and b) do no harm (known as malfeasance). In practice, these ethical
principles means that as a researcher you need to a) obtain informed consent from potential research
participants b) minimize the risk of harm to participants c) protect their confidentiality and d) avoid
using deceptive practices and give participants the right to withdraw from your research.
Why is there a need for ethics? Some of the reasons forwarded are:

1. Norms promote the aims of research such as knowledge, truth and avoidance of error.
2. Norms promote the values that are essential to collaborative work such as trust,accountability,
mutual respect and fairness. They also protect intellectual property interests and encourage
confidentiality even in collaboration.
3. Norms ensure can researchers can be held accountable to the public. To a certain
extent, they draw parameters within which what ideas to write and how they should be written.
4. Norms promote a variety of other important moral and social values. Ethical lapses in research can
significantly harm human and animal subjects, students and the public.
5. Norms help to build public support for research. This happens when individuals and organizations
believe in the integrity and credibility of the researcher/s, they offer funding for the projects.

Definition of Terms
These terms related to the subject on ethical standards in writing a literature review will contribute
further to its understanding and importance. First is ethical relativism. It refers to the view that values
are relative in the sense that a person feels his/her value is better than any other person's value. Second
is ethical principles. The term refers to values that are translated into rules or standard of conduct.
Third is ethical dilemma .It entails a situation where there is a felt conflict between values or principles
and a choice of action needs to be decided.
Resnik (2015), in addition, has spelled out some rules in observing ethical standards in the review of
literature in research. They are as follows: there is a need to conduct the research accurately
·Report your findings with complete honesty.
·Do not misrepresent,mislead and/or intentionally misinterpret.
·Give appropriate credit when using other people's work.
Avoid plagiarism by fully acknowledging all contents belonging to others. To underscore plagiarism,
remember this - “If you quote or paraphrase another author's work without including a reference to
it,you are plagiarizing!"
 Research integrity means that a researcher uses word/s can be trusted as representative truthful
positions and statements. It carries special importance in qualitativeresearch,because the designs and
procedure for doing qualitative research are potentially more flexible than other kinds of research.
There is a need to conduct the research accurately and fairly. For instance,one sign of research integrity
is the willingness to be proven wrong or even to have your earlier thinking on a matter
challenged.(Yin,2011)
The American Psychological Associaton (APA) was one of the professional organizations to develop
ethical guidelines for research. The ethical principles are guides for minimizing risks to participants-risks
such as making participants uncomfortable or the researcher's probing into personal areas of
participants.
One safeguard built into these guidelines is this: It is the participant who decides to participate in the
research. The participant has the right to refuse or to disconnect the study at any time even after having
agreed to participate. The ethical researcher is bound to honor this right and can neither coerce nor
prevent participants from withdrawing (Graziano & Raulin,2000).
In view of this, researchers may not continue to gather data until they have gotten the
consent of the participant/s. it means that they should be provided with enough information about the study
so they can make informed decisions about their participation.
Another responsibility of the researcher in line with research ethics is to maintain confidentiality of
informations that were gathered from the participants. Such information may had been taken from personal
records such as hospital or school records. Code number may be used instead of the participants' names,
help protect participants confidentiality. The final ethical responsibility always rests with the researcher.

The Ethical Checks to Make Before Beginning the Study

The checklist aims to lead you, the researcher towards the observance of ethical standards.
1. Is the proposed research sufficiently well designed to be of informational value?
2. Does the research pose any risks to participants such as physical or psychological
harm by such means as the use of deception, obtaining sensitive, personal informa
tion, or using minors or others who cannot readily give consent as participants?
3. If risks are placed on participants, does the research adequately control those risks
by including such procedures as debriefing, removing or reducing risks of physical
harm,guaranteeing through the procedures that all information will be obtained ano
nymously or if that is not possible, guaranteeing that it will remain confidential, an
d providing special safeguards for minors and participants who may have impairme
nts?
4. Have I included a provision for obtaining informed consent from every participant
or,if participants cannot give it, from responsible people acting for the benefit of t
he participant? Will sufficient information be provided to potential participants so t
hey will be able to give their informed consent? Is there a clear agreement in wri
ting (the informed consent form) between the researcher and potential participants
? The informed consent should also make it clear that the participant is free to w
ithdraw from the experiment at any time.
[Link] I included adequate feedback information, including a debriefing if deception i
s used to be given to the participants at the completion of the study?
6. Do I accept my full responsibility for the ethical and safe treatment of all particip
ants by myself and all research assistants?
 LESSON 6 PRESENTING WRITTEN REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Preparing the written review of literature

After reading and taking down notes on the various sources collected you can now
prepare the final literature review. Reviews differ in format, but typically, they consist of
five parts as enumerated below (Fraenkel & Walles, 2010).
1. The introduction briefly describes the nature of the problem. The researcher also
explains what lead him/her to study and probe into the question and why it is
an important question to investigate.
2. The body of the review briefly reports what others have found or thought about
the research problem. Related studies are usually discussed together grouped un
der subhead to make the review easier to read.
3. The summary of the review ties together the main ideas revealed in the literatur
e reviewed and presents a composite picture of what is known or thought to date
.Findings may be tabulated to give the reader ideas of how many other researcher
s have reported identical or similar findings or have similar recommendations.
4. Any conclusions the researcher feels are justified based on the state of knowledge r
evealed in the literature should be included.
5. A bibliography with full bibliographic data for all sources mentioned in the review is
essential. Use the format suggested for reference lists.
Your review of literature may be presented as a stand-alone, or embedded in the disc
ussion or segmented into a series or chapters of several topics. The review must be shaped
by a focus on the key areas of interest which provides a background of the topic. It shou
ld be selective.A common mistake in presenting the review is to comment on everything yo
u have read regardless of its relevance to your writing. Think of the review as a funnel-star
t wide with the review and then quickly narrow down into discussing materials that relate
to your topic ([Link]/lls/llonline/writing/general/lit-reviews/[Link]/
For qualitative research, your goal to review and report in greater detail about specific
array of precious studies directly related to your topic of study.
Literature review is not concernedabout discovering new knowledge. But what other pe
ople have written on the subject. Central interest is always on the data collected on the th
eories put together by recognized experts in the field.

Structure of the Literature Review

The overall structure of your review will depend largely on your study or research are
[Link] together and compare and contrast the differing opinions of the writers on certain
[Link] structure should consider topic areas, controversial issues or questions to which
theme are varying approaches and theories. Within each section, discuss what the different
literature argues and link these to your purpose or study.
Linking words are important when grouping similar opinions you may use words or phr
ases such as in addition, again, similarly,also
If there is disagreement, indicate this, using linkers such as humans, conversely, in cont
rast, at the end of the review, include a summary of what the literature implies, linking lit
erature review to your hypothesis or main question.
Remember: A good literature review needs a clear line of argument. Use your critical
notes.
Your review must be written in a formal, academic. Keep your writing clear and concis
[Link] to be objective and respectful of others'opinions use words tactfully.
Go over the draft of your literature review and find out if the following criteria have
been observed. A good literature review shown the following characteristics:
·Focused-it presents only ideas and reports on studies that are closely related to th
e topic.
·Concise-the ideas should be presented economically.
·Logical - the flow within and among paragraphs should be a smooth,logical progres
sion from one idea to the next.
·Developed-the ideas are fully and completely written.
·Integrative - it shows how ideas are related and how all reviewed materials contri
bute to your topic.
·Current-it exhibits up-to-date information related to your study.
Critical Evaluation of the Literature
Finally, after having written the review of related literature, use the questio
ns below for critiquing what you have done.
1. Have you organized your material according to issues?
2. Is there a logic to the way you organized your material?
3. Does the amount of detail included on an issue relate to its importance?
4. Have you been sufficiently critical of design and methodological issues?
5. Have you indicated when results were conflicting or inconclusive and discuss
ed possible reasons?
6. Have you indicated the relevance of each reference to your research?
 Sample of a Written Literature Review (Short Version)

Thesis Statement: Service-learning programs implemented in American

undergraduate universities since 2000 have not only proven beneficial for the
individuals or organizations being served but also for the participating students by
offering opportunities for academic, emotional, and social growth.
Prior studies have identified many benefits for educational institutions from
service-learning programs. These benefits include positive perceptions of the
university by the community (Miron & Moely, 2006), enhanced student retention
rates (Eyler et al., 2001), positive teaching and learning outcomes such as greater
student involvement and participation in class (Caruso et al., 2007), and increased
opportunities for meaningful research and scholarly activities (Strand et al., 2003).
In this study and related research, the individuals serving are university students who
are collaborating with the community partner. The studied benefits to individuals
serving include cultural awareness sharing (Crabtree, 2008), as well as networking
opportunities and application of classroom learning to real-world issues (Bowen et
al., 2009). Ultimately, service-learning stimulates student learning and engages
students in their surrounding communities. Service learning creates new goals for
students such as personal development, career development, moral development,
academic achievement, and "reflective civic participation" (Lamb et al., 1998). These
types of projects allow students to utilize material learned in the classroom to improve
societal conditions. Integrating concepts and theories learned in the classroom with
everyday life makes students more capable of highlighting the importance of each
course. Additionally, material learned in business courses can be applied to benefit
the community through a variety of tangible services, such as business planning or
marketing new programs. Service learning is an excellent way for students to apply
their course lessons to real-world situations and concurrently benefit the community.

Review of Related Literature

The scholarly works provided in this section were adopted from the renowned authors conducting
similar studies on career choice of students. The intellectual contributions of these people in the world of
academics were explored to substantiate the present research study on career choice of students: basis for
curricular offering of senior high schools in Region XI.
For clarity, the term career choice is defined to include broad opportunities that exist for life-long vocations.
Theses vocations are set out in a framework of strategies moving toward personal goals (Kerka, 2007). On
the other hand, fields of career in vocational, academic,and sociological endeavours are explored in the
study of Oyamo (2008) for the purpose of satisfying personal, economic, and intellectual goals.
As mentioned by Khami (2008), exploration of career choices should be a positive endeavour for high
school students. A thoughtfully constructed career choice process will provide a meaningful, productive,
satisfying quality of career choices. Along with the same way,Mcquid (2006) suggested that a career choice
process or outline might provide better answers than making life decisions based on 18 years of experience.
Stebleton (2007) noted that career choice is a complex decision for students since it determines the kind
of profession that they intend to pursue in life. As students try to make career choicewhile in secondary
school, they face problem of matching their career choices with their abilities and school performance. Such
scepticism of students is backed up by Pumme1 (2008) who signified that their decisions will be influenced
by the environment,parents'educational backgrouand, personality, opportunity and economic.
In the context of career selection, Dlamani (2007) accentuated that one of many important choices
students will make in determining future plans is o select a career. In the same manner,Hall (2010) elucidated
that the essence of who the student is will revolve around what the student wants to do with their life-long
work. Along with the same vein, Arudo (2008) believed that every student carries the unique history of their
past and environment, personality, and opportunity, will determine how students make career choices.
Anent to this, Duffy (2009)explicated that student perceives their environment, personality, and opportunity
will determine his/her career choices to be made.
Throughout a career, Natalie (2006) explained that individual seeks to accommodate the environment
with one's goals, while at the same time being incorporated into the [Link] the other hand,
Abdullah (2009) indicated that career development is the balancing of recognizing and meeting needs of the
individual while at the same time responding to the outer forces and realities of life. In like manner, Myburgh
(2005) enumerated career decision factors,the self and the world of work.
The individual in a career has constantly balanced one's aspirations and how they have fitted into the
reality of the workplace (Cvanagh, 2008). According to Perrone (2007), man's occupation determines the
kind of person he becomes since, through his waking hours,his cognitions about himself, his wants and goals,
and his interpersonal response traits are [Link] (2006) once said that informal and formal
knowledge provided through society and environment has focused on the acquisition, retention, and
utilization of information pertaining to the world.
On one hand, Taylor (2006) implied that personal values and desires have seldom been realized without
the active and conscious efforts on the part of the student. The student must be motivated to
orchestrate the outcome. If the student wants to work in the career choice process,the student must
know and understand the realities of that process. Perrone (2009) averred that a student develops a
practical plan of action to get what they want from the decisions of their career choice.
In modern times, one has not only to make due career planning but also exhaustive career research
before making a career choice so as to adjust with the revolving socio-economic conditions (Wattles,
2009). He made mentioned that career choice is influenced by multiple factors including personality,
interests, self concept, cultural identity, globalization,socialization, role model, social support and
available resources such as information and financial. According to Hewitt (2010), factors influencing
career choice can either be intrinsic or extrinsic or both. He further stated that most people are
influenced by careers that their parents' favour, others follow the careers that their educational choices
have opened for them,some choose to follow their passion regardless of how much or little it will make
them while others choose the careers that give high income.

Source: Diamante, Roberto. Career choice of students: Basis for curricular offering
of senior high schools in Region X1. PAFTE Research Journal, October, 2
015.