Opifex fuscus
Opifex fuscus, known commonly as the saltpool mosquito, is a species of mosquito that is endemic to New
Zealand. This species was first described in taxonomic literature in 1902 by Frederick Hutton. The mosquitoes
occur on the coast, where the larvae live in rock pools within the spray zone.
To cope with their habitat, the larvae are able to tolerate a wide
Opifex fuscus
range of water salt concentrations. As adults they feed on blood
whereas the larvae feed on algae and decomposing matter. The
larvae have mouthparts that specialise towards either filter feeding
or grazing, depending on what food source is available. They are
widespread throughout the rocky coasts of New Zealand but have
been displaced from the Otago region by the introduced species
Aedes australis. The males wait on the surface of the rock pools
and mate with female pupae before they mature into adults.
The larvae of this species are also known to be infected by the
fungus Coelomomyces psorophorae, which uses copepods as
Male Opifex fuscus
intermediate hosts. In laboratory studies, O. fuscus is capable of
spreading the Whataroa virus, but is not known to spread any Scientific classification
diseases in nature. They are also known by the Māori name naeroa,
Kingdom: Animalia
which is generally applied to mosquitoes as a whole.
Phylum: Arthropoda
Taxonomy
Class: Insecta
Opifex fuscus was first described in taxonomic literature in 1902 by
Order: Diptera
Frederick Hutton from a specimen collected in Wellington by
George Vernon Hudson.[1] In Latin, fuscus means 'darkly Family: Culicidae
coloured'.[2] It was the first species to be described from the genus
Tribe: Aedini
Opifex, of which it is the type species, meaning it is the species on
which Opifex is based. It was initially categorised as a crane fly, Genus: Opifex
although Hutton noted it looked like a mosquito.[1] Hutton did not
Species: O. fuscus
specify a type specimen (the specimen on which the species
description is based), so a specimen collected by Hudson was later Binomial name
assigned as the type specimen, termed a lectotype, by another
Opifex fuscus
researcher. This type specimen is stored in the Canterbury
Hutton, 1902
Museum in Christchurch.[3]
In 1921, David Miller stated that Hudson had informed him O. fuscus was in fact a mosquito, rather than a
crane fly.[4] In the same year, Frederick Edwards examined specimens presented to the Natural History
Museum of London by Hudson and confirmed that the species was in fact a mosquito and that it belonged in
the subfamily Culicinae.[5] In 1922, Miller followed up with a revision of the species and designated it as its
own subfamily, the Opificinae.[6] Just two years later, however, this subfamily was recognised to the be the
same as Culicinae by Edwards.[7] The species last had a major revision in 1968, in which the mosquito was
described in greater detail and assigned to the Aedini group on the basis of its more primitive
characteristics.[3] It is commonly referred to as the "saltpool mosquito".[8] The Māori word naeroa refers to
mosquitoes, which includes Opifex fuscus.[9]
Adult
Larva
Description
As adults, they can be distinguished from the rest of New Zealand's mosquitoes by the presence and absence
of certain bristles on the abdomen, the shape of the antennae and the absence of scales on the upper surface
of the head.[3][10]
The adults are stocky, generally greyish in colour and are roughly 5 mm (0.2 in) in length.[6][3] The antennae are
blackish and have three long bristles near their base. The upper surface of the head does not have scales that
stick out. Like many other mosquitoes, they have a long proboscis, a straw-like mouthpart for sucking blood.
The legs are brownish black, with the first pair of legs in the male having very long claws. The thorax, the
middle section of the body, is blackish and is coated with gold and black hairs on top. The abdomen is a black
brown colour and is covered in blackish bristles and whitish scales.[6] Due to the water-repellent body hairs, the
mosquito can tolerate being doused in water. In flight, they make a slight buzzing sound.[11]
Pupa
The thorax of the pupae, the juvenile stage where the mosquitoes are in a cocoon-like structure, has a ridge
that is divided by a groove-like depression, which is used in mating.[12][6] The appendages used in respiration
are near the middle of the thorax and have spines on the upper surface. The segments of the abdomen are
visible and well defined. Abdominal segments one to six have long spines on their upper surfaces.[6]
Larva
The different instars, or phases between moults, of the larvae can be distinguished by the size of the head
capsule.[11] In their final instar before pupating, the larvae are about 12.5 mm (0.49 in) in length. They are
coloured blackish brown but are sometimes also greenish. Near the tip of abdomen there is a structure termed
the siphon, which is a straw-like organ used for breathing air and has a small pair of hair tufts just above the
middle. This structure splits off making it appear like the abdomen divides in half at the tip. The abdomen ends
with a segment referred to as the anal segment. On this segment there is the anal plate, a platelike structure
that occupies most of the segment, and a series of conspicuous tufts of hair. The head has brownish maxillae
(mouthparts).[6] The head also has mouth brushes that come in two forms, with each larva only having one
type. In the first form, the brushes have simple hairs whereas in the second, the hairs are pectinate, having
small branches protruding off them.[11] A scanning electron microscope study found all brushes bear pectinate
hairs to some degree, indicating a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy.[13] The thorax is slightly wider
than the head and has a distinctive pattern of small hairs. There are tufts of hair on the segments of the
abdomen, with longer tufts at the beginning of the abdomen.[6]
Egg
The eggs' dimensions are 0.3 mm by 0.5 mm (0.01 by 0.02 in) and they are ovoid in shape. They are brownish
to blackish in colour but are somewhat transparent. The underside of the egg is flattened. Sections of the egg
have protuberances that stick to surfaces.[14]
Distribution and habitat
This species is only found in New Zealand and occurs throughout the rocky coastline of the entire North Island
and most of the South Island.[3] In the south east of the South Island, they co-occur with Aedes australis, an
exotic species which also utilises rock pools. It has been suggested that A. australis competes with O. fuscus
and has displaced it in this region.[15] The distribution of O. fuscus also includes nearby small islands such as
the Three Kings Islands, the Mokohinau Islands and White Island.[3][16] In addition, populations have been
recorded in the much further away Kermadec Islands and the subantarctic Snares Islands.[17][18]
Habitat
Typical salt pool habitat of Opifex fuscus
The salt pool mosquitoes occur in rocky coastal habitat. The larvae are found in rock pools that occur within
the spray zone above the high tide of the coast. Due to the water evaporating and leaving behind salt, these
pools tend to develop high salt concentrations. The larvae occur in both permanent and temporary rock pools
which are refreshed by rain and spray from the ocean.[19][12] They have also been recorded from pools in
freshwater streams and from a horse water trough, although these are not typical examples.[20][3]
The larvae tolerate a wide range of salinities. In the field, pools containing larvae have been recorded up to
~9% (≈2.6× normal seawater of ~3.5%) and down to ~0.40%. In laboratory work, third and fourth-instar larvae
withstood step increases to 7%, with occasional individuals to 10.5%, and in an evaporation trial moulting and
pupation ceased by ~13%. The remaining larvae died by ~16.5%.[19] Another study reported a single larva
surviving in 1.25× seawater.[21] In one study, the permeability of the cuticle was much lower than that of
mosquitoes that live in freshwater. It was suggested that this is an adaptation for surviving the high salinity of
salt pools.[22] The adults are also frequently observed on or near rock pools occupied by larvae, with the males
commonly seen floating on the surface of the pools.[19][12] Within the salt pools that they occupy, the copepod
Tigriopus fulvus, a small crustacean, is often present.[23]
Diet
Adult females of this species feed on the blood of birds and humans.[24] They will feed by day and night but are
most active during the day. Unlike other mosquito species, the female generally does not require a blood meal
to produce their first batch of eggs due to their large energy reserves from their larval stage. After producing
their first eggs, they will begin feeding on blood.[14] However, this was contradicted by one study, in which
females were only able to lay eggs after feeding on sugar water. This may indicate that if they have insufficient
energy reserves (such as when they receive little food as larvae), they may need to feed before laying eggs.[25]
In lab conditions, the females would spend 5 to 12 minutes feeding on human blood.[14]
Based on gut contents, the larvae feed primarily on various algae and decomposing matter. As the larvae get
bigger, they feed on larger food particles. However, they are also reported to occasionally cannibalise injured
mosquito larvae when food is scarce.[26][6] By the time they emerge as adults, they have unusually high levels
of fat when compared to other mosquitoes.[14]
The type of mouth brush that the larvae possess appears to be determined by the type of food available. In
one study, larvae reared on fish food developed pectinate brushes, whereas those reared on blood serum only
had simple brushes. It appears that simple brushes are best suited for filter feeding, whereas the pectinate
brush are best suited for grazing.[27]
Life history
Females use their ovipositor (pointed structure that deposits eggs) to lay their eggs on the damp edges of rock
pools, which can extend up to 5 cm (2 in) from the water's surface. Typically, the eggs are laid inside cracks
and crevices, but other coastal debris may also be utilised when there are limited egg-laying spots available.
When at a suitable site, the female tucks its abdomen under its thorax and lays six to ten eggs. Because the
rock pools fluctuate in water levels and may even be temporary, it is risky for larvae to hatch at the wrong time.
To prevent this, they hatch when the water level is high, detected by changes in oxygen levels, and can
potentially delay hatching for months if the conditions are not suitable.[19] Upon hatching, the larvae leave the
egg shell head first.[14] In lab conditions, the females have been recorded laying up to 100 eggs, but around 30
eggs laid was more typical. Egg laying begins in just under two weeks from emergence.[25]
The larvae have four instar stages to pass through before pupating.[11] The rate at which the larvae grow can
be quite variable. In one study (in lab conditions), it was found that it took larvae 10 to 30 days to reach the
pupal stage.[14] The growth rate depends heavily on environmental factors such as temperature and light
exposure. In laboratory conditions, larvae grown at 25°C (77°F) matured faster than larvae at 13°C (55°F). The
final instar before pupating takes the longest amount of time and is also the largest increase in biomass.[19]
Once in the pupae stage they do not feed. Few larvae pupate during the winter months (June to August), with
September being the time of year when pupae were most abundant in one study.[28] As in the larval stage, the
pupation stage varies in length and appears to be dependent on the environment. It has been recorded taking
as little as 72 hours and as long as 12 days.[14] The females are recorded emerging into adults within five to
thirty minutes after capture for mating by the male.[19] In the North Island, adults can be found all year.
However, in the South Island, the adults are apparently absent during winter.[3]
Males congregating on the surface of a
pool
Mating
Opifex fuscus has an unusual mating system when compared to other mosquitoes. Females mate extremely
early, usually at the time of emergence. Before newly emerged males can begin mating, they must rotate their
terminalia (the terminal segments of the abdomen, which are modified into external genitalia) to at least 135
degrees, which may take up to five hours—unusually quick for mosquitoes. The males typically begin looking
for females around 6 to 24 hours after emerging.[29]
The males wait on the surface of saltwater pools that contain larvae of their species. Once a larva pupates it
will float to the surface. The male will then grab the pupae using its front legs with claws that are modified to
be extremely long. The males can detect the pupae by eyesight and possibly vibrations caused by the pupae
reaching the surface. When the male is in contact with a pupa, it submerges its head underwater, which is
covered in hydrophobic hairs to protect it. The male then bends its abdomen to the pupa and inserts its
terminalia into a groove in the pupae. Once the terminalia is locked into place with the groove, the male lets go
of its front legs. Around ten to twenty minutes later, the pupa begins to emerge into an adult. The male will slot
its abdomen into the pupal case to assist with emergence, which takes up to five minutes. If the emerging
mosquito is female, then the male will come into contact with its terminalia and transfer spermatozoa, often
before it has even left its pupal case.[12] If the adult emerging from the pupa is male, then it will disengage and
attempt to find another pupa, often within a few seconds of capture. It is very rare for these mosquitoes to
emerge without the assistance of males, although it is possible. [19]
One potential cause for this mating system is that the females apparently only need to mate once, whilst
males will mate many times.[12] Because of this, there is strong competition among males for mating. The
selective pressure from this competition may have caused the evolution of the early mating system in this
species. There is evidence that larger males tend to be able to mate with more females than smaller males do,
which suggests that mating for this species is non-random.[30] This pupal mating system is extremely rare, but
the mosquito Deinocerites cancer has a similar system.[31]
Parasites
The larvae can be infected by Coelomomyces psorophorae, a parasitic fungus that completes an earlier part of
its life cycle inside small aquatic crustaceans called copepods before infecting mosquito larvae.[32] It was first
discovered infecting Opifex fuscus larvae in Otago.[33] The fungus also infects Aedes australis, which co-occurs
with O. fuscus in some parts of New Zealand. The fungus is far more effective at infecting the former. In
O. fuscus, the natural infection rates have been found to be as high as 47.3%.[32]
Disease transmission
Opifex fuscus has not been recorded transmitting diseases in the wild. However, in laboratory conditions it has
successfully acted as a host of the Whataroa virus, New Zealand's only mosquito-borne virus.[34][35] In another
study, it was found that O. fuscus could act as a disease vector for some other alphaviruses.[36]
References
1. Hutton, F W (1902). "Additions to the Diptera fauna of New Zealand" ([Link]
6) . Transactions of the New Zealand Institute. 34: 188–189. ISSN 0035-9181 ([Link]
g/issn/0035-9181) .
2. "fuscus" ([Link] . [Link]. Retrieved 2025-09-18.
3. Belkin, J N (1968). "Mosquito studies (Diptera, Culicidae) VII. The Culicidae of New Zealand" ([Link]
[Link]/reference/286155) . Contributions of the American Entomological Institute. 3 (1): 84–88.
ISSN 0569-4450 ([Link] .
4. Miller, D; Smith, W W (1921). "The 'new' coastal mosquito" ([Link]
-40d4-8f1f-8bf88b72fe8d) . New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology. 4: 144. ISSN 0375-0140 (htt
ps://[Link]/issn/0375-0140) .
5. Edwards, F W (1921). "Mosquito notes 2" ([Link]
580be39fe) . Bulletin of Entomological Research. 12: 69–80. ISSN 0111-7696 ([Link]
g/issn/0111-7696) .
6. Miller, D (1922). "A remarkable mosquito, Opifex fuscus Hutton" ([Link]
-c1f0-4348-867a-8f161fe722ee) . Bulletin of Entomological Research. 13: 115–126.
doi:10.1017/S0007485300045284 ([Link] . ISSN 0111-7696
([Link] .
7. Edwards, F W (1924). "A synopsis of the adult mosquitoes of the Australasian region" ([Link]
[Link]/detail/8da96944-40e1-4d66-86b2-04bc8594bd69) . Bulletin of Entomological Research. 14 (4):
367. doi:10.1017/S0007485300045624 ([Link] . ISSN 0111-
7696 ([Link] .
8. Ferro, D N; Lowe, A D; Ordish, R G; Somerfield, K G; Watt, J C (1977). "Standard names for common insects
of New Zealand" ([Link] .
Entomological Society of New Zealand Bulletin. 4: 15. ISSN 0111-7696 ([Link]
111-7696) .
9. Miller, D (1952). "The insect people of the Maori" ([Link] . The Journal
of the Polynesian Society. 61 (1/2): 26. ISSN 0032-4000 ([Link] .
JSTOR 20703320 ([Link] .
10. Snell, A E (2005). "Identification keys to larval and adult female mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of New
Zealand" ([Link]
e) . New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 32 (2): 99–110. Bibcode:2005NZJZ...32...99S ([Link]
[Link]/abs/2005NZJZ...32...99S) . doi:10.1080/03014223.2005.9518401 ([Link]
F03014223.2005.9518401) . ISSN 0301-4223 ([Link] .
11. Marks, E N (1958). "Notes on Opifex fuscus Hutton (Diptera: Culicidae) and the scope for further research
on it" ([Link] . New Zealand
Entomologist. 2 (2): 20–25. Bibcode:1958NZEnt...2...20M ([Link]
t...2...20M) . doi:10.1080/00779962.1958.9722758 ([Link]
8) . ISSN 0077-9962 ([Link] .
12. Slooten, E; Lambert, D M (1983). "Evolutionary studies of the New Zealand coastal mosquito Opifex
fuscus (Hutton) I. mating behaviour" ([Link] . Behaviour. 84 (1/2): 157–
172. doi:10.1163/156853983X00336 ([Link] . ISSN 0005-7959
([Link] . JSTOR 4534240 ([Link]
0) .
13. Manning, D L (1978). "Mouthparts of larvae of Opifex fuscus and Aedes australis (Diptera: Culicidae); a
scanning electron microscope study" ([Link]
18bef#1) . New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 5 (4): 801–806. doi:10.1080/03014223.1978.10423822 (htt
ps://[Link]/10.1080%2F03014223.1978.10423822) . ISSN 0301-4223 ([Link]
n/0301-4223) .
14. Haeger, J S; Provost, M W (1965). "Colonization and biology of Opifex fuscus" ([Link]
tail/97c455f8-ab44-4af5-b69e-9cc2e7ca7372) . Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand:
Zoology. 6: 21–31. ISSN 0035-9181 ([Link] .
15. Laird, M (1995). "Background and findings of the 1993–94 New Zealand mosquito survey" ([Link]
[Link]/doi/abs/10.1080/00779962.1995.9722010) . New Zealand Entomologist. 18 (1): 83–84.
Bibcode:1995NZEnt..18...77L ([Link] .
doi:10.1080/00779962.1995.9722010 ([Link] .
ISSN 0077-9962 ([Link] .
16. Wise, K A J (1970). "On the terrestrial invertebrate fauna of White Island, New Zealand" ([Link]
[Link]/detail/8536965f-1a57-4274-b577-f6a1ebe08a24) . Records of the Auckland Institute and Museum.
7: 226. Archived ([Link]
5f-1a57-4274-b577-f6a1ebe08a24) from the original on 2024-12-08. Retrieved 2025-08-04.
17. Watt, J C (1971). "Ectoparasitic insects on birds and mammals of the Kermadec Islands" ([Link]
[Link]/detail/7f96991b-f002-43eb-bb3a-ab131ec3f6d2) . Notornis. 18 (4): 239.
doi:10.63172/761643rdhmob ([Link] . ISSN 0029-4470 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/0029-4470) .
18. Snell, A (2005). "The discovery of the exotic mosquito Ochlerotatus australis and the endemic Opifex
fuscus (Diptera: Culicidae) on North East Island, Snares Islands" ([Link]
repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=b071c4ad11ec3038088c1db0cb9a9bafc428f5ab) . The Weta. 30: 10–13.
ISSN 0111-7696 ([Link] . Archived ([Link]
20240418041516/[Link]
8088c1db0cb9a9bafc428f5ab) from the original on 2024-04-18. Retrieved 2025-07-18.
19. McGregor, D D (1965). "Aspects of the biology of Opifex fuscus Hutton (Diptera: Culicidae)" ([Link]
[Link]/viewer/c950b5f6-e8e1-40d2-a33d-bb29e62dd101#2) . Proceedings of the Royal
Entomological Society of London. Series A, General Entomology. 40 (1–3): 9–14. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
3032.1965.tb00293.x ([Link] . ISSN 0375-0418 (http
s://[Link]/issn/0375-0418) .
20. Dumbleton, L J (1962). "A new species and new subgenus of Aedes (Diptera: Culicidae) from New
Zealand" ([Link] . New Zealand
Journal of Science. Wellington. 5 (1): 17–27. ISSN 0028-8365 ([Link]
5) .
21. Nicolson, S W (1972). "Osmoregulation in larvae of the New Zealand salt-water mosquito Opifex fuscus
Hutton" ([Link] . Journal of
Entomology Series A, General Entomology. 47 (1): 101–108. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3032.1972.tb00013.x (htt
ps://[Link]/10.1111%2Fj.1365-3032.1972.tb00013.x) . ISSN 1365-3032 ([Link]
sn/1365-3032) .
22. Nicolson, S W; Leader, J P (1974). "The permeability to water of the cuticle of the larva of Opifex fuscus
(Hutton) (Diptera, Culicidae)" ([Link]
ermeability-to-Water-of-the-Cuticle-of-the?redirectedFrom=fulltext) . Journal of Experimental Biology. 60
(3): 593–603. Bibcode:1974JExpB..60..593N ([Link]
N) . doi:10.1242/jeb.60.3.593 ([Link] . ISSN 0022-0949 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/0022-0949) . PMID 4152585 ([Link] .
23. Nye, E R; McGregor, D D (1964). "Mosquitoes of Otago" ([Link]
4cf-ba47-3db905259567) . Records of the Otago Museum. 1 (1): 14.
24. Tenquist, J D; Charleston, W A G (1981). "An annotated checklist of ectoparasites of terrestrial mammals
in New Zealand" ([Link] . Journal of
the Royal Society of New Zealand. 11 (3): 257–285. Bibcode:1981JRSNZ..11..257T ([Link]
[Link]/abs/1981JRSNZ..11..257T) . doi:10.1080/03036758.1981.10421840 ([Link]
2F03036758.1981.10421840) . ISSN 0303-6758 ([Link] .
25. Snell, A E; Knox, R L; Cane, R P (2010). "Aspects of nutrition and oviposition in the endemic rockpool
mosquito Opifex fuscus Hutton (Diptera: Culicidae)" ([Link]
79962.2010.9722194) . New Zealand Entomologist. 33 (1): 79–83. Bibcode:2010NZEnt..33...79S (https://
[Link]/abs/2010NZEnt..33...79S) . doi:10.1080/00779962.2010.9722194 ([Link]
g/10.1080%2F00779962.2010.9722194) . ISSN 0077-9962 ([Link]
2) .
26. McGregor, D D (1962). Studies on the ecology of some supralittoral pools with special reference to the
biology of Opifex fuscus Hutton (Diptera: Culicidae) ([Link]
89a3-2851faa5dea2) . MSC (Hons) thesis, University of Canterbury. 83
27. McGregor, D D (1963). "Mouth-brush dimorphism in larvae of Opifex fuscus Hutton (Diptera, Culicidae)" (ht
tps://[Link]/core/journals/bulletin-of-entomological-research/article/abs/mouthbrush-dim
orphism-in-larvae-of-opifex-fuscus-hutton-diptera-culicidae/30A2CED8796CBC80BE1D3CF0D44C3791) .
Bulletin of Entomological Research. 54 (2): 325–327. doi:10.1017/S0007485300048811 ([Link]
0.1017%2FS0007485300048811) . ISSN 1475-2670 ([Link] .
Archived ([Link]
tin-of-entomological-research/article/abs/mouthbrush-dimorphism-in-larvae-of-opifex-fuscus-hutton-dipt
era-culicidae/30A2CED8796CBC80BE1D3CF0D44C3791) from the original on 2024-07-10. Retrieved
2025-07-27.
28. Kirk, H B (1923). "Notes on the mating-habits and early life-history of the culicid Opifex fuscus Hutton" (htt
ps://[Link]/detail/b4f9f500-c17e-4def-b2a7-62372b829f0e) . Transactions and Proceedings of
the New Zealand Institute. 54: 400–406. ISSN 0035-9181 ([Link] .
29. Provost, M W; Haeger, J S (1967). "Mating and pupal attendance in Deinocerites cancer and comparisons
with Opifex fuscus (Diptera: Culicidae)" ([Link]
0?redirectedFrom=fulltext) . Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 60 (3): 565–574.
doi:10.1093/aesa/60.3.565 ([Link] . ISSN 0013-8746 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/0013-8746) .
30. Slooten, E; Lambert, D M (1984). "Evolutionary studies of the New Zealand coastal mosquito Opifex
fuscus (Hutton) II. competition for mates" ([Link]
l) . Behaviour. 88 (1–2): 1–12. doi:10.1163/156853984X00443 ([Link]
00443) . ISSN 0005-7959 ([Link] . Archived ([Link]
org/web/20210512082448/[Link] from the
original on 2021-05-12. Retrieved 2021-05-12.
31. Provost, M W; Haeger, J S (1967). "Mating and Pupal Attendance in Deinocerites cancer and Comparisons
with Opifex fuscus (Diptera: Culicidae)" ([Link]
a/60.3.565) . Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 60 (3): 565–574.
doi:10.1093/aesa/60.3.565 ([Link] . ISSN 1938-2901 ([Link]
[Link]/issn/1938-2901) . Archived ([Link]
[Link]/aesa/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/aesa/60.3.565) from the original on 2024-07-10.
Retrieved 2025-09-18.
32. Wong, T L; Pillai, J S (1978). "Coelomomyces opifexi Pillai & Smith (Coelomomycetaceae: Blastocladiales)
IV. Host range and relative susceptibility of Aedes australis and Opifex fuscus larvae" ([Link]
080%2F03014223.1978.10423823) . New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 5 (4): 807–810.
doi:10.1080/03014223.1978.10423823 ([Link] .
ISSN 0301-4223 ([Link] .
33. Pillai, J S; Smith, J M B (1968). "Fungal pathogens of mosquitoes in New Zealand: I. Coelomomyces
opifexi sp. n., on the mosquito Opifex fuscus Hutton" ([Link]
s/pii/0022201168901651) . Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 11 (2): 316–320.
Bibcode:1968JInvP..11..316P ([Link] .
doi:10.1016/0022-2011(68)90165-1 ([Link] .
ISSN 0022-2011 ([Link] . PMID 4386160 ([Link]
[Link]/4386160) .
34. Holder, P; Bullians, M; Brown, G (1999). "The mosquitoes of New Zealand and their animal disease
significance" ([Link] . Surveillance. 26
(4): 12–15. ISSN 0112-4927 ([Link] .
35. Tompkins, D M; Paterson, R; Massey, B; Gleeson, D M (2010). "Whataroa virus four decades on: emerging,
persisting, or fading out?" ([Link]
ccess=true) . Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 40 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2010JRSNZ..40....1T (htt
ps://[Link]/abs/2010JRSNZ..40....1T) . doi:10.1080/03036751003641701 ([Link]
rg/10.1080%2F03036751003641701) . ISSN 0303-6758 ([Link] .
36. Kramer, L D; Chin, P; Cane, R P; Kauffman, E B; Mackereth, G (2011). "Vector competence of New Zealand
mosquitoes for selected arboviruses" ([Link]
l) . The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 85 (1): 182–189. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2011.11-
0078 ([Link] . ISSN 0002-9637 ([Link]
sn/0002-9637) . PMC 3122365 ([Link] .
PMID 21734146 ([Link] . Archived ([Link]
20241208222208/[Link] from the original
on 2024-12-08. Retrieved 2025-07-19.
External links
Opifex fuscus was discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week, 11 February 2022 ([Link]
programmes/afternoons/galleries/cotw-naeroa-saltpool-mosquito)
Te Papa blog post on the mating system of Opifex fuscus 20 October 2017 ([Link]
7/10/20/new-zealands-weirdest-mosquitoes-the-impatient-males/?cn-reloaded=1)
Te Papa blog post on New Zealand mosquito bites [1] ([Link]
d-watch-play/new-zealand-mosquito-census/mosquito-facts/which-species)