BLOCK 3

ENERGY RESOURCES

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BLOCK 3 ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy plays an important role in our daily life, therefore, the significance
of energy in human activities can best be appreciated, when it is realized
that energy is involved in everything that happens on the Earth. It is one
of the most important components of economic infrastructure and energy
resources are very much necessary for the existence of mankind. Like other
natural resources, energy resources are also renewable as well as non-
renewable. Fossil fuels are the major energy resource in the world. Fossil
fuels provide 85-90% of the energy demand of the present industrialized
world. Three fossil fuels predominate, coal, oil, and natural gas - all of
which are non-renewable. Renewable energy resources are mostly biomass-
based and are available in unlimited amount in nature since these can be
renewed (i.e. regenerated in natural process) over relatively short period of
time. Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible, i.e. they can be replaced
after we use them and can produce energy again and again i.e. biomass (as
agricultural wastes like bagasse), animal dung, solar energy, wind energy,
water energy (hydro-electrical, ocean wave and tidal energy), and geothermal
energy. Non-renewable energy resources are available in limited amount and
develop over a longer period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are
likely to be exhausted one day. These include various fossil fuels including
petroleum products, coal and natural gas and nuclear energy. To utilize the
abundantly available solar energy you need the devices/systems which can
collect the incident solar radiation and convert it into a useful form of energy.
Hydropower is the power generated from water stored at a height. It works
on the principle of converting potential energy stored at a height into kinetic
energy to rotate turbines and then again converting the mechanical energy of
turbine into the electrical energy utilizing generator.

Unit 9 “Introduction to Energy Resources” explains “sources of energy and

their classification, describe Non - renewable energy sources, explain energy
use pattern in India and their impact on the Environment

Unit 10 “Conventional Energy Resources” gives an idea of importance of

energy resources in our life, conventional energy resources and different
sources of conventional energy. It describes the present energy resources
scenario in India, characteristics, and potential of Non-renewable energy
sources.

Unit 11 ‘Solar and Hydropower Energy’ covers the working principle,

types of hydropower systems for harnessing the solar energy, various ways
for utilization of solar harnessed solar energy, and the advantages and
disadvantages of various solar energy systems.

Unit 12 “Wind Energy and Geothermal Energy” defines sustainable energy

and importance of sustainable energy, describe wind energy, geothermal
energy, and Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES), describe harnessing of
energy (wind and geothermal energy) and its advantage.

Unit 13 “Bioenergy” defines bioenergy and its major forms, sources for
biomass and emerging feedstock sources, challenges in meeting the demands 191
for bioenergy, social, economic, ecological and environmental impacts of
bioenergy, and explain India’s National Policy on Biofuels.

We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of
the energy resources, renewable and non-renewable resources and potential of
solar energy, hydropower, geothermal, wind energy and bioenergy potential
as future energy resources.

Wishing you success in this endeavour!

UNIT 9 INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY
RESOURCES
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Energy Resources and their Classification
9.3 Non-renewable Energy Resources
9.4 Energy Demand and Supply
9.5 Energy Use Pattern in India
9.6 Impact on the Environment
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
9.8 Key Words
9.9 References and Suggested Further Readings
9.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

9.0 INTRODUCTION
The classical definition of “energy” is the capacity to do work or to produce
heat by consuming matter or radiation. Energy is vital for the physiological
process of any organism. The basic energy source for the biosphere is the sun.
The producer of a food web, the green plants, use solar energy and with the aid
of chlorophyll contents, produce food. One part of the solar energy is absorbed
by the green plants, circulates in the food web. The other part is used for
physiological activities. Energy is thus vital for growth and other physiological
processes in the biosphere. The fossilized living matters, on the other hand, are
the sole sources of ‘fossil fuels’ that in turn source the mechanical processes in
human life. In this unit we will discuss sources of energy and their classification
and non-renwable energy resources.

9.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
●● explain sources of energy and their classification;
●● describe non - renewable energy sources; and
●● explain energy-use pattern in India and their Impact on the Environment

9.2 ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR

CLASSIFICATION
According to their sources and usage, energy resources can be classified as the
following:
Energy Resources I. Primary and Secondary energy

If the energy is produced by mining, harnessing or extracting directly from an

unconverted energy source such as biomass, hydropower, wind, solar radiation,
nuclear fuels or fossil fuels, they are known as the primary energy sources.

When energy derived from any of the primary sources, is converted to produce
easily available energy, it is called a secondary energy resource. For example, a
thermal energy power station produces electric energy from the thermal energy
by burning fossil fuels (Fig. 9.1)

Fig. 9.1 Primary and Secondary energy sources. Source: Demirel (2016)
II. Perpetual/Continuous and Non-continuous energy

Perpetual/Continuous resources are those that remain available in the same

measure for an indefinitely long-time e.g: Solar, Wind, Geothermal energy,
Wave power, etc.

Non-continuous energy resources are those, which remain not available in their
quantity for a long-time e.g: Fossil fuels, Hydroelectric power, etc.
III. Commercial and Non-commercial energy

Energy sources, which are commercially available in the market for a definite
price are classified as commercial energy sources. Eg: Fossil fuel, Electric
energy, etc. Commercial energy sources are essentially important since they
are the basic energy sources for various infrastructure developments. The
agriculture sector, industrial sector, and transport sector of the present world
are run primarily by using a commercial energy source that in turn caters for the
economic development of a region.

Non-commercial energy sources cannot be availed from the market. In fact, fuels
that are traditionally used especially in the rural parts of the world, including
firewood, biomass, and cow dung are some examples of such energy sources.
IV. Renewable and Non-renewable energy
194
Renewable energy resources can be replenished over a fairly short span of time, Introduction to
such as months, years or decades. These energy sources are inexhaustible and Energy Resources
create fewer threats to the environment in terms of pollution. Non-renewable
energy resources take millions of years to form and accumulate, e.g. all fossil
fuels like coal, oil, natural gas; nuclear fuels like uranium, thorium, etc. (Fig.
9.2).

Fig. 9.2 Renewable and non-renewable energy resources (source: Yelmen 2018)
1) Renewable energy resources

It is reported that there is an exceptionally higher increase in the total energy

consumption from renewable energy resources during 2019; the world over
the total installed power capacity from such resources grew by more than
200 gigawatts (GW) over this period ([Link]). Hydroelectric energy,
solar energy, wind energy, and biomass energy are some highly sought-after
renewable energy resources in today’s world.
a. Hydroelectric energy

Hydroelectric energy is derived from harnessing moving water and converting

the kinetic energy into electric energy with the aid of a turbine. Hydropower
has been used in agriculture and other activities such as running mills for a
millennium. Hydroelectric power plants are usually based on water bodies
especially rivers, waterfalls etc. In most cases the flowing water is harnessed
and controlled by creating artificial dams or reservoirs and the stored water is
allowed to flow down. The kinetic energy of the flowing water is used to turn
the blades of a turbine to produce electricity.

Currently, there are three different types of hydroelectric energy generation

systems: The conventional dams, pumped storage and run of the river type. Of
this, the conventional dams and pumped-storage dams use dam/reservoir to store
water, but for the run of the river type, no water is stored. The pumped-storage
dams can be considered as improved alternatives to conventional dams. For
these the water once used to generate electricity, are stored in lower reservoirs
and subsequently pumped back to the main reservoirs. Pumped-storage dams
ensure the reliability of power production during the peak electricity demand.
The run of the river type uses a series of diversions such as canals or channels to
195
Energy Resources manage the flow/course of river water towards turbines to generate electricity.

Currently, hydroelectricity contributes a major portion of the total annual

renewable electricity generation over the world. Globally the total installed
capacity of hydropower has reached 1308 GW with a total hydroelectricity
generation of 4306 TWh in 2019 (IHA, 2020). As per the International Energy
Agency (IEA), the actual potential of global hydropower is 2-3 times higher
than the total installed capacity. However, the erratic rainfall pattern and
extensive drought as a result of the change in global climate, made hydropower
production a less reliable resource for electricity generation. It can also be
noted that hydropower production through large dams is creating significant
environmental and social impacts. Some of the impacts are submergence of
natural habitat; waterlogging and associated environmental and health hazards,
and forced displacement of local/forest-dwelling communities. Submergence
of natural habitat, directly and indirectly, affects the local biota, leading to a
severe threat to highly vulnerable species, which may lead to their extinction.
Water stagnation in the dams can create an anoxic condition that may lead to
the death of aquatic organisms. Forced displacement of the local population
especially the indigenous people, leads to many social, economic, cultural and
psychological problems. It is also noteworthy to mention that currently there
are many geopolitical issues between countries, states or regions, related to
water sharing from dams.  
b. Solar energy

Solar energy is the highest form of energy, which supplies staggering effects on
the physical, chemical and biological processes on earth. It is actually a form of
electromagnetic wave. Harvesting and utilizing the heat and/or the light from
sunlight is the basic idea in technologies (passive and active) using solar energy.

Active solar technology uses certain external devices to collect, store and
convert the solar energy to more usable forms such as solar panels. An active
system with the help of certain mediums made up of gas or liquid harvests
solar thermal energy. The fluid medium then passes to a storage tank until the
heat is converted to energy. An example of this is a solar-powered water heater,
which is having a collector devise made up of dense liquid medium that collects
the solar thermal energy and transfers that to heat the water. Active solar
technology is further grouped into 1) photovoltaic technology where aiding
semiconductors electricity is generated from sunlight and 2) solar thermal
technology. Solar thermal technology harvests thermal energy for cooking,
drying, heating etc. Concentrated solar power technology produces electricity
using high magnification mirrors.  

Passive technology, on the other hand, relies on itself and thermodynamics to

collect solar energy and directly convert it to power. Unlike active technology,
no external devices are required here. Passive technology can be used to replace
conventional energy usage in buildings to regulate temperature and illumination.
This cost-effective technology essentially requires strategic planning based on
the location of the building, its orientation according to the sun’s movement,
and also the effective building materials. An example of this is heating buildings
during the winter using solar thermal energy.
196
Solar energy is considered to be the supreme future energy source among Introduction to
renewable energy resources. The energy delivered by the sun on earth in one Energy Resources
second is estimated to an approximate equivalent to 1017 joules. If it is possible
to utilize the annual harvestable energy from the sun reaching the earth surface
(≈5×104 EJ exajoules), that alone can meet the future energy demand for the
entire world! However, high initial installation cost; no availability of better
storage technology; reliability (availability of sunlight only during daytime and
on sunny days) and the environmental impacts associated with rare earth metal
extraction for making solar panels are the major limitations in technologies
based on solar energy.
c. Wind Energy

The uneven distribution of solar radiation on the earth surface due to the shape
of the earth and the Coriolis' effect on the rotation of the earth are the major
factors to create geostrophic wind and surface or local wind. Wind energy can
be harvested directly as mechanical power or by converting the kinetic energy
into electrical energy using the turbine system. The availability of wind and
the technical design of the wind turbine are the major factors to determine the
quality and quantity of electricity generation from a wind energy system.

During the last couple of decades, there is a significant increase in the installation
of wind power projects globally. The advancements in the wind energy sector
especially in wind turbines made this possible. The total installed capacity of
wind power reached to 539,581 MW (megawatt) in the year of 2017 from 25
MW in 1981. It is estimated to reach to 2110 GW by 2030 (Enevoldsen and
Xydis, 2019).

However, there are technical, financial, social and environmental issues

associated with wind energy, limiting its popularity. Wind energy technology
is a vitally advancing technological area in the field of renewable energy.
Reliability, efficacy, load management and safety in power generation and
quality of the power are some of the challenging areas when integrating large
scale wind energy systems into the power grids. High installation costs and risks
associated with investments are the major economic issues. Environmental/
ecological impacts during the installation phase; impacts on the aesthetic
value of the landscape; threat to wild biodiversity including birds, reptiles and
mammals; high-level noise pollution hazardous to human beings and wildlife;
interference with the telecommunication and radar communications etc. are
the major socio-environmental issues associated with wind energy generation
systems.
d. Biomass Energy

Energy generated or produced from organic matter through either direct

combustion or gasification (for electricity generation) or conversion of
biomass into ethanol is called biomass energy. Wood, animal wastes, etc. are
the commonly used biomass energy resources. On an industrial scale, biomass
energy is produced from soy, corn, molasses, agriculture wastes, etc. Biomass
energy is in fact the stored energy in organic materials derived from the sun
through the process of photosynthesis. Globally 50% of the human population
solely rely on biomass energy as their primary energy source and 70-80% of the 197
Energy Resources total renewable energy supply in developing countries is dependent on biomass
energy. Biomass energy is mostly carbon neutral since the carbon emission
from using biomass energy is solely the carbon stored by the organism during
its biological process.

Biomass energy can be obtained from primary, secondary or tertiary resources.

Primary resources include oilseed, agriculture and forestry wastes. Energy
derived from primary resources by applying physical, chemical or biological
processes is called secondary biomass energy. When the biomass energy is
produced from leftover materials after consumption, it is known as tertiary
resources; eg. used vegetable oil, packing materials, construction or demolition
materials, etc.

Biomass energy is generated in five ways- 1) from crops, which contain a

high amount of starch/cellulose/sugar/oil, 2) by burning solid organic wastes,
3) through anaerobic digestion of organic materials, 4) by landfill process
and production of methane and 5) through the production of biofuels such as
methanol, ethanol, biodiesel. Figure 9.3 shows the processes involved in energy
production from biomass.

Biomass energy technology is still an advancing field. Studies are progressing

to find feasible and effective technologies to harvest biomass energy. At present,
there are few available processes to produce range of biofuels from biomass.

Fig. 9.3 Biomass energy production processes. (source: Singh et al. 2014)
Although biomass is a potentially effective renewable energy resource
(Fig. 9.4), there are certain negative sides, too. Occupational hazards associated
with agriculture and forest biomass energy production; deforestation; large
scale land conversion for industrial biofuel production; degradation of land and
water resources; impacts of combustion and increasing food crises are some of
the negative aspects of energy production from biomass.

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 Introduction to
Energy Resources

Fig. 9.4 Various types of fuels are derived from Biomass.

(source: Singh et al. 2014)

9.3 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY

RESOURCES
a) Fossil fuels

Fossil fuels formed during the carboniferous period i.e., 300-360 million years
ago are the highly used non-renewable resources of the current age. The carbon
content in fossils fuels is very high hence the efficiency of fossil fuels as energy
resources are far better than any renewable resources. Fossil fuels are also
moderately cheap and commercially available energy resources- thus highly
reliable energy resources.

Three different groups of fossil fuels are currently used for energy generation.
They are coal, crude oil, and natural gas. Coal contributes 1/3rd of the world’s
energy production and is also extensively used during the production of steel.
It is abundantly available in various geographical locations and globally
extracted through mining. Coal production over the globe is predicted to peak
between 2010 and 2048. Crude oils include different oils such as gasoline,
diesel, kerosene etc. pumped from oil wells. These, after refinement, form
different ranges of oil products. Among fossil fuels, oils are highly sought
after. Global production and consumption of various oil products always
show increasing trends.

Fossil fuels contribute a large chunk of the total primary energy need on
earth. In 2019 it was reported that 84% of the world’s primary energy is
solely derived from fossil fuels ([Link]). As per the International
Energy Agency (IEA), the contribution of coal, oil and natural gas to the total
energy supply during 2020 are approximately 3838000, 4496000, 3261000-
kilo tonnes of oil equivalent.

199
Energy Resources Environmental pollution due to carbon, NOx, SOx and particulate matter
emission, is a serious concern over the usage of fossil fuels. Emission from
fossil fuels alone contributes to 65% of the excess mortalities globally
(Lelieveld et al, 2019). As per the Paris agreement 2015, the major target
is to limit the global temperature in the 21stcentury to 1.5–2°C above
pre-industrial levels, to achieve this globally, there are intended plans to
reduce carbon emission by phasing out fossil fuels. Other major impacts of
emissions from fossil fuels include changes in the hydrologic cycle, climate
change, etc.
b) Nuclear Fuels

Nuclear energy is sometimes considered as the alternative to fossil fuels

and as a solution for carbon emission, pollution control and climate change
mitigation. It is also at times, considered the future choice of sustainable
energy resource since it is a quasi-CO2 emitting source- an economically
viable and reliable source that can be used to meet the growing large scale
energy demand. Another aspect of nuclear energy is its availability, and it
can potentially provide a stable baseload, however, nuclear energy resources
are finite and non-renewable.

Nuclear power generation has significantly increased over the last couple
of decades over the globe. US, France, China, and Russia are the giant
producers and they depend largely on nuclear power. Since the Fukushima
Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011, there is a growing apathy against
nuclear power generation over the world. Germany, Italy, and France after
the event, announced to close their nuclear project proposals and Germany
declared to fully phase out its nuclear power generation by 2020.

A cost to benefit study conducted by Sovacool (2010) concluded that by

counting its initial investments, high risk during its operational phase, a huge
amount of water requirement, hazardous and long-living nuclear waste that
produce during the operation and its disposal, nuclear power generation cannot
be considered as a sustainable energy solution.

9.4 ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Energy is one of the major key factors that help humankind to resolve most of
the challenges and opportunities of today’s world. When it comes to several
possibilities that ensure the well-being of society or find a solution for the
present-day crises, energy plays a central role. The availability of perpetual
energy is one of the vital factors to determine the social and economic growth
of communities.

Economic growth or GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of any region is directly

influenced by the increase in consumption of goods and services by the population
is well coupled with an increase in energy use. However, recent studies have
concluded that many local specific factors along with energy, influence GDP
growth. More recently there has been a decoupling trend between GDP and
electricity use in rich countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, and
Japan. These countries are developed countries and they are currently shifting
200
their high energy intense manufacturing economy to a service-based economy. Introduction to
However, in developing countries like China, India, etc. the economy is still Energy Resources
highly energy-intense and hence, the energy availability directly influences
GDP growth.

As per recent statistics, global energy production is still highly dependent on

coal and oil. However, it is evident that there is large-scale incorporation of
renewable resources in the current energy profile of the world. It is noteworthy
to mention that the present energy share from nuclear power has been overtaken
by renewable resources worldwide. This global trend also showcases the concern
towards environmentally clean and economically viable energy alternatives,
and the technological advancement in the renewable energy sector especially in
driving down costs, and improving the storage battery technology.

However, Asian countries like India, China, Indonesia, South Korea as

mentioned earlier, will largely depend on fossil fuels for the next couple of
years in order to meet the largescale energy need for satiating the booming
highly energy-dependent industrial or agriculture-based economy. This is
perhaps reflected in the energy projection for the year 2050. The projection
has been envisaged with the predominant of fossil fuels till 2050.

9.5 ENERGY USE PATTERN IN INDIA

India, one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, is also one of the most
populated regions in the world. Since globalization in the 1990s, the country has
been witnessing a fast growth in its infrastructure development. The backbone of
the Indian economy is agriculture and just after the post-independence followed
by the “green revolution”, the agriculture sector has been highly mechanized.
The demography of India is unique due to its diverse class and caste division,
which is very well reflected in the distribution and availability of resources. The
urban Indian economy is hugely industry-based and service-based, while the
rural Indian economy is still agriculture-based.

India currently is the third-largest producer of electricity in the world. During the
last decade, the country doubled its total installed energy generation capacity;
the 154.7 GW in 2007 has been hiked to 345.5 GW in 2018. 86% of the Indian
population is currently having access to electricity. It is also noteworthy to
mention that energy consumption in the country has increased by 129% during
the last decade (Wang et al 2108). As per the IEA projection, the energy demand
in the country is going to triple by 2040. The current electricity consumption
pattern in the country is dominated by industry, followed by domestic and
agriculture sectors respectively.

India is still highly dependent on fossil fuels as the major energy resource.
The renewable energy sector in the country is growing with a 23.9% share of
the total installed capacity. But still, the country has to improve a lot to reach
the international standard of power quality. About 180 million people in the
country are still out of the state/ central power distribution grid.

India’s landscape and climatic conditions provide huge potential for harvesting
renewable energy. The country’s energy policies need to be restructured so that
201
Energy Resources the ecological footprint generated from the energy sector is reduced significantly.
Another major avenue to increasing the energy crisis is the lack of distribution.
Decentralizing the electric grid and incorporating “smart grid technology” in
energy distribution, are said to substantially reduce transmission loss (Bayindir
et al, 2016). Energy wastage at the personal level also counts hugely in a highly
populated country like India. Knowledge of energy consumption by ethical
underpinning and behaviour change, broadly known as “energy literacy” on
a personal level, is urgently required to deal with the wastage of energy. Such
awareness will help people consciously select energy-efficient gadgets for daily
usage.

9.6 IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

An affordable supply of energy that is reliable, accessible and produced from a
sustainable resource is fundamental for the development of modern society and
that in turn ensures low dependency on fossil fuels which is deleterious to the
environment. The amount of pollution from fossil fuels are clearly dominating
the air quality levels of Indian cities. Vehicular emission contributes a major
part to the air pollution in India and threatens the state of health in the country.
Road transportation in India alone produces 243.82 million tonnes of CO2
and other Greenhouse gases. The high pollution in the ambient air induces
respiratory syndromes that affect the lung functioning of citizens exposed to
the polluted air in the Indian cities. Fossil fuel-related air pollution globally
accounts for about 65% of the excess mortality rates. In India, more than 1
million deaths were reported during the year 2015. These were the result of
pollution due to fossil fuel emissions. Fossil fuel emission also directly affects
the hydrological cycle. It is found that 70% of the climatic cooling is the result
of anthropogenic aerosols mostly from automobile emissions. The localized
cooling would increase the rainfall by 10-70% in the densely populated areas
leading to a localized deluge (Lelieveld, 2019). Similarly, the use of biofuel for
cooking and heating is the main factor to reduce the ambient air quality in rural
India that in turn results in an annual ≈13% of premature mortalities in India.

India is intended to reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35% (from
its 2005 level) by the year 2030, as a commitment to the Paris Agreement 2015.
The government of India has already undertaken various steps to achieve this
target. The Indian government has initiated programs to reduce household use
of biomass cooking fuels, with the help of the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana,
which intends to provide 80 million “below poverty level” households with
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). These are some schemes to abate the negative
impacts of conventional energy resources on the environment. However, recent
studies verify that people, after receiving the ‘free and better facility’ do not
reduce their usage of conventional biofuels. Hence increasing awareness of air
quality at an individual level, is highly required to curb the pollution rate in
India.

Currently, through the National Mission for Electricity Mobility Plan 2020
(NEMMP) the government is encouraging the use of electric vehicles to reduce
vehicular emissions. However, on a close investigation since the country is still
depending largely on coal-based non-renewable resources, and hence shifting
202
the automobile technology from conventional engines to battery-operated EVs Introduction to
Energy Resources
will not have any significant reduction in the amount of pollution or greenhouse
gas emissions. That will rather help to translocate the pollution from the city
centres to the area around the power producing plants.

All over the world, significant shifts are happening in people’s minds that
reflect in the individual levels of ethical consumption and nation wise policy-
making processes. India is currently in a huge economic expansion and the
energy demand of the country will hike significantly in the coming years. As
mentioned earlier in this unit, in this era ‘Energy’, from a mere commodity,
has transcended into a quintessential infrastructure and all consumers have
the basic right to enjoy reliable energy. Similarly, there is a wide debate on
GDP based development with a novel development approach that incorporates
other socio-economic and environmental externalities along with the economy.
The ‘Genuine Progress Index (GPI) is a promising measure that reflects the
essence of sustainable development. It is high time for a highly populated
country like India, to have large-scale transformations in the energy sectors
that would reflect on the betterment of the general life quality of millions of
underprivileged masses living here.
Check Your Progres 1
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. One of the major gaps in solar technology is
1. Large scale emission
2. Heavy costs during maintenance
3. Lack of efficient battery technology

...................................................................................................................
2. Why biomass energy is said to be carbon neutral
1. The amount of energy produced from biomass is equal to the
carbon sequestered
2. During combustion, biomass absorbs atmospheric carbon
3. The statement is wrong

......................................................................................................................
3. What is the fundamental difference between GDP based
economic development model with GPI based development model
1. GDP based development include sustainability
2. GPI based development include sustainability
3. GDP based include environmental well being

......................................................................................................................

203
Energy Resources
9.7 LET US SUM UP
The classical definition of energy is the capacity to do work or to produce
heat by consuming matter or radiation. According to their sources and usage,
energy resources can be classified as primary if the energy is produced directly
from an unconverted energy source and secondary when derived from any
of the primary sources; perpetual/continuous those that remain available in
the same measure for an indefinitely long-time and non-continuous energy
which remains not available in their quantity for a long-time. Energy sources,
which are commercially available in the market are called commercial and
those energy sources not available in the market are called non-commercial
energy sources. The economic development of a region is directly proportional
to the energy availability and hence the energy demand over the world has
been always showing an increasing trend. When it comes to energy production,
the world is still primarily dependent on non-renewable resources, which
jeopardize the energy availability of the future and the emission of fossil fuels
is also a great environmental concern of the world. Though there are many
alternative renewable resources currently available their efficiency, reliability
and cost-effectiveness are preventing the world to rely on them extensively.

9.8 KEY WORDS

Energy: The ability to organize or change matter (to do work).

Solar Energy: Generated from the movement of light. Solar energy can be
harnessed through photovoltaic cells to generate electricity.

Wind Farm: A wind farm is an area of land containing wind turbines that
generate electricity.

Biomass : A renewable energy source that comes from recently living plants
and animals, such as wood, crops, manure and even garbage.

Fossil Fuels: Fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas that formed from the
remains of ancient plants and animals buried underground.

Geothermal Energy: Heat, hot water or steam from within the Earth that is
used to create electricity and for heating and cooling.

Nuclear Energy : Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. Atoms are invisible,
but they make up the elements of the entire universe. Nuclear energy is released
when atoms join together (fusion) or split (fission).

9.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
Demirel Y. (2016) Energy Sources. In: Energy. Green Energy and Technology.
Springer, Cham. [Link]

Yelmen, B., 2018. Use of renewable energy resources in agriculture the case of
204 Turkey. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 13(39), pp.2037-2054.
RENEWABLES 2020 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT [Link] Introduction to
wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf Energy Resources

Kabir, E., Kumar, P., Kumar, S., Adelodun, A.A. and Kim, K.H., 2018. Solar
energy: Potential and future prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 82, pp.894-900.

Enevoldsen, P. and Xydis, G., 2019. Examining the trends of 35 years growth
of key wind turbine components. Energy for sustainable development, 50,
pp.18-26.

Singh, N.B., Kumar, A. and Rai, S., 2014. Potential production of bioenergy
from biomass in an Indian perspective. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 39, pp.65-78.

IHA (International Hydropower Association 2020) 2020 Hydropower Status

Report

Sector trends and insights ([Link]

Lelieveld, J., Klingmüller, K., Pozzer, A., Burnett, R.T., Haines, A. and
Ramanathan, V., 2019. Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission
removal on public health and climate. Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, 116(15), pp.7192-7197.

Wang, Q., Li, S. and Li, R., 2018. Forecasting energy demand in China and
India: Using single-linear, hybrid-linear, and non-linear time series forecast
techniques. Energy, 161, pp.821-831.

Bayindir, R., Colak, I., Fulli, G. and Demirtas, K., 2016. Smart grid
technologies and applications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
66, pp.499-516.

9.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1. Answer : 3
2. Answer : 1
3. Answer : 2

205
Energy Resources
UNIT 10 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
RESOURCES
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10. 1 Objectives
10.2 Conventional Energy Resources
10.3 Classification of Conventional Energy Resources
10.3.1 Coal
10.3.2 Petroleum
10.3.3 Natural Gas
10.3.4 Nuclear Energy

10.4 Properties of Conventional Energy Resources

10.4.1 Composition
10.4.2 Physiochemical Characteristics
10.4.3 Energy content of Fuels

10.5 Formation
10.6. Reserves of Coal, Natural gas and Petroleum
10.7 Nuclear Energy
10.7.1 Nuclear Fission
10.7.2 Nuclear Fusion
10.7.3 Nuclear Fuels

10.8 Indian Scenario of Conventional Energy Resources

10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.10 Key Words
10.11 Suggested Further Readings
10.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

10.0 INTRODUCTION
Energy play an important role in our daily life, therefore, the significance of
energy in human activities can best be appreciated, when it is realized that
energy is involved in everything that happens on the Earth. It is one of the most
important components of economic infrastructure and energy resources are very
much necessary for the existence of mankind. Like other natural resources,
energy resources are also renewable as well as non-renewable. Fossil fuels are
the major energy resources in the world. They were formed from plant and
animal remains buried in the earth millions of years ago. The fossil fuels provide
206 85-90% of the energy demand of the present industrialized world. Three fossil
fuels predominate, coal, oil and natural gas - all of which are non-renewable. Conventional Energy
Resources
A) Renewable Energy Resources: Renewable energy resources are mostly
biomass-based and are available in unlimited amount in nature since these can
be renewed (i.e. regenerated in natural process) over relatively short period of
time. Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible, i.e. they can be replaced
after we use them and can produce energy again and again i.e. biomass (as
agricultural wastes like bagasse), animal dung, solar energy, wind energy, water
energy (hydro-electrical, ocean wave and tidal energy), and geothermal energy.

B) Non-renewable (Exhaustible) Energy Resources: Non-renewable energy

resources are available in limited amount and develop over a longer period of
time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely to be exhausted one day. These
include various fossil fuels including petroleum products, coal and natural gas
and nuclear energy. According to other classification based on how quickly they
can be replenished are conventional and non-conventional energy resources.

a) Conventional sources of Energy

The sources of energy which have been in use for a long time is known as
conventional energy sources. In other words, we can say that these are obtained
from fixed reserves in nature. For e.g. coal, oil and natural gas, thermal power,
firewood (fuel wood), hydropower, nuclear energy.

b) Non-conventional sources of Energy

Generally, the energy sources that are freely available are considered as the non-
commercial energy sources. In other words, we can say that non-conventional
energy sources consist of those energy sources that are infinite, natural, and
restorable, e.g. solar energy, wind energy, ocean (tidal) energy (Water), wave
energy (Water), geothermal energy, bioenergy (biomass).

10.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
●● identify the importance of energy resources in our life;
●● define Conventional Energy Resources;
●● differentiate sources of Conventional Energy;
●● discuss the present energy resources scenario in India; and
●● explain the characteristics of Conventional Energy.

10.2 CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

When we cannot reuse an energy source after using it once we call
them “conventional sources of energy” or “non-renewable energy resources”.
The conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of
energy, which are being used since a long time. These sources of energy are
being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been
depleted to a great extent. At the same time, it is becoming increasingly difficult
207
Energy Resources to discover and exploit their new deposits. It is said that known deposits of
petroleum in our country will get exhausted by few decades and coal reserves
are expected to last for another hundred years.

Coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy are the most important
conventional sources of energy. Oil is the most widely used source of energy.
Coal, petroleum and natural gas account for about 90% of world’s production
of commercial energy and hydroelectric and nuclear power account for about
10%.
a) Coal

Coal is one of the most important sources of energy and is being used for various
purposes such as heating of house, as fuel for boilers and steam engines and for
generation of electricity by thermal plants.
b) Oil and Natural Gas

Today oil is considered to be the liquid gold and one of the crucial sources of
energy in the world as well as in India. Oil is mostly used in planes, automobiles,
trains and ships.
c) Electricity

Electricity is the common source of energy and used for domestic and
commercial purposes. The electricity is mainly utilized in electrical appliances
like Fridge, T.V, washing machine and air conditioning.

The major sources of power generation are nuclear power, thermal power and
hydroelectric power.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. What is a conventional source of energy?

……………………………………………………………………………
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10.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY RESOURCES
Non-renewable sources of energy or conventional sources of energy are being
accumulated in nature for a very long time and can’t be replaced if exhausted.
Coal, petroleum, natural gas, thermal power, hydro power and nuclear power
are the main conventional sources of energy. The commercial sources of energy
include petroleum, coal, natural gas and nuclear energy. Out of all these, oil is
208
the most widely used energy resource. Conventional Energy
Resources
10.3.1 Coal
Coal is the most abundant and fastest growing fossil fuel and its large reserves
would make it a popular candidate to meet the energy demand of the global
community. The total recoverable resource of coal is about 6000 billion tonnes
in the world. With present rate of consumption, the coal reserves are likely to
last during next 200 years and if the use rate increase by 2 percent per year, then
it will last within next 65 years. Coal classification is mainly based on the results
of chemical analyses and physical tests, but some are more empirical in nature.
Coal classifications are important because they provide valuable information
to commercial users (e.g., for power generation and coke manufacturing).
The most common classification is based on rank, referring to the degree of
coalification that has occurred. The rank of a coal is determined primarily by the
depth of burial and temperature to which the coal was subjected over time. With
increasing temperature, peat is converted to lignite, a very soft, low-rank coal.
With further increases in temperature, lignite is transformed into subbituminous
coal and then into bituminous coal. At even higher temperatures, usually
accompanied by intense deformation generated by the folding and faulting of
the Earth’s crust, anthracites, the highest rank of coal are produced. The increase
in coal rank is accompanied by increases in the amount of fixed carbon and by
decreases in the amount of moisture and other volatile material in the coal.
In general, the calorific (heat) value of coal increases with rank from lignite
through bituminous coal. In addition, the terms used for various coal ranks vary
from country to country. Coal may be classified into rock types (or lithotypes)
based on the presence of petrological components known as macerals. Based
on maceral content and its appearance in a hand specimen, coal is classified
into four principal types: clarain, durain, fusain, and vitrain. Coal may also be
classified into grades using subjective terms (e.g., “low-sulfur coal,” “high-ash
coal”) with reference to their impurities for commercial purposes. There are
many varieties of coal, major among them are as below:
a. Peat

Occurs in bogs, especially in areas of cool temperate climates where slow

accumulation of partly altered vegetative fibres has given rise to deposits of
varying extent and thickness.
b. Lignite

True lignite is brown in colour. The higher grades vary from dark brown to
black. The moisture content and carbon content is about 40%.
c. Bituminous

Coals are usually black, varying from dead black to highly lustrous. The
moisture content is relatively low and carbon content is from 50% to about
80%.
d. Anthracite

This is a hard and dense coal which is relatively free of iron compounds and
209
Energy Resources moisture. The amount of fixed carbon may be as high as 95%. It is jet black,
lustrous and of excellent coherence.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
2. Explain the different type of coal and their properties.

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10.3.2 Petroleum
A naturally occurring oily, flammable, liquid composed principally of
hydrocarbons, usually obtained from beneath the Earth’s surface by drilling
wells. Formerly called rock oil, unrefined petroleum is now usually termed
crude oil. Petroleum is a mineral product found underground in the form of
liquid, solid and gaseous form. It is an important source of power in modern
world. Petroleum is used for generating heat and power and for lighting and
lubricating purpose. The availability of petroleum and natural gas governs
the energy growth and status of a country. It is the best-known lubricating oil
in the world. It has numerous by-products like kerosene, petrol or gasoline,
asphalt, paraffin, tar, petrol cake etc. Besides, a whole range of petro-chemical
products like artificial rubber, chemical fertilizer, insecticides are obtained from
petroleum.

10.3.3 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a combustible gas that occurs in porous rock of the Earth’s and
is found with or near accumulation of crude oil. Being in gaseous form, it may
occur alone in separate reservoirs. More commonly it forms a gas cap, or
mass of gas, entrapped between liquid petroleum and impervious capping rock
layer in a petroleum reservoir. At high pressure, it is intimately mixed with, or
dissolved in crude oil.

Natural gas is a widely available fossil fuel. At present usage rates, natural gas
could supply most of the world's energy needs for between 100 and 250 years,
depending on increase in consumption over time. About 40% of the world's
natural gas reserves are in CIS countries. Other countries with proven natural
gas reserves are Iran (14%), United States (5%), Qatar (4%), Saudi Arabia (3%)
and Nigeria (3%). Most of the natural gas reserves are located in same area as
crude oil.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

210
 b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit Conventional Energy
Resources
3. What is natural gas and its composition? Write the advantage of natural
gases.

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10.3.4 Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is a source of power, which is released by a nuclear reaction.
Nuclear energy is the only energy source, known to be economically feasible,
which can replace fossil fuel. Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that
release nuclear energy to generate heat, which most frequently is used in steam
turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power can be
obtained from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion. Nuclear energy
comes from splitting atoms in a reactor to heat water into steam, turn a turbine
and generate electricity.

10.4 PROPERTIES OF CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY RESOURCES
Properties of various conventional energy resources are as below:

10.4.1 Composition
a. Composition of Coal: Coal is a mineral in which, carbon is present
predominantly. Carbon content depends foremost on the time during which
the conversion from plant matter to the final mineral took place. The older
the coal, the higher the carbon percentage and the less apparent the original
vegetable component, i.e. the fossil, remains of plant tissues, resin, etc.
And, in particular, such coal is of higher quality and is in greater demand.
However, besides that coalification and representation of impurities is
dependent on other circumstances, in particular on species composition
of plants from which the coal was formed, on the character of the deposit,
geological history thereof, etc.
Other components represented to various extents according to the types of
coal are water, clay rocks, silicate rocks, sulphur compounds. The rank of
coalification and content of other components is important for the possibility
of coal utilization. Coal with high carbon content and low impurities serves
for coking, chemical industry etc. Raw material of lesser quality is used for
combustion and production of electricity in power-plants.
b. Composition of Petroleum : Petroleum contain many trace elements the
key compounds are carbon (93% – 97%), hydrogen (10% - 14%), nitrogen
(0.1% - 2%), oxygen (0.1 % - 1.5%) and sulphur (0.5% - 6%) with a few trace
metals making up a very small percentage of the petroleum composition.
The actual overall properties of each different petroleum source are defined
211
Energy Resources by the percentage of the four main hydrocarbons found within petroleum
as part of the petroleum composition. The percentages for hydrocarbons
can vary greatly, giving the crude oil a quite distinct compound personality
depending upon geographic region. These hydrocarbons are typically
present in petroleum at the following percentages: paraffins (15% - 60%),
napthenes (30% - 60%), aromatics (3% to 30%), with asphaltics making up
the remainder.
c. Composition of Natural Gas: At normal temperature and pressure, the
contents of commercial natural gas are mainly methane (CH4, ethane
(C2H6) and varying amounts of propane (C2H8) and butane (C4H10). An
average composition of natural gas indicates methane-83.0%, ethane
7.2%, propane-2.3%, butane-1.0%, N2-5.8%, CO2- 0.2% etc. There may
be traces of helium, oxygen, hydrogen and other substances. The main
impurities are N2, CO2 and H2S. If H2S is more than 10 grams/m3, it is
removed commercially and converted to elemental sulphur by Clauss
process. If concentration of H2S is less, it is removed by the process called
'sweetening'. Natural gas containing H2S is called 'SOUR GAS'. It has an
unpleasant odour and H2S dissolved in water follows a mild acid which is
corrosive to pipes and valves. Some sources of natural gas contain helium
upto 8% also. As such, natural gas is the main source of helium.
d. Composition of Nuclear energy
There are 3 nuclear isotopes of importance to nuclear power that exhibit this
behavior. These are: 235U (Uranium-235), 239Pu (Plutonium-239) and 233Pu
(Uranium-233). Of the 3, only 235U is found naturally on Earth. Natural
Uranium found on Earth consists of 99.3 % 238U and 0.7% 235U.

10.4.2 Physiochemical Characteristics

Coal is usually black in colour but sometimes it occurs as a brownish-black

colour. There are four broad ranks or types of coal depending upon its age.
Commencing with the youngest and lowest carbon content, these are: lignite,
sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite. Anthracite is classified as a
metamorphic rock because of its subsequent exposure to elevated pressures
and temperatures. Bitumen obtained from bituminous coal is a black viscous
material generally referred to as 'tar'. The properties of various coals are given
in table 10.1

Table 10.1: Types of Coal and their properties

Type of % % % % Calorific
coal Carbon Oxygen Volatiles Moisture Values
Lignite 60-70 16-18 45 35 5.5-14.3
MJ/kg
Sub- 75-83 14-15 40 17 8.3-25
bituminous MJ/kg

212
 Conventional Energy
Bituminous 78-90 9-10 20 06 18.8- Resources
29.3 MJ/
kg
Anthracite 92-98 2-3 05 01 30 MJ/
kg

Coal is primarily composed of carbon, along with a range of other elements,

particularly sulphur. The most important property of coal is that it combusts.
When the pure carbon and hydrocarbons found in coal, burn completely only
two products are formed, carbon dioxide and water. During this chemical
reaction, a relatively large amount of energy is released. The release of heat
when coal is burned explains the fact that the material has long been used by
humans as a source of energy, for the heating of homes and other buildings,
to run ships and trains, and in many industrial processes. The most important
properties of coal for energy evaluation are calorific value, volatile matter and
fixed Carbon.

Chemical composition (C, H, S, N, O, ash minerals, H2O)

The chemical composition is rather more important from the environmental

point of view. If it is having more sulphur content, it would release more SOx
and cause more pollution.

Petroleum exploration is largely concerned with the search for oil and gas,
two of the chemically and physically diverse group of compounds termed
the hydrocarbons. Physically, hydrocarbons grade from gases, via liquids and
plastic substances, to solids. The hydrocarbon gases include dry gas (methane)
and the wet gases (ethane, propane, butane, etc.). Condensates are hydrocarbons
that are gaseous in the subsurface, but condense to liquid when they are cooled
at the surface. Liquid hydrocarbons are termed oil, crude oil, or just crude, to
differentiate them from refined petroleum products. The plastic hydrocarbons
include asphalt and related substances. Solid hydrocarbons include coal and
kerogen. Gas hydrates are ice crystals with peculiarly structured atomic lattices,
which contain molecules of methane and other gases. The earth’s atmosphere is
composed of natural gas. In the oil industry, however, natural gas is defined as a
mixture of hydrocarbons and varying quantities of non-hydrocarbons that exists
either in the gaseous phase or in solution with crude oil in natural underground
reservoirs.

Petroleum is trapped in porous rock by layers of non-porous rock, it is a thick

and smelly oily –liquid (Fig. 10.1). Colour ranges from greenish brown to
black, depending on where it is obtained.

213
Energy Resources

Fig. 10.1: Origin of gas and oil

A complex mixture mainly consists of hydrocarbons, i.e. compounds made

of hydrogen and carbon only. Other compounds such as sulphur, nitrogen
and oxygen combined with carbon and hydrogen are also found. The major
constituent of petroleum is alkane, which is a homologous series of hydrocarbons.
Petroleum is not burnt directly to supply energy since it produces a lot of
black smoke, therefore it is refined before direct usage. Crude oil contains a
lot of useful substances that can be used for different purposes such as fuel,
resource of chemicals and lubricants. The demand for energy increases with the
world’s booming population and expanding economy. Nuclear energy is one
of the solutions to meet this ever increasing demand for energy and generates
electricity in an environmentally responsible manner.

Methane is a colourless gas and less dense than water. Methane is a gas at ordinary
temperature, slightly soluble in water, but highly soluble in organic liquids like
gasoline under ultraviolet rays or at 250-400°C, methane and chlorine combine
to yield HCI and CH3Cl called chloromethane or methyl chloride. This is called
chlorination which may lead to the formation of CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane or
methylene chloride), CHCl3 (tri-chloromethane or chloroform) and CCl4 (tetra
chloromethane or carbon tetrachloride). Methane reacts with fluorine even in
the dark at room temperatures. Methane affects skin, throat and lungs. Being
malodorous it presents an unpleasant atmosphere. It retards the growth of
vegetation.

10.4.3 Energy Content of Fuels

The heat value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during its combustion.
Also referred to as energy or calorific value, heat value is a measure of a
fuel's energy density, and is expressed in energy (joules) per specified amount
(e.g. kilograms). This is the fact that harder the coal, the higher its energy value.
As per UK National Physical Laboratories (NPL), UK Department for the
Environment and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), Indian Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Resources (MNER), the Thermal Energy (Calorific Content) is given
below in Table 10.2.
214
 Table 10.2: Calorific content/thermal energy of various fuels Conventional Energy
Resources
Fuel Thermal Energy (Calorific Content)
kWh/Kg
Brown Coal (Lignite) 2.8
Coking (Black) Coal 8.3
Oil 12.5
Natural Gas (North Sea) 10.8
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 13.8
mixture of Propane and Butane
Propane 13.9
Butane 13.7
Kerosene (Paraffin Oil) 13.0
Petrol (Gasoline) 13.0
Diesel 12.9
Bio diesel 10.9
Ethanol 8.3
Methanol 6.4
Dry Wood 4.4
Green Wood 2.5
Gunpowder 0.83
Uranium 235 (Nuclear Fission) 22,500,000
Deuterium - Tritium (40 / 60) 93,600,000
(Nuclear Fusion)
Hydrogen 39.4
Sources: UK National Physical Laboratories (NPL), UK Department for the
Environment and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), Indian Ministry of Non-conventional
Energy Resources (MNER).

As per recent data, the heat values of various important fuels are given in Table
10.3.

Table 10.3: Heat value of various fuels

Fuel Heat value

Hydrogen (H2) 120-142 MJ/kg
Methane (CH4) 50-55 MJ/kg
Methanol (CH3OH) 22.7 MJ/kg
Dimethyl ether - DME (CH3OCH3) 29 MJ/kg
215
Energy Resources
Petrol/gasoline 44-46 MJ/kg
Diesel fuel 42-46 MJ/kg
Crude oil 42-47 MJ/kg
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 46-51 MJ/kg
Natural gas 42-55 MJ/kg
Hard black coal (IEA definition) >23.9 MJ/kg
Hard black coal (Australia & Canada) c. 25 MJ/kg
Sub-bituminous coal (IEA definition) 17.4-23.9 MJ/kg
Sub-bituminous coal (Australia & Canada) c. 18 MJ/kg
Lignite/brown coal (IEA definition) <17.4 MJ/kg
Lignite/brown coal (Australia, electricity) c. 10 MJ/kg
Firewood (dry) 16 MJ/kg
Natural uranium, in LWR (normal reactor) 500 GJ/kg
Natural uranium, in LWR with U 650 GJ/kg
& Pu recycle
Natural uranium, in FNR 28,000 GJ/kg
Uranium enriched to 3.5%, in LWR 3900 GJ/kg

(Source: NIST Chemistry WebBook, OECD/IEA Electricity Information

(various editions) International Gas Union, Natural Gas Conversion Guide,
August, 2018)

Check Your Progress 4

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
4. What is the energy content of the fuel?
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10.5 FORMATION
a) Coal Formation
Formation of coal occurred hundreds of millions of years ago when there was
extensive plant growth in place like flooded forests and swamps; leaves fell into
water and got accumulated on the bottom. Their rate of accumulation was much
faster than their rate of decomposition. Eventually, this rich organic material
216 was covered by mud or sediment eroded from the land, and over time, heat and
pressure converted the organic material into peat and then coal. Coal seams can Conventional Energy
be 100 meters thick and can extend over tens of thousands of square kilometers Resources
in areas that were once vast swamp forests in the pre-historic times. Various
production technologies involve exploration, mining, preparation, sorting,
cleaning, storage and transportation. The coal conversion technologies include
coal gasification, liquefaction, coal slurry, coal carbonisation for coke and coal
gas production.
Coal Mining: The overall coal mining process consists of several sequential
stages: (1) exploration of a potentially economic coal seam to assess minable
reserves, environmental issues, marketable reserves, potential markets, and
permitting risks; (2) analysis and selection of a mining plan; (3) securing the
markets; (4) developing the mine; (5) extracting the coal; (6) processing the
coal if necessary; and (7) decommissioning the mine and releasing the property
for post-mining use.
Coal mining is done in two distinct ways:
1. Surface mining, in which the coal beds are near the ground surface with
little over-burden of soil (depth < 30 m).
2. Underground mining - here the coal beds are located at depths.
Surface mining has many advantages compared to underground mining. In
general, coal recovery is very high (85 to 90+ percent), compared to 40 to 70
percent in underground mines. The productivity of surface mines is generally
higher than that of underground mines (Fig. 10.2).

Fig. 10.2: Schematic depiction of the range of different surface and

underground types of coal mining

After mining, the coal is prepared to make it suitable for a particular use. The
coal is purified by removing dirt, mud, etc. and sulphur is also removed because
sulphur present in coal is responsible for high SO2 emissions on burning. Coal
is converted from solid form to liquid or gaseous form also. Various solid and
gaseous fuels have their specific application. Direct burning of coal results
- emission of particulates, smoke, SOx - NOx, CO and CO2. The gaseous
or liquefied fuels cause lesser pollution. Some important coal conversion
technologies are discussed below:
217
Energy Resources Coal Gasification: It involves chemical reaction of coal, steam and air at
high temperature. A coal water mixture called slurry is injected with oxygen
into a heated chamber, producing three combustible gases: Carbon monoxide,
hydrogen and some methane. The heated gas is then cooled and purified. The
resultant gas burns as cleanly as natural gas.

Coal Liquefaction: Coal can also be treated to produce a thick, oily substance
by liquefaction. At least 4 major processes now exist which add hydrogen to
coal to produce oil. The oil can then be refined like crude oil to produce a
variety of products like jet fuel, gasoline, kerosene, many chemicals, drugs and
plastics. Coal liquefaction is a costly process and it generates pollutants like
phenols. It also does not help in CO2 emission reduction.

b) Formation of Oil and Petroleum

The process of formation of petroleum is a time-consuming process (Fig. 10.3).

Fig. 10.3: Process of formation of petroleum

Millions of years ago various creatures roamed the surface of this earth. Some
of these creatures have become extinct, while there are some which still exist
today. So where did all these creatures go when they became extinct? Some
of them made their way to the ocean after their dead and sunk thousands of
feet below to finally settle on the seabed. Both plants and animals settled on
the seabed after their death. In the due course of time, they decomposed and
combined together with the silt and the sand that make up the seabed. This
decomposition process brought up certain chemical changes in the organic
compound with the help of bacteria that are found in the seabed which resulted
in large quantities of hydrogen and carbon compounds being left behind. Due to
the dearth of oxygen in the seabed, the decomposition process was however not
complete and with the passage of time more and more silt and sand came to be
deposited on the top of this semi-decomposed matter. Due to many geological
formations, there was a rise of intense heat and pressure due to which this
matter was able to decompose properly and thus was formed what is today
known as crude oil or the rawest form of petroleum. Since not all the places
of the seabed are subjected to the same decomposition pattern and geological
formations and changes, so formation of petroleum takes place only in certain
places around the world.

Extraction of Petroleum: The process of extraction of petroleum begins

with the identifying the place where exactly the petroleum is present. It can
218
be done with the help of seismic surveys and with the help of instruments like Conventional Energy
magnetometers and gravimeters. Once the petroleum presence has been noted Resources
and recorded, a well is drilled to reach the underground reservoir of petroleum.

This crude oil which is obtained contains various substances like fuel, paraffin,
kerosene etc. The crude oil needs to be refined through a process called fractional
distillation which works on the principle that the different components of the
substance have different boiling points and they can be separated by distillation.
Let us take a detailed look into this process with the following steps:
Step 1: The different constituents are separated through the process of distillation
with the heavier ones settling at the bottom.
Step 2: The heavier ones are turned into gasoline, diesel and gas through the
process of conversion.
Step 3: The final step is to treat these products of all the impurities to get their
finer form.
This is how from the formation of petroleum, its extraction and refinement
takes place so that we can access all the usable products that are formed from
liquid gold.

c) Formation of Natural gas: Natural gas is a natural gaseous hydrocarbon

mixture that is formed under the earth’s surface. Natural gas is considered to be
the cleanest fossil fuel and is a safe source of energy when transported, stored
and used. The primary constituent of natural gas is methane, it may also contain
(C2+ hydrocarbons, N2, CO2, He, H2S, and noble gases) according to its origin.
One theory is that natural gas was formed millions of years ago when plants
and tiny sea animals were buried by sand and rock. Layers of mud, sand, rock,
plant, and animal matter continued to build up until the pressure and heat turned
them into oil and natural gas. Another theory proposes that the earth is made up
of primordial materials that combined in space billions of years ago when the
basic structure of the earth evolved. The materials are still buried far below the
earth's crust where they have been trapped for 4.5 billion years.

To locate natural gas, geologic mapping, surveys and aerial photographs

are used. Recent technology is helping to find natural gas more accurately:
magnetic measurement (measure of the magnetic field of base rock to determine
how much sediment is lying above it), satellite imagery (helps identify surface
structures and patterns that aid in the search for probable underlying hydrocarbon
deposits), gravity mapping (determines the thickness of the basin or sedimentary
rock layer and helps identify base rock topography), and seismic sound wave
reflection (measures the time to various rock units that reflect acoustic energy).
Gas is recovered through wells on-shore or off-shore.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
5. Describe coal gasification and coal liquefaction.
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219
Energy Resources ……………………………………………………………………………
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10.6 RESERVES OF COAL, NATURAL GAS AND

PETROLEUM
Coal Reserves: World proven coal reserves are currently sufficient to meet 134
years of global production, much higher than the R/P ratio for oil and gas. By
region, Asia Pacific holds the most proved reserves (41% of total), split mainly
between Australia, China and India. The US remains the largest single reserve
holder (25% of total).

Natural Gas Reserves: Natural gas reserves refer to large deposits of natural
gas which, based on geological surveys and engineering studies, are thought to
exist to a very high degree of certainty. In addition to the knowledge of their
existence, these reserves are also accessible and economically viable to extract.
Natural gas reserves are spread worldwide, however, some countries have more
natural gas than others. It is estimated that the total world reserves amount to
around 6 quadrillion cubic feet. Rough estimates suggest that this large reserve
is equal to around 6000 exajoules of energy. Global proven gas reserves in
2017 rose slightly by 0.4 trillion cubic metres (tcm) or 0.2% to 193.5 tcm. This
is sufficient to meet 52.6 years of global production at 2017 levels. Israel was
the largest single contributor to growth (0.3 tcm), while the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS) region also added 0.2 tcm to reserves. By region, the
Middle East holds the largest proven reserves (79.1 tcm, 40.9% of the global
total), followed by CIS (59.2 tcm, a 30.6% share).

Oil Reserves: Global proven oil reserves in 2017 fell slightly by 0.5 billion
barrels (-0.03%) to 1696.6 billion barrels, which would be sufficient to meet
50.2 years of global production at 2017 levels. Higher reserves in Venezuela
(up by 1.4 billion barrels) was outweighed by declines in Canada (-1.6 billion
barrels) and smaller declines in a number of other non-OPEC countries. OPEC
(Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries currently hold
71.8% of global proven reserves.

Natural gas reserves (and R/P ratios) are smaller than coal reserves but larger
than the R/P ratio of oil. Estimates suggest that at the rate of current use, there
is around 60 years’ worth of natural gas remaining. Russia has the world's
largest natural gas reserves, followed closely by Iran and Qatar. Recently,
natural gas has become more and more important as a fuel source as its
reserves are so vast. In addition to reserves that exist currently, there is
huge potential for more reserves to be found. In addition, some natural gas
occurrences are becoming reserves as drilling technologies advance. Recent
advances in drilling technology allow natural gas to be extracted by hydraulic
fracturing from shale formations. These technologies have been allowing
people to extract natural gas from sources that had previously been impossible,
which has increased the natural gas reserve.

220
 Conventional Energy
10.7 NUCLEAR ENERGY Resources

Every object in the universe is made up of atoms. There is enormous energy in

the bonds that hold atoms together. Most of the mass of each atom is concentrated
in the nucleus, and the rest of the mass is in the cloud of electrons surrounding
the nucleus. Protons and neutrons are subatomic particles that comprise the
nucleus. Under certain circumstances, the nucleus of a very large atom can split
into two. In this process, a certain amount of the large atom’s mass is converted
to pure energy following Einstein’s famous formula E = mc2, where m is the
small amount of mass and c is the speed of light (a very large number). In the
1930s and ’40s, human discovered this energy and recognized its potential as
a weapon. Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy
must be released from atoms in two ways. However, nuclear power contributes
only 5% of total electricity generation. There are two fundamental nuclear
processes considered for energy production: fission and fusion.

a. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused

together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy.

b. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing
energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity.
10.7.1 Nuclear Fission
Fission is the energetic splitting of large atoms such as Uranium or Plutonium
into two smaller atoms called fission products. To split an atom, we have to hit
it with a neutron. Several neutrons are also released which can go on to split
other nearby atoms, producing a nuclear chain reaction of sustained energy
release. This nuclear reaction was the first of the two to be discovered. All
commercial nuclear power plants in operation use this reaction to generate heat
which they turn into electricity.

Nuclear energy can be generated by nuclear power (fission) reactors which are
based on the fission of Uranium-235 nuclei by thermal neutrons.
U235 + on1
92 51
Sb133 +41Nb99 +2.5 on1 +200MeV

The energy from these nuclear reactions is used to heat water in the reactor
and produce steam to drive a steam turbine. Thus, energy is converted into
electricity.
1. Fission of 1 kg of U-235 releases energy equal to 1.7×1013 cal.
2. 1 lb of U-235 = 5 million lb of coal = 20 million lb of TNT.
3. 1 g of U-235 produces heat energy equivalent to energy produced by 3
tonne of coal or 14 barrels of crude oil.

Light water reactor (LWR), high temperature gas cooled reactor (HTGR) and
fast breeder reactor (FBR) are viable for power generation. LWR consumes
only U-238 and Th-232 to fissionable Pu-23.9 and Np-244. Nuclear power
plants do not emit polluting gases such as CO2 and SO2 as thermal power plants
do. However there are some limitations with nuclear energy as below:
221
Energy Resources 1. The major constraint in the use of nuclear fission power is the yield of large
quantities of radioactive fission waste products which remain lethal for
thousands of years.
2. Safe disposal methods have not been devised.

10.7.2 Nuclear Fusion

Fusion is the combining of two small atoms such as Hydrogen or Helium to
produce heavier atoms and energy. These reactions can release more energy than
fission without producing as many radioactive by-products. Fusion reactions
occur in the sun, generally using Hydrogen as fuel and producing Helium as
waste (fun fact: Helium was discovered in the sun and named after the Greek
Sun God, Helios). This reaction has not been commercially developed yet and
is a serious research interest worldwide, due to its promise of nearly limitless,
low-pollution, and non-proliferative energy. Nuclear fusion reactions are
based on deuterium-deuterium and deuterium-tritium reactions. The latter is
energetically more viable.

1
H2 + 1H3 2
He4 + on1+17.6MeV

The deuterium-deuterium reaction promises an endless source of energy

without any radioactive wastes, but the technological problems for harnessing
fusion energy will take several years to solve. Nuclear reactors produce less
than 20% of the electricity in the USA. There are over 400 power reactors in the
world (about 100 of these are in the USA). They produce base-load electricity
24/7 without emitting pollutants (including CO2) into the atmosphere. They do,
however, create radioactive nuclear waste which must be stored carefully.
Process of Nuclear power generation:
In nuclear power plants, uranium fuel undergoes nuclear fission and generates
an enormous amount of heat. The heat makes high-temperature and high-
pressure steam that rotates turbines to generate electricity.
Light Water Reactor (LWR): LWRs use light water (normal water) as coolant
and moderator. Coolant removes heat produced during nuclear fission from
a reactor core. Moderator reduces the speed of neutrons produced in nuclear
fission to facilitate further fission reaction and sustain a chain reaction. There
are two types of LWRs - a boiling water reactor (BWR) and a pressurized water
reactor (PWR).
1. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR): The same water loop serves as a steam
source for turbines. A reactor pressure vessel is made of steel and fuel
assemblies are installed inside. A control rod controls the power of a nuclear
reactor. By inserting control rods, excessive fission is prevented. A reactor
containment vessel, made of steel, accommodates a reactor pressure vessel.
2. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR): The primary water loop transmits
heat through the tube walls to the surrounding water of the secondary
cooling system to generate steam and rotate turbines.

222
10.7.3 Nuclear Fuels Conventional Energy
Resources
The material that can be used in nuclear power stations/ nuclear reactors to
generate electricity is called nuclear fuel. Uranium is an abundant metal and
is full of energy. One uranium fuel pellet creates as much energy as one ton of
coal, 149 gallons of oil or 17,000 cubic feet of natural gas. It does not come out
of the ground ready to go into a reactor, though. It is mined and processed to
create nuclear fuel.

Nuclear Fuel Generation: Before uranium goes into a reactor, it must undergo
four major processing steps to take it from its raw state to usable nuclear fuel:
mining and milling, conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrication. First, uranium
is mined with conventional methods or by in-situ leach mining, where carbonated
water is shot into underground deposits and piped up to the surface. The
worldwide supply of uranium is diverse, coming primarily from Kazakhstan,
Canada, Australia, Niger, Namibia, Russia and the western United States as
well. To sustain the chain reaction necessary to run a reactor, the uranium will
need a high enough concentration of a specific isotope, uranium-235. Natural
uranium is converted into several different forms to prepare it for enrichment.
Special facilities enrich the uranium so that it can be used in a nuclear reactor.
The enriched uranium is converted again into a powder and then pressed into
fuel pellets. The fuel fabricator loads these pellets into sets of closed metal
tubes called fuel assemblies, which are used in nuclear reactors. Since U-235
is unstable it gives off subatomic particles from its nucleus in an effort to make
its nucleus stable. This is known as radioactive decay. U-235 gives off an alpha
particle, which is identical to a helium nucleus. It consists of two protons and
two neutrons. When U-235 gives off an alpha particle, it transmutates into
Thorium-231. Transmutation is the process of one element turning into another
element. The time required for one-half of a sample of U-235 to turn into Th-
231 is just over 700 million years! This value is known as U-235's half-life. The
nuclear reaction is shown in Reaction given below:

92
U235 2
He4 +90Th231

Now that we have covered the basic characteristics of U-235, let's see how it is
used as nuclear fuel.
a. U-235 Fuel

After U-238 is mined and processed to make U-235 it is formed into pellets.
These pellets are stacked into fuel cells and are put into a nuclear reactor's core.
When these uranium atoms absorb a neutron, they split giving off tremendous
amounts of energy along with more neutrons. These neutrons are absorbed by
other uranium atoms causing them to split releasing energy. This energy is used
to turn liquid water into high energy steam, which turns turbines generating
electricity. The fuel is generally ''used up'' after 1.5 to 3 years, and it has to
be stored or reprocessed. Let's now turn our attention to another nuclear fuel,
which is created with the help of U-235, but also decays to produce U-235!
b. Pu-239 Fuel

Pu-239 is plutonium-239, which has 94 protons and 145 neutrons. Pu-239

223
Energy Resources has a half-life of over 24,000 years, is an alpha-particle emitter and decays
into U-235. Pu-239 is not found in nature, but is generated in nuclear reactors.
Unfortunately, its half-life is too long to be a feasible source of U-235.

94
Pu239 2
He4 +92U235

Check Your Progress 6

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
6. Describe the process of nuclear fission and fusion.

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

10.8 INDIAN SCENARIO OF CONVENTIONAL

ENERGY RESOURCES
India is an agriculture country. Majority of its population lives in village and
uses wood, agricultural wastes, livestock dung etc. as energy source. However,
in urban sectors such as industries, transportation, telecommunication, domestic
establishment etc., the energy consumed is derived from oil, coal, natural gas,
hydroelectricity or nuclear power. Share of various energy sources in the
commercial consumption of energy in India mostly comes from the coal (about
56 %) and petroleum (about 32 %). The other sources are hydroelectric, nuclear
power, natural gas etc. In India, per capita consumption of energy is low in
comparison to that of developed countries. Out of the total energy consumed,
about half of it is obtained from non-commercial energy. Non-commercial
sources of energy, mostly used by rural population, but the commercial energy
is obtained from oil and natural gas, coal, hydro-electricity and a little volume
of nuclear energy. The share of commercial and non-commercial sources of
energy in our country in 1980’s was in a ratio of 1: 1. However, following rapid
industrial growth, the ratio changed to 4: 1 in 2000. As on April 2017, as per
GSI Inventory, State wise geological resources of coal in India is as below in
Table 10.4:

Table 10.4: State wise geological resources of coal in India

State Measured Indicated Inferred Total

(Proved)
West Bengal 13723 12954 4990 31667
Bihar 0 0 1354 1354
Jharkhand 44341 31876 6223 82440

224
 Conventional Energy
Madhya Pradesh 11269 12760 3645 27673 Resources
Chhattisgarh 19997 34462 2202 56661
Uttar Pradesh 884 178 0 1062
Maharashtra 7038 3158 2063 12259
Orissa 34810 34060 8415 77285
Andhra Pradesh 0 1149 432 1581
Telangana 10402 8542 2520 21464
Sikkim 0 58 43 101
Assam 465 57 3 525
Arunachal Pradesh 31 40 19 90
Meghalaya 89 17 471 576
Nagaland 9 0 402 410
Grand Total 143058 139311 32780 315149

In India, the consumption of commercial energy is too much dependent on oil

and coal. About 47 per cent of the demand for commercial energy is met through
petroleum oil. The coal is the principal source of electricity, at present with the
significant development of thermal power projects is based on coal. About 60 per
cent of the total electricity generated in India is available from these coal based
thermal power projects. The total estimated coal resources in the country is
315.149 billion tonnes as per “The inventory of Geological Resources of Indian
Coal”, prepared by the Geological Survey of India. The total coal extracted
from the coalfields of India during 2016-17 is 655.31 million tonnes and since
1950 upto 2016-17 is around 14438.22 million tonne. (As per Coal Controller,
MoC, Govt. of India). Every year about 3 to 5 billion tonnes of resources are
being added through fresh exploration to the Coal Inventory of India. Power
or electricity is considered as one of the major sources of commercial energy.
Total installed generating capacity of electricity in India has increased from
2,300 MW in 1950 to 2, 55,000 MW in 2015.

In India, coal occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely,
Gondwana, little over 200 million years aged and in Tertiary deposits which
were found at a much later geological epoch (about 55 million years) ago.
The major resources are located in central and eastern parts of the country.
In India, the major coal fields are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Singrauli, Panch-
Kanham (Tawa valley), Talchar, Chanda- Wardha and Godavari valley in states
of Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra. Petroleum is largely used in transportation, operating water lifting
engines, generators etc. In India, crude oil was first recovered from Makum in
North East Assam. Later, drilling for crude oil was done at Digboi, Dibrugarh,
Narharkatiya and Surma valley in the north east. The oil field also lies around
Bay of Cambay, Gujarat. The most important achievement was the exploration
of oil in Bombay High on the continental shelf of Maharashtra, located at a
distance of 167 km north-west of Mumbai. Recently oil has been located on
225
Energy Resources the off-shore area of the deltaic coasts of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and
Mahanadi. Oil prospects in India are not as high as coal. But the demands are
very high and the country has to import oil from OPEC countries at higher
rates. Indian oil reserves are about 4.45 billion tonnes out of which about 1257
million tonnes are recoverable. Since 483 million tonnes have been extracted,
the recoverable balance is now about 774 million tonnes which shall last within
next 25 years with the condition that crude oil production rate of about 30
million tonnes per year is maintained. India has a huge reserve of natural gas of
which a large amount flares up due to lack of adequate storage, compression and
transportation facilities as a result about 17 million cubic meters of gas a day
is wasted or burnt. Now the gas is distributed from Bombay High to Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh by a 1730 km pipeline, the
Hazira-Vijapur-Jagdishpur pipeline. A similar pipeline is proposed for South
India to feed the natural gas of Bombay High and the gas imported from West
Asia to southern states. A gas grid is also proposed for Assam. In India first
nuclear power station was raised at Tarapore, near Mumbai in 1969. The nuclear
power is still not well developed as there are only five nuclear plants, namely,
Narora (UP), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kakrapur, Tarapur (Maharashtra) and
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu). At present country produces 2250 MW (2.6 % of the
country’s total installed power generation capacity) from these nuclear power
generation plants. By 2050, it is expected to rise to 25 percent. In India uranium
deposits are found in Gaya and Singhbhum districts of Bihar, Udaipur and Jaipur
district of Rajasthan, Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh, and Palghat district of
Kerala. Reserves of thorium are found in Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh and
coastal parts of India. India has 22 operable nuclear reactors, with a combined
net capacity of 6.2 GWe. In 2017, nuclear power generated 3% of the country's
electricity. The Indian government is committed to growing its nuclear power
capacity as part of its massive infrastructure development programme. The
government in 2010 set an ambitious target to have 14.6 GWe nuclear capacities
by 2024. At the start of 2018, six reactors were under construction in India, with
a combined capacity of 4.4 GWe.

10.9 LET US SUM UP

Let us briefly state the significant points about conventional energy resources as
discussed in this unit. Energy resources are very much important in the context
of economic development of the country. With the growing industrialisation,
mechanisation of agriculture, and the development of transportation sector, the
demand for energy resources is increasing day by day. The conventional sources
of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy, which are being used
since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such
a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. At the
same time it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover and exploit their new
deposits. It is believed that known deposits of petroleum in our country will
get exhausted by few decades and coal reserves are expected to last for another
hundred years. Along with the coal, petroleum and natural gas, electricity
is conventional source of energy, which is playing a barometer of a nation's
economic well-being. Availability of abundant electricity means unrestricted
growth of industries, transport and agriculture. Depending upon raw material
used, various types of electricity are hydroelectricity, thermal electricity (steam,
226
gas, oil) and nuclear electricity. The coal is the most abundant fossil fuel with Conventional Energy
a total recoverable resource of about 6000 billion tonnes in the world. With Resources
present rate of consumption, the coal reserves are likely to last during next 200
years and if the use rate increase by 2 percent per year, then it will last within
next 65 years. Amongst the conventional sources of commercial energy used in
India, coal is the prime resource. In present day context; 60% of coal produced
is utilized in generation of electricity, which in fact, is more than 95% of the
thermal power or about 70% of total installed capacity of electricity generated
in India.

10.10 KEY WORDS

Conventional Energy Resources : Conventional energy directly means
the energy source which is fixed in
nature like oil, gas and coal.

Fuel : Substance containing energy which

can be released by combustion or by
chemical reaction or electromagnetic
reaction or nuclear reaction etc.

Bituminous Coal : Soft coal; coal that has high content

of carbonaceous and volatile matter.
When Volatile matter is removed
from bituminous coal by heating
in absence of air, the coal becomes
coke.

Calorific Value (Heating Value) : Heat liberated by combustion of unit

quantity of a fuel (J/kg).

Crude Oil (Crude) : Petroleum oil in natural state before

refining or processing.

Lignite : Low grade coal in between

Bituminous Coal and Peat.

Petroleum : An oily, bituminous flammable liquid

of several colours ranging from
colourless to black.

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) : Natural gas which is cooled to about

160°C for liquefying for the purpose
of easy storing and transportation.
Liquefaction of NG greatly reduces
the storage and transportation costs.

Surface Mining : Open cast mining, strip mining.

Mining of coal from outcropping
i.e. removal of upper surface layers
of coals (as opposed to underground
mining). 227
Energy Resources Natural Gas : A natural fossil gaseous fuel usually
associated with petroleum oil.

Nuclear Fuel : Nuclear fuel is material used to

produce energy in a nuclear reactor.

OPEC : Organization of Petroleum Producing

Countries, Founded in 1960. Head
Quarters in Vienna. Members: Abu
Dhabi, Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq,
Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Quarter,
Southi Arabia, Venezuela.

10.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

1. McGraw-Hill Encyclopaedia of Energy, 1976.
2. [Link] .
3. Richard Wolfson. (June 29, 2015). Energy, Environment, and Climate, 2nd
ed. New York, NY, U.S.A: 2012.
4. [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]. (June 29, 2015). Energy Systems
and Sustainability: Power for a Sustainable Future, 2nd Ed. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press, 2012
5. Natural Gas Use in the Canadian Transportation Sector. (June
29). Deployment Roadmap [Online].
6. A. Groysman, Corrosion Problems and Solutions in Oil Refining and
Petrochemical Industry, Topics in Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality 32,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-45256-2_2. 2017.
7. BP statistical review of world energy, 2018.
8. NIST Chemistry WebBook, OECD/IEA Electricity Information (various
editions) International Gas Union, Natural Gas Conversion Guide, August,
2018)

10.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The sources of energy, which have been in use for a long time is known
as conventional energy sources. For e.g. coal, oil and natural gas, thermal
power, firewood (fuel wood), hydropower, nuclear energy.
2. Coal may be classified into rock types (or lithotypes) based on the presence
of petrological components known as macerals. Based on maceral content
and its appearance in a hand specimen, coal is classified into four principal
types: clarain, durain, fusain, and vitrain. Coal may also be classified into
grades using subjective terms (e.g., “low-sulfur coal,” “high-ash coal”)
with reference to their impurities for commercial purposes. Four major
types of coal are peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite coal.
3. Natural gas is the fuel giving both heat and light. It can be used as fuel in
many sectors as: transportation, industrial, agricultural, and a raw material
228 for petrochemical industry. Furthermore, natural gas can be used in a
 cooling system. Natural gas is a mixture of various hydrocarbon gas known Conventional Energy
in scientific names i.e. methane, ethane, propane, and butane. Resources

4. The heat value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during its combustion.
Also referred to as energy or calorific value, heat value is a measure of
a fuel's energy density, and is expressed in energy (joules) per specified
amount (e.g. kilograms).
5. a. Coal Gasification: It involves chemical reaction of coal, steam and air
at high temperature. A coal water mixture called slurry is injected with
oxygen into a heated chamber, producing three combustible gases:
Carbon monoxide, hydrogen and some methane. The heated gas is
then cooled and purified. The resultant gas bums as cleanly as natural
gas.
. b. Coal Liquefaction: Coal can also be treated to produce a thick,
oily substance by liquefaction. At least 4 major processes now exist
which add hydrogen to coal to produce oil. The oil can then be refined
like crude oil to produce a variety of products like jet fuel, gasoline,
kerosene, many chemicals, drugs and plastics. Coal liquefaction is a
costly process and it generates pollutants like phenols. It also does not
help in CO2 emission reduction.
6. a. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or
fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces
energy.
b. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms,
releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce
electricity.

229
Energy Resources
UNIT 11 SOLAR AND HYDROPOWER
ENERGY
Structure

11.0 Introduction

11.1 Objectives
11.2 Harnessing of Solar Energy
11.2.1 Heat Transfer Mechanism
11.2.2 Solar Radiation and Collectors
11.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors
11.2.4 Solar Concentrators

11.3 Solar Energy Utilization

11.3.1 Solar Heaters
11.3.2 Solar Dryers
11.3.3 Solar Cookers
11.3.4 Solar Stills
11.3.5 Solar Electricity Generation- Photovoltaic Cells
11.3.6 Solar Photovoltaic Thermal Collectors
11.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy Systems

11.4 Hydroelectric Energy

11.4.1 Principle and Working of Hydropower Plants
11.4.2 Classification of Hydropower Plants/Systems
11.4.3 Global and Regional Status of Hydropower
11.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

11.5 Let Us Sum Up

11.6 Key Words
11.7 References and Suggested Further Readings
11.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

11.0 INTRODUCTION
The energy coming in the form of electromagnetic radiations from the Sun is
known as the solar energy. The sources of these electromagnetic radiations
are the energy released during the nuclear reactions in the core of Sun. Solar
energy is the main form of renewable energy which is clean and eco-friendly.
The other forms of renewable energy such as wind energy, biomass energy,
ocean energy, etc. are the derivatives of solar energy. To utilize the abundantly
230
available solar energy you need the devices / systems which can collect the Solar and
incident solar radiation and convert it into the useful form of energy. Hydropower Energy

Hydropower is the power generated from water stored at a height. It works

on principle of converting potential energy stored at a height into the kinetic
energy to rotate turbines and then again converting the mechanical energy of
turbine into the electrical energy utilizing generator. The energy generated is
renewable energy as the water utilized in generating electricity is replenished
by the rain.

11.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
●● describe the basic heat transfer mechanism for the study of solar thermal
system.
●● describe the various ways for utilization of solar energy;
●● describe the principle, working and status of hydropower systems; and
●● explain the advantages and disadvantages of various solar energy systems
and hydropower systems.

11.2 HARNESSING OF SOLAR ENERGY

To harness the solar energy, you need a device/system which collects the
incident solar radiation and converts the incident light energy in the other forms
of energy like thermal energy and electrical energy. The systems, which collects
and converts the solar radiation into thermal energy are known as the solar
thermal systems and the device which collects and converts the solar radiation
into electricity is known as photovoltaic cell (solar cell)/photovoltaic module.
Before learning about these systems in detail you need to have some basic idea
about the various heat transfer mechanism. In the following section you will
learn about the different heat transfer mechanism.

11.2.1 Heat Transfer Mechanism

As you have already read about the various modes of heat transfer, we will just
recap the basics of various modes of heat transfer. The modes of heat transfer
are conduction, convection and radiation. Evaporation is another heat transfer
mode which includes the mass transfer in addition to the transfer of thermal
energy. In this section you will learn about these modes of heat transfer.

Conduction

Conduction is the heat transfer mode in which thermal energy is transferred

from high temperature to low temperature due to thermal vibrations and
collision of electrons (solids) and due to diffusion of molecules/collisions
between the molecules (liquids and gases). In solids the dominant heat transfer
231
Energy Resources mechanism is conduction whereas in fluids it is convection. The rate of heat
conduction across any slab depends on the surface area, thickness of the slab
and temperature difference between the two ends of the slabs in the direction
of heat transfer.

Convection

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer in fluids where bulk movement

of molecules from higher temperature to lower temperature (due to density
gradient of heat transfer fluid) is responsible for the transfer of thermal energy
in fluid.

You will come across the two types of convection mechanism in solar thermal
systems namely free convection and forced convection. Free convection is
convection taking place due to density gradient between the high temperature
and low temperature layers of fluid, however the forced convection is the
mechanism where an external force (using pump or blower) is applied to
circulate the fluid and hence to enhance the rate of convective heat transfer.

Radiation

Radiative thermal energy is transferred from one body to another body via
electromagnetic thermal radiations. The thermal radiation has properties
similar to the light waves/radiations. The amount of radiation emitted from
a body depends on the temperature of the body and the amount of radiative
thermal energy exchange between two bodies depends on the temperature
difference of the bodies. This thermal energy exchange is given by Stefan’s-
Boltzmann’s law. In solar thermal systems, the solar radiation incident on the
collecting surface (collector / concentrator) is absorbed and heats the surface
and raises the surface temperature. The surface emits the thermal energy in the
form for electromagnetic radiations. Also, due to the temperature difference
between the surface and surrounding, the thermal energy is transferred/lost to
the surroundings.

In solar energy utilization systems, you will encounter the problems where you
need to evaluate the radiation exchange between the horizontal surface and
the sky. For such problems an equivalent black body sky temperature (Tsky ) is
defined in terms of ambient air temperature (Ta).

Evaporation (Mass transfer)

For the solar thermal systems such as solar still or the system having wetted
surface, in addition to the heat transfer, there is process of mass transfer. The
mass transfer depends upon the convective heat transfer.

Check your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
232
1. Explain the concept of solar energy. Solar and
Hydropower Energy
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
………………......................………………………………………………

11.2.2 Solar Radiation and Collectors

When solar radiations falls on the solid surface, depending upon the optical
properties of the surface a part of it is reflected, another is absorbed and the rest
is transmitted

The ideal solar energy collection surface must have zero reflectivity and
transmittance but for real surface you need a surface having absorptivity nearly
unity. The temperature of the surface depends on the amount of radiation
absorbed into it, further the radiation emitted by the body depends on the
emissivity of the surface, which is defined as the ratio of emissive power of
the real body to the emissive power of a black body. Therefore, the surface
must have low emissivity to reduce the radiative losses. Sometimes you need
to make selective coating for the desired value of reflectivity and emissivity for
the collector surfaces.

11.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors

Solar thermal collectors or flat plate collectors are the systems, which collects
the solar radiations incident on to it and convert these radiations into the
useful thermal energy, which is transferred to the heat transfer fluid (air/water/
oil). Depending upon the user’s requirements this thermal energy is used
instantaneously or it is stored for later use. Components of the solar thermal
collectors are absorption plate, heat transfer fluid (HTF), header/manifold,
tubes/duct and fins, top glass cover (Glazing), insulation and casing. The
schematic of solar thermal collector is shown in Fig. 11.1.

Fig. 11.1 Front cross section view of solar thermal collector

Absorption plate is the blackened metallic plate. Glazing is the transparent

material, which allows the short wavelength radiation and blocks the long 233
Energy Resources wavelength radiations and header or manifold provides the channel or flow path
of heat transfer fluid, which transfers the thermal energy from absorber plate to
end use. Insulation prevents the losses from bottom and sides of the collector,
casing protects the collector from the dust, moisture, etc.

Working principle

The solar radiation falling on the top glazing cover is distributed as the reflected,
absorbed and transmitted radiation. Since the transmittance of the glazing cover
is about 95%, the reflected and the absorbed fractions of solar radiation can be
neglected. The transmitted solar radiation incident on the blackened absorption
plate is absorbed and heats the plate. The heat transfer fluid in tubes/duct gets
heated by taking away the thermal energy from the plate and walls of the tube
(Fig. 11.2). In this process the incident solar radiation (light energy) is converted
into thermal energy.

Fig. 11.2 Thermal gain for heat transfer fluid from different parts of solar
collector

Types of solar thermal collectors

Solar thermal collectors are classified on the basis of (i) geometry of collection
unit, (ii) type of heat transfer fluid, (iii) mode of operation and (iv) type of
energy output. If the collection unit is flat plate, the collector is known as flat
plate collector and if the collection unit is tubular, the collector is known as
evacuated tubular collector. The solar thermal collectors utilizing air or water
as heat transfer fluid are respectively known as solar air collectors or solar
water collectors. The solar thermal collector operating in natural flow mode of
operation where the heat transfer fluid flows through the tubes/ducts due to the
density gradient owing different temperatures in different zones are known as
passive solar collectors and the solar thermal collectors operating in force mode
of operation are termed as the active solar collectors. If the conventional solar
collectors are integrated with the photovoltaic module, the collector produces
thermal and electrical energy simultaneously. This type of solar collectors are
known as photovoltaic thermal (PVT) collectors.
234
11.2.4 Solar Concentrators Solar and
Hydropower Energy
Suppose you have a certain application, where you want the temperature higher
than 150oC. You can achieve by reducing the losses from the solar collector.
This is done by collecting the solar radiation on a larger area (Aperture area)
and then focusing (concentrating) it on a smaller area (receiver area). In this
process, the solar radiation intensity increases and simultaneously losses from
the receiver reduces resulting more useful energy and hence higher temperature.
The systems which utilize this concept are known as the solar concentrator.

In solar concentrator, the optical properties are more important therefore

you need to define the optical efficiency of solar concentrator in addition to
the instantaneous thermal efficiency. The instantaneous thermal efficiency is
defined as the ratio of useful thermal energy to the incident beam radiation on
a unit surface area. However, the optical efficiency considers the optical losses
occurred in the system, due to which the incident beam radiation has reduced
by the factor owing to optical losses.

Classification of solar concentrators

You already know that the position of sun during day hours and during seasons
changes, therefore solar radiation on a horizontal surface changes accordingly.
To receive the beam radiation on a concentrator’s surface, it should be oriented
such as the solar radiations falls normally on the aperture. The collectors are
classified according to the tracking methodology. Broadly these are divided in
to following two categories:
(i) Tracking type:

a) Continuous tracking – Continuously follow the sun

b) Intermittent tracking – Changes orientation of concentrator after

certain time gap

c) One-axis tracking – Follow the sun’s diurnal variation

d) Two-axis tracking – Follow both diurnal and seasonal variation

(ii) Non-tracking type: The orientation of concentrator is fixed and inclined
at the angle equal to the latitude of the place and facing south (northern
hemisphere) or north (southern hemisphere).

Depending upon the optical concentration mechanism, concentrators can be

reflecting or refracting type, imaging or non-imaging type, line focusing or
point focusing type. Figure 11.3 shows the diagrams of some commonly used
concentrators.

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Energy Resources

Figure 11.3 View of (a) cylindrical parabolic concentrator (b) paraboloid

concentrator (c) compound parabolic concentrator

Working principle

The solar radiation after transmission from the aperture area, falls on the
reflecting surface where it gets reflected and directed towards the focus point or
focus line of the concentrator. The concentrated solar radiation absorbed in the
receiver kept at the focal point/focal line and heat the absorber. The working
fluid or heat transfer fluid flowing through the channel receives thermal energy
from the absorber and store/transfer the thermal energy for the end use.

11.3 SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

The solar energy collected as the thermal energy from the solar collectors and
concentrator can be directly used as the heat for different applications, however
the temperature achieved in case of solar concentrator temperature is very high,
therefore solar concentrators can be used for steam generation in thermal power
plants. The thermal energy from solar concentrator serves as the input for the
electrical energy generation from the thermal power plants. In later sections,
you will read about solar cell or photovoltaic cell, which generates electrical
energy using solar radiation. In the following sub-sections, you will learn about
the solar energy utilization in different sectors.

11.3.1 Solar Heaters

Solar heaters are the devices which converts the incident solar radiation into
thermal energy or heat utilizing the flat plate collector/concentrator. The use of
solar collectors gives medium temperature. For household applications, space
heating applications, you require medium temperature range. For medium range
temperature application, commonly used heat transfer fluids are water and air.
The solar heaters are classified as solar water heater and solar air heater, as
the name itself suggests the solar heater using water as heat transfer fluid is
236 known as solar water heater and the solar heater using air as heat transfer fluid
is known as the solar air heater. Solar heaters are further categorized based on Solar and
the mode of operation like solar heater operating in natural mode of operation Hydropower Energy

(passive solar heaters) and forced mode of operation (active heater). In natural
mode of operation (Fig. 11.3a) the hot water in the manifold of collector or
air in the duct is replaced by the cold water/air due to the density gradient,
whereas in force mode of operation (Fig. 11.3b) the water/air is circulated
through the collector using external source of energy such as pump/blower/
fan.

Working principle

The water flowing through the solar collector/concentrator receives thermal

energy from the absorber plate and moves (due to density gradient in natural
mode of operation or due to the external force in force mode of operation) to
the insulated storage tank, where it mixes with the cold fluid and raises the
temperature of cold water. The circulation in closed loop raises the temperature
throughout the sunshine hour. The hot water can be used in evening time
or it can be used intermittently depending upon the required temperature.
For a clear sky day in month of March of north Indian climatic condition,

the temperature as high as 90o C (approximate value) can be obtained for

three collectors having area 2m 2 and connected in series with storage tank
capacity 200 litre. The air heaters also work on same principle but here the
hot air exiting from the output of the collector is instantaneously for heating
applications.

Fig. 11.3a Solar water heater in natural mode of operation

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Energy Resources

Fig. 11.3b Solar water heater in force mode of operation

In some applications, you need to exchange the thermal energy from the hot
water inside the insulated storage tank to the other fluid e.g. space heating,
drying etc. For such applications the system shown in Fig. 11.3c can be used.
The thermal energy stored in insulated storage tank can be used later for
various applications. For air heaters, the specific heat capacity of air is very
low, therefore, the hot air from the collector’s output is instantaneously used for
space heating and drying applications. For air heater, storage is not possible in
air, however, the hot air can heat other materials, where you can store thermal
energy.

Fig. 11.3c Solar water heater in force mode of operation

for space heating, drying etc.

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11.3.2 Solar Dryers Solar and
Hydropower Energy
Solar dryers are the device, which utilizes solar energy for drying
applications. Drying is the process of moisture removal from the agricultural
or any other produce. Drying process reduces the post harvesting losses.
The nutrition value of the dried products retained, if they are dried naturally
using Sun. If you use the solar energy for drying, you can save a huge
amount of conventional energy. From ancient times, the open sun drying
has been used but it has many limitations like space requirement, losses
due to insects, different micro-organism, birds, harsh weather conditions,
uneven and degraded drying, etc.

Therefore, to challenge the problems in open sun drying, you need to

design a system which (i) requires less space, (ii) has faster drying time
(iii) provides hygienic and healthier drying, (iv) provides controlled and
efficient drying and (v) is economically viable.

The abundant solar energy can be converted into the input thermal energy
for drying applications. The controlled solar drying in a closed space using
solar energy is known as the solar drying. Solar drying can be realized using
greenhouse effect or using solar thermal collectors or using the combination
of both. In solar drying using greenhouse effect, products for drying are
kept at different trays in a cabinet having transparent glass cover however
for the drying using solar collectors, the products for drying are kept in
cabinet but are separated from the thermal energy collection unit.

Classification of solar dryers

Depending upon the mode of operation, solar dryers are classified as passive
and active solar dryers. In passive solar dryers, the natural convection is
the heat transfer mechanism, however in active solar dryers, heat transfer
mode is forced convection. The passive and active solar dryers are further
classified as direct mode dryer (the products to be dried are kept inside
the cabinet), indirect mode dryer (the products to be dried are kept in
a separate unit from the thermal energy collection unit), mixed mode
dryer (the heat collection is realized as direct heating such as green house
effect and indirect heating such as thermal energy from the solar collector,
here the solar thermal collector is integrated with the drying chamber),
normal absorber (absorber of solar thermal collector unit facing upward
direction), inverted absorber (absorber of solar thermal collector unit
facing downward). Depending upon the input energy for heating and forced
convection the active solar dryers are differentiated as conventional solar
dryers (using grid electricity) and photovoltaic thermal (PVT) dryers.
Fig. 11.4 shows the schematic/photographs of various dryer.

Working principle

In direct mode solar dryers, the solar radiation after transmission through
the glass cover is absorbed by the drying products and heats them, the
evaporation process starts and as time passes the products get dried. Further
the long wavelength radiation corresponding to the product temperature are
239
Energy Resources trapped inside the drying chamber and raises the chambers temperature,
which in turn helps in drying process. In in-direct mode solar dryers the
thermal energy is taken from the solar air collector/heater unit and hot air
flows on the product surface and raises the product temperature. In mixed
mode solar dryers, above discussed both modes of heating take place, which
results faster drying process. However, in normal absorber or inverted
absorber, air flows above the absorber and heats the product.

Fig. 11.4 Various solar dryers (a) Direct mode dryer (b) Indirect mode
dryer (c) Reverse absorber dryer (d) Mixed mode dryer

11.3.3 Solar Cookers

Solar cooker is a device, which utilizes solar energy as input energy to cook the
food items. The incident solar energy is absorbed by the blackened box and cook
the food items (box type solar cooker) or the solar radiations are concentrated
and utilized to cook the food items (parabolic dish type solar cooker).
Box type solar cooker

The box-type solar cooker is shown in Fig. 11.5. It is suitable for non-pressure
boiling type of cooking. The maximum cooking temperature is about 100oC. It
consists of double wall insulated rectangular box with double glazed at top to
240
reduce heat loss from exposed surface. The body may be made up of fiber re- Solar and
Hydropower Energy
inforced plastic (FRP) material with light weight. There is reflector on one side
with same effective area to reflect more solar radiation towards cooking vessel.
The cooking period is generally between 11am to 2pm for clear sky condition
throughout year.

Fig. 11.5 Box-type solar cooker

The components of solar cooker are:

(1) Double glass lid, (2) Aluminium cooking pots, (3) Inner tray formed out of
aluminium sheet, (4) Outer box of teakwood with glass wool insulation and (5)
Booster mirror.

Working principle

As shown in Fig. 11.5 the double-glazed surface of solar cooker receives

incident and reflected solar radiation. The resultant incident radiation can be
given as the sum of the two. The total solar radiation is transmitted inside
solar cooker, which is absorbed by blackened cooking pot and inside surfaces.
The absorbed solar radiation inside solar cooker is transferred by convection
to inside cooking pot for heating of water to cook the food. During cooking,
there is an overall heat loss through top, side and bottom of solar cooker. The
quantities of heat required for physical/chemical changes involved in cooking
are small comparison to the sensible heat of increasing water/food temperature.

Parabolic dish type solar cooker

In dish type solar cooker, solar radiation incident on the parabolic dish after
reflection concentrated on the focal point of the parabolic dish, where the
cooking pot is placed. The diagram of the dish type solar cooker is shown
in Fig. 11.6. As the solar radiations are collected on a smaller area, it can be
operated at higher temperature (nearly 4500 C). This type of solar cooker is
movable and it can be oriented such that the solar radiation falls at the normally
on the parabolic dish.
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Energy Resources

Fig. 11.6 Parabolic dish type solar cooker

11.3.4 Solar Stills

Solar stills are the devices, which utilizes solar energy as the input energy for
the distillation of brackish water or saline water to obtain potable water. This
technique is well suitable for the potable water production in rural area. The use
of solar collectors or photovoltaic thermal collectors, reduces the consumption
of conventional fuels. Solar still consists of a metal box of desired volume,
open from the top and painted black inside, the outer and bottom side of the box
is insulated to reduce the convective losses from side and bottom of the box.
Top of the box has inclined surface, which is covered with the tempered glass.
You will learn about the working principle of solar still after the classification
of the solar still.

Classification of solar still

The solar still is broadly classified as passive solar still and active solar still.
Similar to the solar dryers the passive solar still works in natural mode of
operation and active solar still works in force mode of operation. Depending
on the inclination of top surface the solar stills are classified as single slope
solar still and double slope solar still. In double slope solar still, if the
inclination angles are same, it is termed as symmetrical solar still otherwise
it is non-symmetrical solar still. Fig. 11.7 shows the schematics of different
solar stills.

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 Solar and
Hydropower Energy

Fig. 11.7 Schematics of (a) single slope passive solar still (b) double slope
solar still (c) single slope active solar still integrated with solar thermal
collector

Working principle of solar distillation

The incident solar radiation after transmission from the transparent top
cover goes into the water mass, where some part of transmitted radiation
is absorbed in water mass and remaining radiations are absorbed at the
blackened basin of the solar still. The absorbed radiations heat the absorber
plate and thermal energy is transferred from the absorber plate to the water
mass as well as minute fraction of thermal energy is lost from the bottom of
the basin through the insulation. With the rise in water temperature thermal
energy is transferred from water surface to the top transparent cover via
radiation, convection and evaporation. When the water vapor touches the
top glass cover, it releases some of its thermal energy to the top transparent
cover and condenses. The condensed droplets of water trickles down to the
lower ends of inclined transparent cover due to gravity and are stored in
containers.

11.3.5 Solar Electricity Generation- Photovoltaic Cells

Photovoltaic cell or solar cell is a device, which converts solar radiation

243
Energy Resources into the electricity. The solar cells are classified on the basis of materials
and manufacturing techniques. The various types of solar cells are (a) single
crystal, (b) poly crystalline and (c) amorphous, (d) compound thin film
material. The recent and advanced solar cell with high efficiencies are Light-
absorbing dyes (DSSC), Organic/polymer solar cells, Nanocrystalline solar
cells, perovskite solar cells.

Crystalline silicon cells (c-Si) are most efficient solar cells (efficiency about
20%) at the same time, they are expensive as compared to the other solar
cell. Thin film solar cells are manufactured with various compound materials
such as Copper-Indium Selenide (CuInSe2), Cadmium Sulphide (CdS),
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe), Indium Phospate (InP), etc.

Principle of electricity generation (Photovoltaic effect)

The incident solar radiation on the solar cell is absorbed and it dissociates the
covalent bond in the depletion region of p-n diode. In this process, electron-
hole pairs are generated and the charge carriers (electrons and holes) moves
due to the internal electric field and produces photo-current (IL). This effect
is known as photovoltaic effect. This photo-current is in opposite direction
to that of diode current.

Photovoltaic (PV) Module and PV Array

Single solar cell generate very small power, which is insufficient for practical
applications, therefore, solar cells are connected in series and packaged between
top glass cover and bottom opaque/transparent cover to protect it from adverse
weather conditions; this packaged solar cells is known as photovoltaic (PV)
module. A photovoltaic (PV) array is a collection series or parallel or both
series and parallel connected photovoltaic (PV) modules. The number of series
or parallel connected modules depends on the desired power. The electrical
output of the PV module/PV array depends on solar irradiance, solar cell
temperature and electrical efficiency and load resistance. PV modules are rated
in peak watt (Wp), defined as the output power from PV module at 1000 W/m2.
A 40Wp rated PV module produces energy between 100 Wh to 200 Wh per day.
Fig. 11.8 shows the photographs of typical PV modules.

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 Solar and
Hydropower Energy

Fig 11.8 Opaque and Semi-transparent PV modules

11.3.6 Solar Photovoltaic Thermal Collectors

The electrical efficiency of photovoltaic (PV) module depends on operating
temperature of PV module. Lower the temperature of PV module, higher will
be the electrical efficiency. The temperature of PV module can be lowered by
extracting the thermal energy via the heat transfer fluid such as water or air.
In this case, you can gain thermal energy from the PV module with increased
electrical efficiency, such systems are known a photovoltaic thermal (PVT)
collector. These collectors can be classified as PVT water collector, PVT air
collectors, PVT dryer, PVT greenhouse, etc. PV system can also be integrated
with solar concentrators producing new type of concentrators known as PVT
concentrators.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
2. What are the uses of solar energy?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………......................…………

11.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy Systems

The energy generation systems you have studied in the previous sections require
solar energy as the input energy for the energy production. The abundant solar
energy makes these systems a potential candidate for the energy security in
future. You can list the major advantages of these systems as following:
245
Energy Resources (i) These systems are non-polluting and eco-friendly, it reduces the
greenhouse gas emissions.
(ii) These systems can save the conventional energy sources for the future
generation and can also even replace the conventional energy sources
with technological advances and cost reductions.
(iii) These systems can be the best option for the de-centralized sources
of energy for the remote and inaccessible locations of developing
countries like India.
(iv) Installation of these systems provides local employment with very less
training for the operation and maintenance of these systems.
(v) The installation, operation and maintenance cost of the solar energy
systems are cost effective though initially photovoltaic system are
expensive.

In addition to the above advantages, you have certain challenges of these

systems listed as below

(i) Energy generation efficiency of these systems are low as compared to

the system based on conventional sources.
(ii) Operation of these system totally depends on the weather conditions,
therefore, an alternate energy source is needed for the backup purpose.
(iii) These systems require large area for the installation of even medium
scale power plants.
(iv) In case for PV generation, if PV systems are not grid connected the
power should be stored in batteries, which require a good share of
money.
(v) For utilization of power in household appliance or to fed to the grid, the
DC power need to be converted in AC power controllers and inverters.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of solar energy?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………......................…………………

11.4 HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY

As you learned in the introduction section that how electrical energy is
generated from the water stored at a height. The electrical energy production
246
mainly depends on the height of the stored water (Head) and quantity of the Solar and
water flowing through the turbine. Head of water can be natural (water-falls, Hydropower Energy
natural reservoirs, etc.) as well as artificial (dams). Power generation from
naturals reservoirs is not constant and however, power generation from dams
is fairly constant and controllable. The availability of water depends on the
rainfall throughout the year.

11.4.1 Principle and Working of Hydropower Plants

The principle of hydropower plant is to convert potential energy stored at a
height into the kinetic energy by falling it on the turbine, further converting
this kinetic energy into the electrical energy. The water from a height falls on
the turbine blades attached to the shaft which rotates the shaft, rotating shaft is
attached to the electrical generator which produces electricity. The water falling
on turbine discharged through drainage system and goes to the river or can
be used for the irrigation or any other purpose. The schematic diagram of the
hydro-electric power plant is shown in Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 11.9 Schematic of hydro-electric power plant

The major necessary components of hydropower plants are (i) Water source:
natural reservoirs or artificial dams to create head, (ii) Water ways: tunnel,
channel or penstock to carry water from reservoir to the turbine, (iii) Flow
control: trash racks: prevents debris to enter into the water passage, gates:
provides smooth flow of water and forebay: storage at the inlet of penstock, it
is required when powerhouse is away from the dam base, (iv) Power house: It
consists of turbines, generators and other components for operating the machine,
(v) Tailrace: discharge the water from the turbine to a suitable point, (vi) Power
247
Energy Resources generation and transmission: It includes electrical machines, transformers,
transmission lines control system and (vii) Drive system: to control the speed
of the shafts.

11.4.2 Classification of Hydropower Plants/Systems

You can classify the hydropower plants on various basis such as storage type,
head available, load capacity, and production capacity. (a) On the basis of
storage type: these are classified as (i) Run-of-river plants: it works without
storage of water and have low head, (ii) Reservoir plants: it works on the
stored water in artificial dams and (iii) Pumped storage plant: it reuses the
water by pumping it to the reservoir, these are power consuming plants and are
expensive.

(b) On the basis of load capacity: you can categorize these plants as (i) Base
load plants: they supply constant power to the grid. They can be remotely
controlled plants. (ii) Peak load plants: they supply variable power to the grid
depending upon the demand.

(c) On the basis of head available: you can have (i) Low head: heads less than
30 m, (ii) Medium head: heads between 30-300 m and (iii) High head: heads
more than 300 m.

(d) on the basis of power production capacity: you have (i) large scale
hydropower plants (production capacity more than 25000 kW) and (ii) small
scale hydropower plants. The small scale hydropower plants are further
divided into micro-hydro (production capacity up to 100 kW), mini-hydro
(production capacity from 101 to 2000 kW) and small hydro (production
capacity from 2001 to 25000 kW).

11.4.3 Global and Regional Status of Hydropower

In this section, you will get information about the global (world-wide) status
and the regional i.e. distribution of hydropower in world and different regions
of India. According to the 2019 Hydropower Status Report, published by the
International Hydropower Association (IHA), more than 21.8 gigawatts (GW)
of hydropower capacity was added in year 2018. The total electricity generation
from hydropower reached a record 4,200 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2018, and
the hydropower capacity achieved reached to 1,292 GW. Top eight countries
with rank wise additional operational capacity of hydropower plants are listed
in Table 11.1. As per the additional installed capacity in 2018, the top three
countries producing electricity from hydropower plants are China (352.3 GW),
Brazil (104.1 GW) and United States (102.7 GW).

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 Solar and
Table 11.1 Additional hydropower Table 11.2 Pumped hydropower Hydropower Energy
capacity in year 2018 storage capacity in 2018

S. No. Country Capacity S. No. Country Capacity

Name (MW) Name (GW)
1 China 8,540 1 China 30.0
2 Brazil 3,866 2 Japan 27.6
3 Pakistan 2,487 3 USA 22.9
4 Turkey 1,085 4 Italy 7.6
5 Angola 668 5 France 7.0
6 Tajikistan 605 6 Germany 6.8
7 Ecuador 556 7 Spain 6.2
8 India 535 8 Austria 5.5
9 Norway 419 9 India 4.8
10 Canada 401 10 South Korea 4.7

In addition to the conventional hydropower plants, there is worldwide 160.3

GW additional installation of pumped hydropower storage capacity in 2018.
The major contributing countries in additional pumped hydropower storage
capacity are given in Table 11.2. World-wide region wise addition of hydropower
plant in 2018 was maximum 9.169 GW from East Asia and Pacific, the other
major zones are South America (4.855 GW), South and Central Asia (3.962
GW), Europe (2.202 GW), Africa (1.009 GW) and North and Central America
(0.620 GW).

From the perspective of our country, starting from the 130 kW hydroelectric
power plant in Darjeeling, west Bengal in 1897, we have 44,478.5 MW of
capacity (excluding the hydropower plants below 25 MW production capacity)
as on 31st March 2017 with the maximum unit capacity of 250 MW. The hydro
schemes under construction, account to capacity of 10848.5 MW (excluding
Pumped Storage Schemes of 1,080 MW). The status of hydropower plant above
25 MW capacity are summarized in Table 11.3.
Table 11.3 Status of hydropower plant above 25 MW in India (As on 31st
March 2017)

Potential at different levels Conventional Pumped

(MW) Storage
(MW)

Total Potential 145320 96524

Under operation 39692.8 4785.6

Under construction 10848.5 1080

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Energy Resources
DPRs concurred by CEA & yet to be 25160 1000
constructed

DPRs under examination by CEA 6414 0

DPRs returned by CEA for resubmission 8094 500

Under S & I for preparation of DPRs 6327 0

Schemes under S & I – held up 13857 0

Total developed/underdevelopment 110393.3 7365.6

CEA: Central Electricity Authority; S&I:

Study and Investigation; DPRs: Detailed
Project Reports

The hydropower plants up to 25 MW are managed by Ministry of New and

Renewable Energy (MNRE), as of December 31, 2017, the potential of small
hydropower plants has been assessed as 21,133.62 MW, in which 4418.16 MW
are installed and in operation and 754.16 MW projects are under implementation.
Region wise status of hydroelectric capacity is listed in Table 11.4.
Table 11.4 Region wise status of hydropower plant above 25 MW (As on
31st March 2017)

Region Identified Capacity Capacity under Capacity yet to

capacity developed construction be developed
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
Northern 52263 18527.3 4898.5 28837.3
Western 8131 5552.0 400.0 2179.0
Southern 15890 9653.1 1150.0 5086.9
Eastern 10680 4718.5 1446.0 4515.6
North- 58356 1242.0 2954.0 54160.0
Eastern
All India 145320 39692.8 10848.5 94778.7

In addition to data given in Table 11.4, 4785.60 MW of pumped storage schemes

are under operation and 1080 MW of pumped storage are under construction.
The hydro capacity of 44,479 MW (as on 31st March, 2017) consist of 3611.67
MW Run of River (RoR); 15,139 MW RoR with pondage; 20,942 MW storage
type includes 4785.6 MW of pump storage type.

11.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

You can list some major advantages of the hydropower systems as follows:

250 (i) The input for electricity generation for hydropower system is water,
 which is a renewable and non-polluting. Hence these systems are eco- Solar and
friendly and renewable sources of energy. Hydropower Energy

(ii) For automated and remotely controlled system, running cost is less.
(iii) The energy conversion efficiency of hydropower systems is about
80%, compared to the thermal power plants and other renewable
energy source having energy conversion efficiency ranging from 20-
40%.
(iv) The drained water can be utilized for agricultural as well as for other
purposes like river regulation and wildlife protection, etc.
(v) Various components and equipment for these systems has long life and
also the maintenance is less, which require less manpower and less
maintenance cost.
(vi) These systems can be constructed in the remote areas with water
availability to provide electricity locally.

Disadvantages

The hydropower systems have many challenges, you can list the disadvantages
related to these systems as follows:
(i) Land acquisition issues: These issues delay the starting of construction
of hydropower plants.
(ii) Rehabilitation and resettlement issues: The people residing in the area
for the construction of hydropower plants should be displaced at some
other places.
(iii) Environment and forest issues: The construction and operation of
hydropower plants require afforestation in non-forest lands. Also,
the natural river system can be affected, when rivers are channelized
towards the dam. The channelization of rivers can also affect the wild
life population as well as the fishes in rivers.
(iv) Law and order/Local issues: The protest from the local people related
to rehabilitation, compensation, demand of employment, etc. can
create law and order problems, which can delay the construction and
other related works. Also, the interstate issues related to water sharing
can also hinder the work progress.
(v) Natural calamities like cloud burst, heavy rain, earthquakes, etc.
delay the project and safety and security problems and border areas of
country are major concern, which require additional force and security
solution for the construction and operation of the hydropower plants.
(vi) In remote areas, at initial stage, unavailability of grid power compels
to use the DG sets. Supply of fuels for DG sets in the remote locations
is the time taking process, which delay the commencement of
construction works.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers. 251
Energy Resources b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of hydropower plant?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………......................…………………

11.5 LET US SUM UP

Solar energy is the main form of renewable energy which is clean and eco-
friendly. The other forms of renewable energy such as wind energy, biomass
energy, ocean energy, etc. are the derivatives of solar energy. The systems,
which collects and converts the solar radiation into thermal energy are known
as the solar thermal systems and the device which collects and converts the solar
radiation into electricity is known as photovoltaic cell (solar cell) / photovoltaic
module.

Solar thermal collectors or flat plate collectors are the systems, which collects
the solar radiations incident on to it and convert these radiations into the useful
thermal energy, which is transferred to the heat transfer fluid (air/water/oil).
They are classified on the basis of (i) geometry of collection unit, (ii) type of
heat transfer fluid, (iii) mode of operation and (iv) type of energy output.

Photovoltaic cell or solar cell is a device, which converts solar radiation into
the electricity. The solar cells are classified on the basis of materials and
manufacturing techniques. Single solar cell generate very small power, which is
insufficient for practical applications, therefore, solar cells are connected in series
and packaged between top glass cover and bottom opaque/transparent cover to
protect it from adverse weather conditions; this packaged solar cells is known
as photovoltaic (PV) module. A photovoltaic (PV) array is a collection series or
parallel or both series and parallel connected photovoltaic (PV) modules.

Solar energy systems are non-polluting and eco-friendly, it reduces the

greenhouse gas emissions, dependency and they are economical. These systems
can be best option for the de-centralized sources of energy for the remote and
inaccessible locations of developing countries like India. These systems also
carry some disadvantages like energy generation efficiency of these systems are
low as compared to the system based on conventional sources. These systems
are weather dependent, requires large area, batteries for storage, inverters, etc.,
which increases the cost.

Hydropower is the power generated from water stored at a height. It works

on principle of converting potential energy stored at a height into the kinetic
energy to rotate turbines and then again converting the mechanical energy of
turbine into the electrical energy utilizing generator. Hydropower plants can
be classified on the basis of storage type, head available, load capacity, and
production capacity. Hydropower is a non-polluting renewable source of
energy with less running cost. The drained water can be utilized for agricultural
252
as well as for other purposes like river regulation and wildlife protection, etc. Solar and
The hydropower systems have many challenges like land acquisition issues, Hydropower Energy
rehabilitation and resettlement issues, environment and forest issues, law and
order/local issues, natural calamities, etc.

11.6 KEY WORDS

Solar Energy : The energy coming in the form of
electromagnetic radiations from the
Sun is known as the solar energy.
Conduction : Conduction is the heat transfer
mode in which thermal energy is
transferred from high temperature
to low temperature due to thermal
vibrations and collision of electrons
(solids) and due to diffusion of
molecules/collisions between the
molecules (liquids and gases).
Convection : Convection is the mechanism of
heat transfer in fluids where bulk
movement of molecules from higher
temperature to lower temperature
(due to density gradient of heat
transfer fluid) is responsible for the
transfer of thermal energy in fluid.
Radiation : Radiative thermal energy is
transferred from one body to another
body via electromagnetic thermal
radiations.
Solar Thermal Collectors : Solar thermal collectors or flat plate
collectors are the systems, which
collects the solar radiations incident
on to it and convert these radiations
into the useful thermal energy.
Solar Stills : The devices, which utilizes solar
energy as the input energy for the
distillation of brackish water or saline
water to obtain potable water.
Photovoltaic Cell : Photovoltaic cell or solar cell is a
device, which converts solar radiation
into the electricity.
Hydroelectric Energy : Hydroelectric energy, also
called hydroelectric power or
hydroelectricity, is a form of energy
that harnesses the power of water in
motion 253
Energy Resources
11.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED
FURTHER READINGS
1. McMordie, R.K., Brown, M.C. and Stoughton, R.S. 2012. Solar Energy
Fundamentals. River Publishers, Denmark.
2. Sukhatme, S.P. and Nayak, J.K. 2018. Solar Energy, 4th Edition, McGraw
Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd., Chennai
3. Kalogirou, S.A. 2013. Solar Energy Engineering: Processes and Systems.
2nd Edition. Elsevier.
4. Jha, A.R. 2009. Solar Cell Technology and Applications. CRC Press
5. Wagner, H.J. and Mathur, J. 2011. Introduction to Hydro Energy Systems:
Basics, Technology and Operation. Springer, Berlin.
6. Pandey B. and Karki, A. 2017. Hydroelectric Energy: Renewable Energy
and the Environment. CRC Press.
7. Kanoğlu, Mehmet, Yunus A. Çengel, and John M. Cimbala. 2020.
Fundamentals and Applications of Renewable Energy. 1st ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill Education.

11.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Your answers should include the following points:
1. The energy coming in the form of electromagnetic radiations from the Sun
is known as the solar energy. Solar energy can be harnessed by a device/
system which collects the incident solar radiation and converts the incident
light energy into other forms of energy like thermal energy and electrical
energy.
2. The solar energy collected as the thermal energy from the solar collectors
and concentrator can be directly used as the heat for different applications.
The solar heaters are classified as solar water heater and solar air heater
and used for water and space heating purposes. Solar dryers are the device,
which utilizes solar energy for drying applications in agriculture. Solar
cooker is a device, which utilizes solar energy as input energy to cook the
food items. Solar stills are the devices, which utilizes solar energy as the
input energy for the distillation of brackish water or saline water to obtain
potable water. Solar cell/panel is used for the electricity generation.
3. Advantages: The major advantages of solar energy systems are as follows:
i. The abundant solar energy makes these systems a potential candidate
for the energy security in future.
ii. These systems are non-polluting and eco-friendly, it reduces the
greenhouse gas emissions.
iii. These systems can save the conventional energy sources for the future
generation and can also even replace the conventional energy sources
with technological advances and cost reductions.
254
 iv. These systems can be the best option for the de-centralized sources Solar and
of energy for the remote and inaccessible locations of developing Hydropower Energy
countries like India.
v. Installation of these systems provides local employment with very less
training for the operation and maintenance of these systems.
vi. The installation, operation and maintenance cost of the solar energy
systems are cost effective though initially photovoltaic system are
expensive.

Disadvantages: The major disadvantages of solar energy systems are as

follows:
i. Energy generation efficiency of these systems are low as compared to
the system based on conventional sources.
ii. Operation of these system totally depends on the weather conditions,
therefore, an alternate energy source is needed for the backup purpose.
iii. These systems require large area for the installation of even medium
scale power plants.
iv. In case of PV generation, if PV systems are not grid connected the
power should be stored in batteries, which require a good share of
money.
v. For utilization of power in household appliance or to fed to the grid, the
DC power need to be converted in AC power controllers and inverters.
4. Advantages: The major advantages of the hydropower systems are as
follows:
i. The input for electricity generation for hydropower system is water,
which is a renewable and non-polluting. Hence these systems are eco-
friendly and renewable sources of energy.
ii. For automated and remotely controlled system, running cost is less.
iii. The energy conversion efficiency of hydropower systems is about
80%, compared to the thermal power plants and other renewable
energy source having energy conversion efficiency ranging from 20-
40%.
iv. The drained water can be utilized for agricultural as well as for other
purposes like river regulation and wildlife protection, etc.
v. Various components and equipment for these systems has long life and
also the maintenance is less, which require less manpower and less
maintenance cost.
vi. These systems can be constructed in the remote areas with water
availability to provide electricity locally.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages related to these systems are as follows:

i. Land acquisition issues: These issues delay the starting of construction
of hydropower plants.
255
Energy Resources ii. Rehabilitation and resettlement issues: The people residing in the area
for the construction of hydropower plants should be displaced at some
other places.
iii. Environment and forest issues: The construction and operation of
hydropower plants require afforestation in non-forest lands. Also,
the natural river system can be affected, when rivers are channelized
towards the dam. The channelization of rivers can also affect the wild
life population as well as the fishes in rivers.
iv. Law and order/Local issues: The protest from the local people related
to rehabilitation, compensation, demand of employment, etc. can
create law and order problems, which can delay the construction and
other related works. Also, the interstate issues related to water sharing
can also hinder the work progress.
v. Natural calamities like cloud burst, heavy rain, earthquakes, etc.
delay the project and safety and security problems and border areas of
country are major concern, which require additional force and security
solution for the construction and operation of the hydropower plants.
vi. In remote areas, at initial stage, unavailability of grid power compels
to use the DG sets. Supply of fuels for DG sets in the remote locations
is the time taking process, which delay the commencement of
construction works.

256
 Wind Energy and
UNIT 12 WIND ENERGY AND Geothermal Energy

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Wind Energy
12.3 Harnessing of Wind Energy
12.3.1 Process of Harnessing of Wind Energy

12.3.2 Advantages of Harnessing Wind Energy

12.3.3 Types of Wind mills/Wind turbines

12.4 Wind Energy/Wind Power in India

12.5 Geothermal Energy
12.5.1 Sources of Geothermal Energy

12.5.2 Types of Geothermal energy

12.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

12.6 Prospects of Geothermal Energy in India

12.7 Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES)
12.7.1 Principle

12.7.2 Underground Thermal Energy Storage (UTES)

12.7.3 Applications of Underground Thermal Energy Storage (UTES)

12.8 Let Us Sum Up

12.9 Key Words
12.10 Suggested Further Readings/References
12.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

12.0 INTRODUCTION
We all know that our sustainable energy is very important for us.
Sustainable energy means energy sources that will allow the Earth to sustain
balance between healthy ecosystems and human life. We are aware that
energy is necessary for all activities in and around us, which provides
comfort, increases productivity and allows us to live by our own way. At
present, most of our energy demand is met by the energy obtained from
conventional fossil fuels such as coal, petrol, diesel, natural gas, kerosene
etc. These conventional energy sources are creating environmental problems
by releasing harmful by-products that increase pollution and contribute to
global warming. Even fossil fuels, coal, oil and gas are limited and the gap 257
Energy Resources between demand and supply of the energy sources is being increased day by
day. Therefore, there is a need /necessity to switch to new and renewable
energy sources. It is a fact that India has one of the highest potentials for
effective use of renewable energy.

In this connection, sustainable energy is emerging as an important component

of energy markets in a number of regions. In this unit, we will discuss about
the wind energy, geothermal energy and ATES.

12.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
●● define the sustainable energy and importance of sustainable energy;
●● describe the wind energy, geothermal energy and Aquifer Thermal Energy
Storage (ATES);
●● describe the harnessing of energy (wind and geothermal energy) and its
advantage; and
●● describe the process by which wind/geothermal energy is used to generate
electricity.

12.2 WIND ENERGY

Everyone knows that wind has been used by humans as an energy source
for such things as transportation and food production since early time. New
technologies of using the energy as wind eventually spread around the world.
Before explaining the wind energy, we should know the reason behind
the need of alternative energy sources or sustainable energy sources. It is
estimated that we could run out of oil in about 40 years and of natural gas
soon after. By the 11th century, people in the Middle East used windmills
extensively for food production. People used windmills to grind wheat and
corn, to pump water and to cut wood at sawmills. With the development
of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings
remotely from centrally generated power. Throughout the 20th century,
small wind plants, suitable for farms and residences, and larger utility-scale
wind farms that could be connected to electricity grids were developed. The
oil shortages of the 1970s changed the energy picture for the whole world. It
created an interest in alternative energy sources, paving the way for the re-
entry of the wind turbine to generate electricity. Harnessing energy from the
wind and turning it into renewable electricity has many advantages. Although
wind energy has a long history back as far as 5,000 BC, the technology has
never been better or more cost effective than it is right now.

Wind power is the ability to make electricity using the air flows that occur
naturally in the earth’s atmosphere. Wind energy/Wind power is useful because
it is a clean fuel source and doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely
on combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Wind turbines don't
produce atmospheric emissions that increase health problems like asthma
258
or create acid rain or greenhouse gases. The electricity generated by wind Wind Energy and
turbines can be stored in batteries at a later time when there is no wind. In this Geothermal Energy
situation, energy generated is converted into compressed air. This is usually
stored in large above-ground tanks or in underground caverns.

Wind is a type of renewable energy, and there are three major types of wind
power:
1. Utility-scale wind turbines larger than 100 kilowatts are developed with
electricity delivered to the power grid and distributed to the end user by
electric utilities or power system operators.
2. Distributed or "small" wind turbines: Turbines of 100 kilowatts or smaller
to directly power a home, farm or small business as it primary use.
3. Offshore wind turbines: Wind turbines erected in bodies of water around
the world.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. What is wind power?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

12.3 HARNESSING OF WIND ENERGY

Wind energy is a form of solar energy. In modern times, the high speed wind,
which rotates the wind mill, is connected to generator to produce electricity.
Wind turbines are used to convert the kinetic energy into mechanical power and
a generator can convert mechanical power into electricity.

12.3.1 PROCESS OF HARNESSING OF WIND ENERGY

Wind energy is produced by using a large wind turbine. A wind turbine
works on a simple principle. Energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-
like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which
spins a generator to create electricity. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower
to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above ground,
they can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind. Wind turbines can
be used to produce electricity for a single home or building, or they can be
connected to an electricity grid for more widespread electricity distribution.
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power.
The output of a wind turbine depends on the turbine's size and the wind's speed
through the rotor. An average onshore wind turbine with a capacity of 2.5–3
MW can produce more than 6 million kWh in a year, which can supply 1,500
average EU households with electricity. One wind turbine can be sufficient to
generate energy for a household. Because wind is a source of energy, which is
non-polluting and renewable, wind turbines create power without using fossil
fuels, without producing greenhouse gases or radioactive or toxic waste. 259
Energy Resources Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
2. Why is renewable energy important?

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

12.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF HARNESSING WIND ENERGY

The advantage of wind energy is as below:

●● Wind energy is a clean fuel source; it does not pollute the air. Wind turbines
don't produce atmospheric emissions that increase health problems like
asthma or create acid rain or greenhouse gases. “According to the Wind
Vision Report, wind has the potential to reduce cumulative greenhouse
gas emissions by 14%, saving $400 billion in avoided global damage by
2050”.
●● Wind power does not use water, unlike conventional electricity sources,
however production of nuclear, coal, or gas-fired power uses huge amount
of water for cooling. Water is becoming a scarce resource all over the
country and wind power uses zero water in its energy generation.
●● Wind is a domestic source of energy and it is abundant in nature. Over
the past 10 years, wind capacity increased an average of 31% per year,
reaching a cumulative capacity of over 75,000 MW in 2016, enough to
power over 20 million homes. Wind power is the largest source of annual
new generating capacity, followed by next two leading sources, solar
power and natural gas.
●● Wind power is inexhaustible; it is caused by the heating of the atmosphere
by the sun, the rotation of the Earth, and the Earth's surface irregularities.
For as long as the sun shines and the wind blows, the energy produced
can be harnessed to send power across the grid.
●● Wind power is cost-effective. It is one of the lowest-cost renewable
energy technologies available today, with power prices offered by newly
built wind farms averaging 2 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending on the
wind resource and the particular project’s financing.
●● Wind turbines can be built on existing farms; this greatly benefits the
economy in rural areas, where most of the best wind sites are found.
Farmers and ranchers can continue to work the land because the wind
turbines use only a fraction of the acreage. Wind power plant owners
make rent payments to the farmer or rancher for the use of the land,
providing landowners with additional income.

260
The advantage and disadvantage of wind energy is given below: Wind Energy and
Geothermal Energy
Advantages Disadvantages
1. It is free and renewable 1. During operation produces very high
resource noise;

2. It is source of clean, non- 2. It is intermittent and does not always

polluting, electricity blow when electricity is needed;

3. Cost effective in production of 3. Higher initial investment than fossil-

electricity once set up as no fuel to fuelled generators;
purchase and minimal operating
expenses 4. Wind cannot be stored (although
wind-generated electricity can be
4. It is safe, cleaner and more stored, if batteries are used), and not
renewable. all winds can be harnessed to meet the
timing of electricity demands;

5. Good wind sites are often located

in remote locations far from areas of
electric power demand;

6. Birds and bats having been killed

(avian/bat mortality) by flying into the
rotors.

12.3.3 TYPES OF WIND MILLS/WIND TURBINES

There are different types of windmills, dependent on the requirement.
1. Wind-turbines

It is a three rotor designed windmill, which is used to convert the kinetic energy
i.e. energy of motion of the wheel due to wind into mechanical energy. It is
connected to a generator which converts into electricity. In other words, wind
turbines are used to convert the wind energy into electricity. The electricity in
wind turbines travels through distribution lines to houses, school, offices, etc.
2. Post Mill

Post mills were developed by French and English. The early developed
windmills did not have brakes and were constructed until 19th century. One of
the basic uses of post mill is for grinding stone, but since it is small in size, there
is limitation in grinding. The two types of post mill: open and closed post mill.

261
Energy Resources

3. Simple drain

Simple Drain Mill is used in irrigation to pump water into irrigation canals. This
type of windmill is mostly found in Netherland. This small mill is designed
with sails fixed in hollow pipe with Archimedean screw. This drain mill is used
in extremely swampy lands.
4. American windmill

This windmill was invented by Daniel Halladay in 1854. It was later patented by
Halladay, this windmill did not require attention by the operator. Initially, this
was built from wood and required lot of maintenance. In recent days, the wood
was replaced by metal and found lot of reliability. Also there was improvement
with self-oiling gearboxes and pivoting wind wheels used by windmill. This
was more efficient and maintenance free.
3. Tower Mill

These tower mills are mostly found in Europe, where this windmills are installed
across the sea shore facing the sea to generate energy. The sail of the tower is
similar to sail of the boats. The sails have several masts–structures above the
upper part of the boat to hold sails and these structures are fixed to a rotating
shaft and were first built both on and offshore near Crete, Italy and Greece.
262
Check Your Progress 3 Wind Energy and
Geothermal Energy
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
3. What are the advantages of wind power?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
4. What is the difference between wind mill and wind turbines?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

12.4 WIND ENERGY / WIND POWER IN INDIA

The development of wind power in India began in 1986 and first wind farms being
set up in coastal areas of Maharashtra (Ratnagiri), Gujarat (Okha) and Tamil
Nadu (Tirunelveli) with 55 KW Vestas wind turbines. These demonstration
projects were supported by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. The
potential for wind farms in the country was first assessed in 2011 to be more
than 2,000 GW by Professor Jami Hossain of TERI University, New Delhi.
Wind power generation capacity in India has significantly increased in recent
years. As of the end of March 2017, the total installed wind power capacity
was 32.17 GW, mainly spread across the South, West and North regions. By
the end of 2015, India had the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in
the world. The levelised tariff of wind power reached a record low of ₹3.46
(5.4¢ US) per kWh (without any direct or indirect subsidies) during auctions for
wind projects in February 2017.
Wind power accounts nearly 9.87% of India's total installed power generation
capacity and generated 46,011 million kWh in the fiscal year 2016-17, which
is nearly 3% of total electricity generation. The capacity utilization factor is
nearly 19.62% in the fiscal year 2016-17 (14% in 2015-16). 70% of wind
generation is during the five months duration from May to September coinciding
with Southwest monsoon duration.
Tamil Nadu's wind power capacity is around 29% of India's total. Now Tamil
Nadu has become a leader in Wind Power in India. In Muppandal windfarm
the total capacity is 1500 MW, the largest wind power plant in India. The total
wind installed capacity in Tamil Nadu is 7633 MW. Maharashtra is one of the
prominent states that installed wind power projects second to Tamil Nadu in
India. Wind power generations capacity in the Gujarat state has increased a
staggering ten times in just six years. ONGC Ltd. has installed a 51MW wind
energy farm at Bhuj in Gujarat.
“In consideration of unique concept, Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has sanctioned
another 15 MW project to Madhya Pradesh Windfarms Ltd. MPWL, Bhopal at
Nagda Hills. 55 MW production of wind power is installed in Kerala. The first
wind farm of the state was set up in 1997 at Kanjikode in Palakkad district.
Odisha a coastal state has higher potential for wind energy. Current installation
capacity stands at 2.0 MW”. 263
Energy Resources Odisha has a wind power potential of 1700MW. The Govt of Odisha is actively
pursuing to boost Wind power generation in the state. The total installation
in West Bengal is 2.10 MW till December, 2009 at Fraserganj, Distt- South 24
Paraganas. More 0.5 MW (approx.) at Ganga Sagar, Kakdwip, Distt - South
24 Paraganas. Both the project owned by West Bengal Renewable Energy
Development Agency (WBREDA), Govt. of West Bengal. Total installed wind
capacity in India is about 41 GW.

In India, various power plants are installed in different states. The capacity and
details are shown in Table 12.1 India's largest wind power production facility
is 10MW.

Table 12.1: Production of wind energy (MW) in power

plants installed in different states of India

Rank Power plant Location State MWe

1 Muppandal windfarm Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 1500
2 Jaisalmer Wind Park Jaisalmer Rajasthan 1064
3 Brahmanvel Dhule Maharashtra 528
windfarm
4 Dhalgaon windfarm Sangli Maharashtra 278
5 Vankusawade Wind Satara District. Maharashtra 259
Park
6 Vaspet Vaspet Maharashtra 144
7 Beluguppa Wind Park Beluguppa Andhra Pradesh 100.8
8 Mamatkheda Wind Mamatkheda Madhya 100.5
Park Pradesh
9 Anantapur Wind Park Nimbagallu Andhra Pradesh 100
10 Damanjodi Wind Damanjodi Odisha 99
Power Plant
11 Jath Jath Maharashtra 84
12 Welturi Welturi Maharashtra 75
13 Acciona Tuppadahalli Chitradurga Karnataka 56.1
District
14 Dangiri Wind Farm Jaiselmer Rajasthan 54
15 Bercha Wind Park Ratlam Madhya 50
Pradesh
16 Cape Comorin Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 33
17 Kayathar Subhash Kayathar Tamil Nadu 30
18 Jasdan Jasdan Gujarat 25.2
19 Ramakkalmedu Ramakkalmedu Kerala 25
20 Gudimangalam Gudimangalam Tamil Nadu 21
264
 Wind Energy and
21 Shalivahana Wind Tirupur Tamil Nadu 20.4 Geothermal Energy
22 Puthlur RCI Puthlur Andhra Pradesh 20
23 Lamda Danida Lamba Gujarat 15
24 Chennai Mohan Chennai Tamil Nadu 15
25 Shah Gajendragarh Gadag Karnataka 15
26 Jamgudrani MP Dewas Madhya 14
Pradesh
27 Jogmatti BSES Chitradurga Karnataka 14
District
28 Perungudi Newam Perungudi Tamil Nadu 12
29 Kethanur Wind Farm Kethanur Tamil Nadu 11
30 Shah Gajendragarh Gadag Karnataka 10.8
31 Hyderabad TSRTC Hyderabad Telangana 10
32 Muppandal Madras Muppandal Tamil Nadu 10
34 Poolavadi Chettinad Poolavadi Tamil Nadu 10
(Ref: Ministry of non-renewable energy sources)

12.5 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy is one of the renewable sources of energy available in the
form of vast natural reservoirs of heat energy in the earth’s interior. Geothermal
energy is heat energy generated and stored in the Earth. It is one of the potential
alternative sources of energy, which has been successfully catering to both
industrial and domestic energy requirements in many parts of the world over
the last few decades. Geothermal is made of two Greek words – geo which
means ‘earth’, and thermo, which means ‘heat’. Thus, geothermal energy is
the heat from the earth. It is a clean and sustainable source of energy. “It is
interesting to mention here that the amount of heat within 10,000 meters of
earth’s surface is 50,000 times more energy than all the oil and natural gas
resources in the world”.
Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay
and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core–
mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature
and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to
behave plastically, resulting in portions of the mantle convicting upward since
it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust,
sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F). From hot springs, geothermal energy has
been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient
Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide,
11,700 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power are online in 2013. An additional
28 gigawatts (GW) of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district
heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural
applications as of 2010.
265
Energy Resources Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
5. What is geothermal energy?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

12.5.1 SOURCES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource
that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system
availability of 95%), and home grown (making us less dependent on foreign
oil). Geothermal resources range from shallow ground to hot water and rock
several miles below the Earth's surface, and even further down to the extremely
hot molten rock called magma. Mile-or-more-deep wells can be drilled into
underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be brought to
the surface for use in a variety of applications.

Geothermal energy is generated in the earth‘s core, almost 4,000 miles

beneath the earth‘s surface. The double-layered core is made up of very hot
magma (melted rock) surrounding a solid iron center. Very high temperatures
are continuously produced inside the earth by the slow decay of radioactive
particles. This process is natural in all rocks. Surrounding the outer core is the
mantle, which is about 1,800 miles thick and made of magma and rock.
The outermost layer of the earth, the land that forms the continents and ocean
floors is called the crust. The crust is 3–5 miles thick under the oceans and
15–35 miles thick on the continents.

The crust of the earth is made up of several broken pieces, which are known as
plates. The hot magma from deep down below rises up close to the surface of
the earth at the junctures of these plates. These are the places where volcanoes
are formed. The lava that spews from volcanoes is made up partly of magma.
The heat from this magma is absorbed by the water and rocks that occur deep
beneath the earth’s surface. The temperature of the water and the rocks get
increasingly hotter, the deeper down you go below the earth surface. Superheated
substances in the form of magma, that contains enormous energy and power,
which is quite evident every time a volcano erupts, can be tapped for creating
geothermal power. Some of these substances also rise to the surface in the form
of hot water and steam, which spew out from natural vents. When the rising
hot water and steam is trapped in permeable and porous rocks under a layer of
impermeable rock, it can form a geothermal reservoir. Therefore, we can make
artificial vents as well as create containment chambers where the magma can
be kept, and turn all this geothermal energy into electricity, which can be used
to heat and light our homes. In order to set up a geothermal power plant, a well
will have to be dug where there is a good source of superheated fluid or magma.
Pipes would then be fitted, which would go down into the source, and then the
266
fluids would be forced up to the surface in order to produce the required Wind Energy and
steam. This steam would then be used to rotate a turbine engine, thus generating Geothermal Energy
electricity, or geothermal power.

There is more than one type of geothermal energy, but only one kind is
widely used to make electricity. It is called hydrothermal energy. Currently,
hydrothermal energy is being commercially used for electricity generation
and for meeting thermal energy requirements. Hydrothermal resources have
two common ingredients: water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Depending on the
temperature of the hydrothermal resource, the heat energy can either be used
for making electricity or for heating.

12.5.2 TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

There are four major types of geothermal energy resources.
1. Hydrothermal
2. Geo pressurised brines
3. Hot dry rocks
4. Magma

In order to convert the heat energy of water into useful electric power we need
the help of power plants. These power plants for commercial use are of four
types namely; (1) Flash power plant, (2) Dry steam power plant, (3) Binary
power plant, (4) Flash/binary combined cycle power plant.
1. Flash power plant

Geo-thermally heated water under pressure is separated in a surface vessel into

steam and hot water. The steam is delivered to the turbine, and the turbine
powers a generator. The liquid is injected back into the reservoir.
2. Dry Steam Power plant

Steam produced in the geothermal reservoir is directly used for the running of
the turbine and no separation is required. The image shown below is a more
simplified of the same.
3. Binary power plant

Recent advances in geothermal technology have made possible the economic

production of electricity from geothermal resources lower than 150 °C. Known
as binary geothermal plants, these facilities reduce the geothermal energy’s
already low emission rate to zero. The geothermal water called fluid heats
other liquid, such as isobutane or other organic fluids, which boils at a lower
temperature than water. These two liquids are kept completely separate through
the use of a heat exchanger, which transfers the heat energy from the geothermal
water to the working fluid. The secondary fluid expands into gaseous vapour.
The force of the expanding vapour like steam, turns the turbines that power
the generators. All of the produced geothermal water is injected back into the
reservoir.
267
Energy Resources 4. Flash/Binary combines cycle plant

This type of plant is used to take advantage of both technologies and has been
used effectively in producing energy.

5. Direct Heating

The heat generated geo-thermally can be used directly without the use of a power
plant or a heat generator for a variety of purposes such as heating or cooling of
living spaces, agriculture, hot baths, aquaculture and various other industrial
purposes. The use of geothermal heat for hot bath dates back to the ancient
Roman times. In USA, there are about 470 MW installations of geothermal
heating devices, which is sufficient to power more than 40,000 homes.
Romans used geo-thermally heated water for treating diseases of the eye and
the skin. The first known spa was opened in Belgium in the 14th century. People
in Tuscany, Italy are known to have grown vegetables during winter months
from fields heated by natural steams.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
6. Name the major types of geothermal energy resource?
......................................................................................................................
268
 ...................................................................................................................... Wind Energy and
Geothermal Energy
......................................................................................................................
12.5.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
ADVANTAGES

Geothermal Energy is generated due to the natural decay of radioactive elements

inside the earth. A temperature gradient is thus formed, which results in energy
release. Hot bath systems are not uncommon and have been prevalent since
ancient times but such geothermal energy sources can be used for many other
purpose.

It is used for heating homes and for generating electricity without producing
any harmful emissions. The first advantage of using geothermal heat as a
source of energy is that, unlike most power stations, a geothermal power plant
does not create any pollution and geothermal energy can be used to produce
electricity 24 hours a day. Thus, geothermal energy is an excellent source of
clean, inexpensive and renewable energy. If the geothermal energy is harnessed
correctly, it leads to no harmful by-products. Geothermal power plants are
generally small and have little effect on the natural landscape, or the nearby
environment. As no fuel is used to generate the power from the geothermal
heat, running costs for geothermal power plants are very low. Moreover, the
cost of the land to build a geothermal power plant is usually less as compared
to the cost of constructing an oil, gas, coal, or nuclear power plant.

●● Thus, geothermal energy provides a clean and sustainable source of power,

heat and many other applications. And if used properly it can prove to be a
valuable resource of our nature.
●● The first advantage of using geothermal heat to power a power station is
that, unlike most power stations, a geothermal system does not create any
pollution. It may once in a while release some gases from deep down inside
the earth, that may be slightly harmful, but these can be contained quite
easily. Geothermal power plants have sulphur-emissions rates that average
only a few percent of those from fossil -fuel alternatives.
●● “The newest generation of geothermal power plants emits only ~135 gm
of carbon (as carbon dioxide) per megawatt-hour (MW-hr) of electricity
generated. This figure compares with 128 kg /MW-hr of carbon for a plant
operating on natural gas (methane) and 225 kg/[Link] carbon for a
269
Energy Resources plant using bituminous coal. Nitrogen oxide emissions are much lower
in geothermal power plants than in fossil power plants. Nitrogen-oxides
combine with hydrocarbon vapors in the atmosphere to produce ground-
level ozone, a gas that causes adverse health effects and crop losses as well
as smog”.
●● The cost of the land to build a geothermal power plant is usually less
expensive than if you were planning to construct an oil, gas, coal, or nuclear
power plant. The main reason for this is land space, as geothermal plants
take up very little room, so we don’t need to purchase a larger area of land.
●● Another factor, that comes into this is because geothermal energy is very
clean, you may receive tax cuts, and/or no environmental bills or quotas
to comply with the countries carbon emission scheme (if they have one).
●● No fuel is used to generate the power, which in return, means the running
costs for the plants are very low as there are no costs for purchasing,
transporting, or cleaning up of fuels you may consider purchasing to
generate the power.
●● The overall financial aspect of these plants is outstanding; we only need to
provide power to the water pumps, which can be generated by the power
plant itself anyway. Because they are modular, then can be transported
conveniently to any site. Both baseline and peaking power can be generated.
●● Construction time can be as little as 6 months for plants in the range 0.5 to
10 MW and as little as 2 years for clusters of plants totaling 250 MW or
more.

DISADVANTAGES
●● Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases, notably carbon
dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3).
These pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxious
smells if released. “Existing geothermal electric plants emit an average of
122 kilograms (269 lb) of CO2 per megawatt-hour (MW·h) of electricity, a
small fraction of the emission intensity of conventional fossil fuel plants.
Plants that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are
usually equipped with emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust”.
●● In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may
hold in solution trace amounts of toxic chemicals such as mercury, arsenic,
boron, and antimony. These chemicals precipitate as the water cools, and can
cause environmental damage, if released. The modern practice of injecting
cooled geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has
the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.
●● Plant construction can adversely affect land stability. Subsidence has
occurred in the Wairakei field in New Zealand and in Staufen im Breisgau,
Germany. Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes as part of
hydraulic fracturing.
●● Main disadvantage is plant should be located far from cities, therefore,
more costly due to transportation charges of produced energy.
270
Check Your Progress 6 Wind Energy and
Geothermal Energy
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………..……

12.6 PROSPECTS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

IN INDIA
India is at promising stage in terms of exploitation of geothermal energy,
primarily because coal is cheaper. But with increasing environmental problems
associated with coal based projects, India is now also looking at developing clean
and eco-friendly energy sources. The Central Government has been actively
supporting research in geothermal energy for over two decades. Systematic
efforts to explore geothermal energy resources first commenced in India in
1973 and several promising sites were finalized. Some of these are Cambay
Graben in Gujarat, Puga and Chhumathang in Jammu and Kashmir, Tattapani
in Chhattisgarh, Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra and
Rajgir in Bihar.

“The geothermal policy envisages to make a substantial contribution to India’s

long-term energy supply and reduce our national greenhouse gas emissions by
developing a sustainable, safe, secure, socially and environmentally responsible
geothermal energy industry, apart from creating new employment opportunities
and leading to environmentally sustainable development by the means of
deployment of 1,000 MW geothermal energy capacity in the initial phase till
2022 and 10,000 MW by 2030”.
The potential sources/ regions where geothermal energy can be harnessed in
India are given in Table 12.2.
Table 12.2: Potential sources/ regions of geothermal energy in India

Province Surface Reservoir Heat Thermal

Temp 0C Temp 0C Flow gradient
Himalaya >90 260 468 100
Cambay 40-90 150-175 80-93 70
West coast 46-72 102-137 75-129 47-59
Sonata 60 – 95 105-217 120-290 60-90
Godavari 50-60 175-215 93-104 60
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Energy Resources India has reasonably good potential for geothermal energy; the potential
geothermal provinces can produce 10,600 MW of power. Though India has
been one of the earliest countries to begin geothermal projects way back in
the 1970s, but at present there are no operational geothermal plants in India.
Thermax, a capital goods manufacturer based in Pune, is planning to set up
a 3 MW pilot project in Puga Valley, Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir). Gujarat
state is drafting a policy to promote geothermal energy for Direct Uses.

The future of geothermal energy depends on three factors: its demand,

supply and its competitiveness among other renewable resources in terms
of cost, availability, reliability, etc. Demand for geothermal energy is going
to increase and increase with the increase in the population and extinction
of other non-renewable sources. Moreover, today government also support
the resources which are cleaner and do not spoil the environment.

12.7 AQUIFER THERMAL ENERGY

STORAGE (ATES)
As the demand for energy increases, effective or enhanced energy
conservation is crucial. Around the world, thermal energy storage
(TES) system applications have been shown to provide economical and
environmentally friendly solutions to energy problems and increasing
attention has been paid to their utilization. The basic purpose behind
thermal storage is to provide a buffer to balance fluctuations in supply
and demand of low temperature thermal energy. TES makes it possible to
more effectively utilize new renewable energy sources (solar, geothermal,
ambient, etc.) and waste heat/cold recovery for space heating and cooling.
With a storage medium of various types and sizes, TES systems therefore
contribute to improving energy efficiency.

12.7.1 PRINCIPLE
ATES is an innovative open-loop of geothermal technology for storage and
recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface. ATES is applied to provide
heating and cooling to buildings.
Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and
injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells. Systems
commonly operate in a seasonal mode. The groundwater that is extracted
in summer is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to
the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger. Subsequently, the heated
groundwater is injected back into the aquifer, which creates storage of
heated groundwater. In wintertime, the flow direction is reversed such that
the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating (often in
combination with a heat pump). Therefore, operating an ATES system uses
the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating
and cooling demand. When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent
heating and cooling systems, ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology
to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated
CO2 emissions.
272
“The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, Wind Energy and
increase use of sustainable energy and improved energy efficiency. For this Geothermal Energy
target, ATES can actually contribute significantly, as about 40% of global
energy consumption is done by buildings, and is mainly for heating and
cooling. Therefore, the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention
and the number of ATES has increased dramatically, especially in Europe.
For example, in the Netherlands, it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES
systems could be achieved by 2020. This can yield a CO2 emission reduction
of about 11%, for the target of the Netherlands. Besides the Netherlands,
Belgium, Germany, Turkey, and Sweden are also increasing the application
of ATES. ATES can be applied worldwide, as long as the climatic conditions
and geo-hydrological conditions are right. As ATES systems cumulate in
urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas
with suitable conditions”.

Storage of renewable energy in the underground will reduce the usage of

fossil fuels and electricity. Hence, these systems will benefit to CO2 reduction
as well as the reduction of other environmentally harmful gas emissions,
like SO2 and NOX. ATES and BTES are options of Underground Thermal
Energy Storage (UTES) systems. ATES and BTES are widely used in some
countries.
Check Your Progress 7
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
8. What does ATES means and describe the role of AETS in Sustainable
development.

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

273
Energy Resources

Figure 12.1: Basic operational regimes for aquifer thermal energy storage
(a) continuous regime (b) Cyclic regime

Usually, a pair of wells are pumped constantly in one direction or alternatively,

from one well to the other, especially when both heating and cooling being
provided, these two operation principles are called continuous regime and
cyclic regime, respectively (Fig. 12.1). The continuous regime only is feasible
for plants where the load can be met with temperatures close to natural ground
temperatures, and the storage part is more an enhanced recovery of natural
ground temperatures. With a continuous flow, design and control, the system is
much simpler and easier. Only one well or group of well needs to be equipped
with pumps. A disadvantage is the limited temperature range. Cyclic flow will
create a definite cold and heat reservoir around each well or group of wells.
It is possible to maintain a ground volume above or below the natural ground
temperature all the time.

12.7.2 UNDERGROUND THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE

(UTES)
Underground can be used for underground thermal energy storage (UTES)
depending on geological, hydrogeological and other site conditions. The two
most promising options are storage in aquifers (ATES) and storage through
borehole heat exchangers (BTES). These concepts have already been introduced
as commercial systems on the energy market in several countries. Another
option is to use underground cavities (CTES), but this concept is so far rarely
applied commercially. In ATES (Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage) systems
274 groundwater is used to carry the thermal energy into and out of an aquifer. For
the connection to the aquifer water wells are used. However, these wells are Wind Energy and
normally designed with double functions, both as production and infiltration Geothermal Energy
wells. The energy is partly stored in the ground water itself but partly also in the
grains (or rocks mass) that form the aquifer. The latter storage process takes place
when the ground water is passing the grains and will result in the development
of a thermal front with different temperatures. This front will move in a radial
direction from the well during charging of the store and then turn back while
discharging. “There are several hundreds of these systems in operation, with
the Netherlands and Sweden as dominating countries of implementation”.

All ATES involves drilling a few wells into an aquifer for circulation of water
between the storage region and the energy system. Then, it can store energy
whilst providing heating and cooling on a seasonal basis. The wells are separated
by a critical distance to ensure that the warm and cold storage remain separate
and that thermal breakthrough does not occur within one season. This critical
distance is primarily a function of operational and thermo hydraulic parameters
involving the well production rates, the aquifer thickness, and the hydraulic and
thermal properties that control the storage volume. A plant can also be made
with groups of wells instead of just two wells. Multiple-well configurations
have been employed where large volumes of water are required and in systems
where individual well yields are low.

Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) systems use natural water in a saturated
and permeable underground layer as the storage medium. The transfer of
thermal energy is carried out by extracting groundwater from the aquifer and
by reinjection it at a modified temperature into a separate well nearby.
Check Your Progress 8
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
9. What is underground thermal energy storage (UTES)?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..

12.7.3 APPLICATIONS OF UNDERGROUND THERMAL

ENERGY STORAGE (UTES)
The UTES are used for various applications listed below:
1. Underground Thermal Energy Storage (UTES) has been used to store large
quantities of thermal energy to supply process cooling, space cooling, space
heating, and ventilation air preheating, and can be used with or without
heat pumps;
2. UTES is used as an energy sink and source when supply and demand for
energy do not coincide. Recognized energy sources include winter ambient
air, heat-pump reject water (from cooling and heating mode), and solar
energy, cooling requirements of the building or process; 275
Energy Resources 3. UTES may be used to meet all or part of heating or cooling requirements
of the building process;
4. Heat pumps may be employed to decrease or increase the storage
temperature for cooling or heating;
5. UTES may be used for space heating and cooling of all building types,
agriculture (e.g., greenhouses), and industrial process cooling;
6. UTES can be applied at sites presently using groundwater for cooling.
7. UTES would assist in keeping aquifer temperatures from increasing
and ensure that environmental safeguards such as aquifer recharge are
employed. The cost effectiveness of UTES is based of the capital cost
avoidance of conventional heating or chilling equipment and energy
savings. Heat rejection equipment, such as cooling towers, may be avoided
if the earth is used as an energy store.
8. UTES are highly efficient and get environmental benefits from large
savings of fossil fuel and electricity.

12.8 LET US SUM UP

Let us briefly state the significant points about wind and geothermal energy as
discussed in this unit.

As the demand for energy increases, effective or enhanced energy conservation

is crucial. Today the greatest attention in the world is devoted to energy resources
because their use is usually irreversible, but the supplies of traditional fossil
fuels (oil, natural gas) are running out fast. This is why over the last decades
attention is focused on renewable energy resources and ways to increase energy
efficiency. Wind Energy today represents the fastest growing technology in the
energy production space globally today. Energy is generated from wind in 79
countries around the world and 24 of the countries today already have installed
capacity of more than 1000MW. Within the low carbon energy generation
technologies, wind has emerged as the top technology of choice. Wind has many
applications, including electricity generation. World wind energy capacity has
been doubling about every three and a half years since 1990.

Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power
generators for electric power. Wind power, as an alternative to burning fossil
fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse
gas emissions during operation, consumes no water, and uses little land.

Geothermal power is cost-effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally

friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries.
Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size
of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening
a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse
gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per
energy unit than those of fossil fuels.

Around the world, thermal energy storage (TES) system applications have
276 been shown to provide economical and environmentally friendly solutions to
energy problems and increasing attention has been paid to their utilization. Wind Energy and
Underground Thermal Energy Storage UTES has been used to store large Geothermal Energy
quantities of thermal energy to supply process cooling, space cooling, space
heating, and ventilation air preheating, and can be used with or without heat
pumps. UTES are highly efficient and the get environmental benefits from large
savings of fossil fuel and electricity.

12.9 KEY WORDS

• Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural processes that
are continuously replenished. This includes sunlight, geothermal heat,
wind, tides, water, and various forms of biomass. This energy cannot be
exhausted and is constantly renewed.
• Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind energy (or wind power)
describes the process by which wind is used to generate electricity.
• A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind's kinetic energy into
electrical energy.
• A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to
produce electricity.
• The Geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between
the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of
thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface.
• An aquifer is a porous, water-saturated layer of sand, gravel, or bedrock,
which contains groundwater or has flowing groundwater.
• ATES is an innovative open-loop geothermal technology. It relies on
seasonal storage of cold and/or warm groundwater in an aquifer.
• Underground thermal energy storage (UTES) is a form of energy storage
that provides large-scale seasonal storage of cold and heat in natural
underground sites.

12.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS/

REFERENCES
1. Thermal Energy Storage for Sustainable Energy Consumption:
Fundamentals, case studies and Design. Edited by Halime O. Paksoy,
Springer, Published in cooperation with NATO Public Diplomacy Division.
2. "NLDC monthly reports (refer table 7 of each month)". Retrieved 23 April
2017.
3. "State-wise monthly renewable power generation, CEA". Retrieved 30
Nov. 2016.
4. Energy, Technology, Puskar, July 20, 2013, Geothermal, India, Renewable
energy .
5. [Link]
6. World Energy Resources 2013 Survey, WORLD ENERGY COUNCIL,
Published 2013 by: World Energy Council Registered in England and
Wales 277
Energy Resources
12.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Wind power is the ability to make electricity using the air flows that occur
naturally in the earth’s atmosphere. Wind turbine blades capture kinetic
energy from the wind and turn it into mechanical energy, spinning a
generator that creates electricity.
2. Renewable energy technologies are clean sources of energy that have a
much lower environmental impact than conventional energy technologies
and these sources will not run out.
3. Wind energy is a clean, renewable form of energy
4. Windmills generate mechanical energy, but they do not generate electricity,
whereas wind turbines harness wind's kinetic energy and convert it into
electricity.
5. Geothermal energy is one of the renewable sources of energy available
in the form of vast natural reservoirs of heat energy in the earth’s interior.
Geothermal energy is heat energy generated and stored in the Earth.
6. Major types of geothermal energy resources are Hydrothermal, Geo
pressurised brines, Hot dry rocks and Magma.
7. Two advantages of geothermal energy are renewable and is one of the
cleanest sources of energy on the planet.
Two disadvantages are fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of
gases, notably carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), methane
(CH4) and ammonia (NH3). These pollutants contribute to global
warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if released and Plant construction
can adversely affect land stability.
8. ATES is Aquifer thermal energy storage, an innovative open-loop
geothermal technology. It is storage and recovery of thermal energy in the
subsurface. ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings.
9. Underground can be used for underground thermal energy storage (UTES)
depending on geological, hydrogeological and other site conditions. The
two most promising options are storage in aquifers (ATES) and storage
through borehole heat exchangers (BTES).

278
UNIT 13 BIOENERGY
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Bioenergy
13.3 Bioenergy, Sustainable Development Goals and Paris Agreement
13.4 Major Drivers of Bioenergy Development
13.5 Feedstocks Sources for Bioenergy Production
13.5.1 Forest-based Feedstocks
13.5.2 Agriculture-based Feedstocks
13.5.3 Waste-based Feedstocks

13.6 Conversion Technologies for Bioenergy Production

13.7 Social, Economic, Ecological and Environmental Impacts of
Bioenergy
13.8 Challenges in Sustainable Bioenergy Production
13.9 India’s National Policy on Biofuels
13.10 Key Words
13.11 Let Us Sum Up
13.12 References and Suggested Further Readings
13.13 Answers to Check Your Progress

13.0 INTRODUCTION
The world today is facing serious environmental problems with increasing
energy demand, rising oil prices coupled with the depletion of fossil fuel
reserves, and climate change. In the previous units, you have learned about
various conventional and non-conventional energy resources. A clean and green
source of energy is bioenergy or energy derived from biomass. Biomass is
defined as material that is directly or indirectly produced by photosynthesis and
which is utilised as a feedstock in the manufacture of fuels and substitutes for
petrochemical and other energy-intensive products. Traditional bioenergy refers
to using solid biomass such as wood, charcoal, agricultural residues, and animal
dung converted with basic techniques with very low conversion efficiency for
heating and cooking in the residential sector. Organic waste from forestry and
agriculture and municipal solid waste are also used for bioenergy generation.
Modern bioenergy uses solids, liquids and gases as secondary energy carriers
to generate heat, electricity, power, and transport fuels for various sectors.
These fuels have higher conversion efficiency. This unit covers bioenergy and
its major forms, sources of biomass, challenges, and opportunities in meeting
the demands for bioenergy, social, economic, ecological and environmental
279
 impacts of bioenergy, and challenges in sustainable bioenergy production.

13.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
●● define bioenergy and its major forms;
●● describe sources of biomass and emerging feedstock sources;
●● give an overview of conversion technologies for bioenergy production;
●● describe social, economic, ecological and environmental impacts of
bioenergy;
●● explain challenges in sustainable bioenergy production; and
●● explain India’s National Policy on Biofuels.

13.2 BIOENERGY
Bioenergy is derived from various biological sources called biomass. It is
considered a renewable energy source since biomass can be replenished on
a regular basis. Bioenergy is energy from organic matter (biomass), in other
words, all materials of biological origin that is not embedded in geological
formations or fossilised. Bioenergy is energy generated from solid, liquid and
gaseous products derived from biomass, typically wood, agricultural crops,
and organic waste from municipal and industrial sources. We all know that
organic matter such as wood or charcoal has been traditionally used as fuel
for fires, cooking and industry, which dates back to the early history of human
civilization. Biomass using modern technology differs from traditional biomass
in two key characteristics:

1. The source of organic matter should be sustainable

2. The technology used to obtain the energy, should limit or mitigate emissions
of flue gases and account for ash residue management.

“The World Energy Council defines bioenergy to include traditional biomass

for example forestry and agricultural residues, modern biomass and biofuels”.
It represents the transformation of organic matter into a source of energy,
whether it is collected from natural surroundings or specifically grown for the
purpose. In developed countries, bioenergy is promoted as an alternative or
more sustainable source for hydrocarbons, especially for transportation fuels,
like bioethanol and biodiesel, the use of wood in combined heat and power
generation and residential heating. In developing countries bioenergy may
represent opportunities for domestic industrial development and economic
growth.

280
 Bioenergy
1. Bioenergy is a versatile energy source. In contrast to other energy
sources, biomass can be converted into solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
2. Bioenergy is the largest renewable energy source – 14% out of 18%
renewables in the energy mix.
3. Bioenergy supplies 10% of global energy supply.
4. Bioenergy is shifting from a traditional and indigenous energy source to
a modern and globally traded commodity.
5. Climate change and energy independency are major drivers for
bioenergy development.
6. Biofuels are the most viable and sustainable option in replacing oil
dependency.
7. The future will be led by the need for renewables in transport followed
by heating and electricity sectors

Source: World Energy Resources Bioenergy, 2016

Organic matter such as wood or charcoal has been used as fuel for fires, cooking
and industry, which dates back to the early history of human civilisation. In
rural areas with no energy access, it remains a key source of domestic primary
energy despite the health and environmental problems associated with its
inefficient burning.

13.3 BIOENERGY, SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND PARIS
AGREEMENT
Bioenergy can play an important role in achieving the agreed UN Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) and implementing the Paris Agreement on Climate
Change. It will help in advancing climate goals, food security, better land use,
and sustainable energy for all:

Following are the goals that are directly or indirectly related to SDGs
SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
SDG 7 : Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy
for all
SDG 2 : End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
SDG 15 : Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and
reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.

The Paris Agreement reiterates the “need to promote universal access to

sustainable energy” while calling for “action to conserve and enhance sinks and
reservoirs of greenhouse gases” and for “reducing emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation.” 281
Energy Resources MAJOR FORMS OF BIOENERGY

The major forms of bioenergy includes biopower or bioelectricity, biofuels and

energy for heating and cooling or thermal energy.

i) Biopower or Electricity

Biopower is electricity generated from combustion of biomass, either alone or

in combination with coal, natural gas, or other fuel and termed as co-firing.
Most biopower plants are direct-fired systems where biomass feedstocks are
burned in a boiler to produce high-pressure steam that runs turbines connected
to electric generators. The electricity produced can be distributed for industrial,
residential, or commercial use. The steam generated from combustion of biomass
can also be used to directly power mechanical processes in industrial settings.
Technical challenges in biopower generation involve feedstock quality, boiler
chemistry, ash deposition and ash disposal. However, these challenges are being
resolved with the advancement of technology. Biomass co-fired in a coal power
plant is having vast potential in meeting renewable energy standards and will
be helpful in reducing pollution from coal burning.

ii) Biogas

“Biogas” is a gas produced by anaerobic fermentation of different forms of

organic matter and is composed mainly of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide
(CO2). Main feedstock for biogas production are manure and sewage, residues of
crop production (i.e., straw), the organic fraction of the waste from households
and industry, as well as energy crops including maize and grass silage. Biogas
is supplied to a variety of uses or markets, including electricity, heat and
transportation fuels. In many countries, the gas is used for direct combustion in
household stoves and gas lamps are increasingly common. However, producing
electricity from biogas is still relatively rare in most developing countries. In
industrialized countries, power generation is the main purpose of most biogas
plants; conversion of biogas to electricity has become a standard technology.
Leading countries in producing biogas include Germany, India and China.

iii) Biofuels: Biofuel refers to solid, liquid, and gas fuels. Solid fuels are
typically used for space heating via combustion. Liquid and gas fuels are used
for transportation and industrial processes. Liquid and gas biofuels are produced
through fermentation, gasification, pyrolysis, and torrefaction. Bioethanol and
biodiesel are major forms of biofuel.

Types of Biofuels
i) First-generation biofuel - Biofuels produced from oils, sugars, and starch
originating in food crops are known as First-generation biofuel. First-
generation biofuels are produced through relatively simple and established
technologies. Liquid biofuels for transport like bioethanol and biodiesel
are part of important strategies to improve fuel security, mitigate climate
change and support rural development. Conventional biofuels which also
referred to as first generation biofuels usually include ethanol from corn,
sugarcane etc. and biodiesel from canola, jatropha etc. To complement the
282 conventional biofuels, recent advances are focused on the next generation
 of biofuels. Bioenergy

ii. Advanced biofuels - Advanced biofuels, generally referred to as second

or third generation biofuels are produced from a broad spectrum of
predominantly non-edible biomass feedstock. Advanced biofuels are
generally referred to as second or third generation biofuels. The feedstock
includes lignocellulose-based ethanol, hydrogenated vegetable oil, algae
based biofuels and biogas. “Biogas” is a gas produced by anaerobic
fermentation of different forms of organic matter and is composed mainly of
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide. Typical feedstock for biogas production
are manure and sewage, residues of crop production, the organic fraction of
the waste from households and industry, as well as energy crops including
maize and grass silage. Biogas is supplied to a variety of uses or markets,
including electricity, heat and transportation fuels. In many countries, the
gas is used for direct combustion in household stoves and gas lamps are
increasingly common. However, producing electricity from biogas is still
relatively rare in most developing countries. In industrialized countries,
power generation is the main purpose of most biogas plants; conversion of
biogas to electricity has become a standard technology. Leading countries
in producing biogas include Germany, India and China.
iii Liquid Biofuels

Liquid fuels are the most portable of fuels. Liquid biofuels are produced from
organic matter through one of several physical, biological or thermochemical
processes including fermentation, pyrolysis, gasification and catalytic
conversion or direct extraction and transesterification. Liquid biofuels are also
produced by anaerobic digestion and direct partial oxidation or gas synthesis.
Fuels produced by the recombination of hydrogen and carbon are referred to
as synthetic fuels or synfuels. The most developed liquid biofuels are ethanol,
methanol and biodiesel.

13.4 MAJOR DRIVERS OF BIOENERGY

DEVELOPMENT
A major driver for the development of bioenergy markets is mainly
Green house Gas mitigation. Bioenergy has been successful in many developed
countries and to a certain extent, some developing countries as well. Countries
with high share of renewables also have a high share of bioenergy in their
energy mix. Bioenergy has enabled countries in gradual decarbonization of
the energy system and reduced dependency on fossil fuels. Earlier, the main
drawback of bioenergy was security of supply and high import costs of fossil
fuels. Now, the substitution of fossil fuels, and the reduction of fossil carbon
emissions are major benefits for bioenergy. With the historic climate agreement
in Paris at COP21 and COP26 can be considered as one of the most anticipated
and the biggest international summits so far in the history of climate action.
It has renewed focus on renewables and also accelerated the investments in
bioenergy. Much of current interest in bioenergy revolves around issues of
energy security, energy independence, and perceived opportunities for economic
growth and development. Finally, bioenergy offers countries that do not have
significant natural hydrocarbon resources a potential opportunity to become
283
Energy Resources net producers of energy products for export. To do this however, they need to
develop the necessary industry and infrastructure and have sufficient land and
water resources to support the economic production of the feedstock crops.
One of the most important benefits of biofuels is in the transportation sector.
Electrification is another viable option. However, to reduce the emissions and
to limit global warming to within 2°C in this century, biofuels are the most
viable and sustainable option in replacing oil dependency.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is bioenergy?

......................................................................................................................

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2. Describe major forms of bioenergy.

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3. What are the major drivers of bioenergy development?

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13.5 FEEDSTOCKS SOURCES FOR BIOENERGY

PRODUCTION
The supply of biomass can be classified into three sections – forestry, agriculture
and waste. Although globally, some of the waste is mixed with materials of
fossil origin, like fossil-based plastics, most waste consists of a large share of
biogenic material (paper, wood, biogenic textiles, rubber, bio plastics, etc.), and
there are large streams of waste and residues from agriculture, forestry, fishing,
the food chain, and all connected industries. In most countries, the first step in
developing a modern bioenergy sector is to better utilise these resources from
wastes and residues.

Bioenergy feedstocks are biomass-derived materials that are converted to energy

through the application of microbial activity, heat, chemicals, or a combination
of these processes. There are three main types of biomass materials from which
bioenergy feedstocks are derived:
1. Lipids: Lipids are energy-rich, water-insoluble molecules such as fats, oils,
284
 and waxes. Lipids are a feedstock source derived from nonwoody plants Bioenergy
and algae. Soyabean (Glycine max), oil palm, and various seed crops such
as sunflower (Helianthus annus) are common agricultural sources of oils
for biodiesel.
2. Sugars or starches : Sugars and starches are the carbohydrates typically
found in the edible portions of food crops, such as corn (Zea mays) grain,
which are sources for first-generation biofuels.
3. Cellulose and lignocellulose: Cellulosic/lignocellulosic biomass is
composed of complex carbohydrates and non-carbohydrate molecules
typically found in the leaves and stems of plants. Cellulose/lignocellulose
is of little or no food value to humans. Advanced biofuels therefore offer
an opportunity to take these relatively low-value materials and use them in
the production of high-value energy products.

There are two broad categories of plants from which cellulosic/lignocellulosic

feedstocks are derived: woody and nonwoody. In addition to cellulose, many
plants also contain hemicellulose and lignin. Hemicellulose is a large, complex
carbohydrate molecule that helps cross-link cellulose fibers in plant cell walls.
Lignin is a noncarbohydrate polymer that fills the spaces between cellulose
and hemicellulose. When cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are present
together, they are referred to as lignocellulose. Hemicellulose can be broken
down into fermentable sugar and then converted into ethanol and other fuels.
Lignin is difficult to convert into other usable forms and is therefore considered
a byproduct. The majority of biomass for bioenergy feedstocks comes from
three sources: forests, agriculture, and waste. Algae is an important emerging
source of bioenergy feedstocks.

13.5.1 FOREST-BASED FEEDSTOCKS

Woody biomass from forests is the original source of bioenergy. It remains
the most important source of fuel for cooking and space heating throughout
the world, particularly among subsistence cultures. Around the world, woody
biomass is used for cooking, production of electricity and heat for industries,
towns and cities and production of liquid biofuels. The woody biomass is the
source of over 10% of all energy supplied annually. Overall woody biomass
provides about 90% of the primary energy annually sourced from all forms
of biomass. In general, only wood that is not merchantable as lumber or pulp
is used in bioenergy production. There are two main ways low-grade wood is
removed from forests for bioenergy use: as bark and as wood chips. Bark is
typically burned to firewood kilns at mills, or it is sold in higher value markets
such as landscaping materials. Wood chips, however, can be used directly as
a solid fuel (for combustion) or they can be refined and densified into pellets.

13.5.2 AGRICULTURE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS

Agriculture is a source of sugars, starches, lipids, nonwoody cellulosic materials,
and woody materials (i.e., lignocellulosic biomass). Agriculture-based biomass
comes from crops grown specifically for bioenergy production as well as
agricultural residues. Agricultural residues are nonedible, cellulosic materials
that remain after harvest of edible portions of crops. Bioenergy crops include 285
Energy Resources annual crops grown for their sugars, starches, or oils, and perennial herbaceous
nonfood plants grown for their cellulose. Agricultural residues include plant
leaves and stems. Some annual crops, such as corn, can be dedicated bioenergy
crops for both their grain and their cellulosic residues. Most of the world’s
first-generation bioethanol is made from feedstocks derived from annual food
crops. Annual row crops are grown and harvested in a single year and must be
planted every year. Sugarcane and corn are the primary feedstock sources for
first-generation bioethanol. However, bioethanol is also produced from cereal
crops, sugar beets, potatoes, sorghum, and cassava as well. Sugarcane is the
primary feedstock in Brazil, and corn grain is the primary feedstock in the
United States. These two feedstock sources are converted into approximately
62% of the world’s bioethanol.

The primary agricultural sources of lipids for first-generation biodiesel are

annual row crops soyabean, palm, and oilseed rape. Soyabean is the primary
feedstock source for biodiesel produced in the United States, Europe, Brazil,
and Argentina, which are world leaders in biodiesel production. Palm, a
tropical plant, is the primary feedstock source in Southeast Asia (e.g., Malaysia
and Indonesia), while oilseed rape is grown in Europe, Canada, the United
States, Australia, China, and India. Inedible oil crops are being examined for
commercial potential in second-generation biodiesel production, including
castor and Camelina. Perennial crops are the primary sources of lignocellulosic
biomass for second-generation biofuels. They have received considerable
attention because they are not food crops, and they provide both long term yield
potential and environmental benefits not usually achieved in annual row crop
agriculture. These potential environmental benefits include wildlife habitat, soil
erosion prevention, and water quality improvement.

Perennial grasses in particular are of considerable value in advanced biofuels,

as are fast growing trees such as hybrid poplars (Populus spp.) and willows
(Salix spp.). Whether they are herbaceous or woody, perennial dedicated
bioenergy crops are typically grown with some amount of agronomic intensity
(e.g., inputs of fertilizer and pesticides), which is why they are considered as
crops.

Crop residues also are an important source of cellulosic feedstocks. Crop

residues include materials left in fields after crops have been harvested. For
example, the stems, leaves, and stalks of corn leftover after harvest of grain,
referred to as stover, can be used in the production of cellulosic ethanol.
Their use potentially limits the impacts of biofuels on food security. The
amount of residue that is potentially available differs widely among crops.
The use of agricultural residues must be carefully planned and managed
due to their important role in soil erosion control and maintenance of soil
quality, and their use as forage, fodder, and bedding for livestock.

13.5.3 WASTE-BASED FEEDSTOCKS

Waste-based biomass includes organic materials leftover from industrial
processes, agricultural wastes, solid wastes (e.g., manure), municipal
solid wastes, and construction wastes. Many industrial processes and
286 manufacturing operations produce residues, waste, or co-products that can
be potentially used for bioenergy. Bioenergy

The major sources of waste for bioenergy generation are:

1. Nonwoody wastes include waste paper, liquid leftover from paper
production and textile manufacturing.
2. Agricultural wastes include byproducts of agro-industrial processes
and manure from livestock. Agro-industrial processes such as animal
processing, grain milling, starch production, and sugar production
result in byproducts that may be used as bioenergy feedstocks. Bagasse,
the fibrous material leftover from sugarcane and sorghum crushing in
sugar production, is sometimes used as a fuel source for heat in sugar
mills but it can also be converted to bioethanol.
3. Animal byproducts are used as feedstocks in anaerobic digesters to
produce biogas. Biogas is a substitute for propane, kerosene, and
firewood to produce heat and electric power. It is also compressed and
liquefied for use as a transportation fuel. Livestock manure is converted
into biogas via anaerobic digestion.
4. Municipal solid waste is a major source of biomass. Also called trash and
urban solid waste, municipal solid waste is predominantly household or
domestic waste. Municipal solid waste includes biodegradable waste,
such as kitchen food waste and food packaging; clothing and toys;
recyclable materials such as paper, plastics, and metals; appliances and
furniture; and debris.
5. Most municipal solid waste is diverted to landfills, but in some locations
it is incinerated to make electricity. Portions that are not incinerated can
be converted to syngas through gasification. Syngas can be co-fired
in boilers with coal, for example, to produce electricity. Construction
waste consists of wood, plastic, and metal debris.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. What are forestry based feedstocks for bioenergy production?

......................................................................................................................

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2. What are agriculture based feedstocks for bioenergy production?

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3. What are waste based feedstocks for bioenergy production?
287
Energy Resources ......................................................................................................................

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13.6 CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES FOR

BIOENERGY PRODUCTION
To make use of the energy available in biomass, it is necessary to use
technology to either release the energy directly, as in direct combustion for
heat, or to transform it into other forms such as solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel.
There are three main types of conversion technologies currently available.
These technologies may also be used in combination.

Thermal:
• As the name indicate, thermal conversion processes use
predominantly heat to convert biomass into other forms.
• Thermal conversion processes include combustion, pyrolysis,
torrefaction, and gasification.
• Pyrolysis is the decomposition of biomass at high temperatures in
the absence of oxygen.
• Torrefaction is pyrolysis at low temperature.
• Gasification is the conversion of solid biomass into various gases
using heat and varying amounts of oxygen.

Chemical:

Chemical conversion involves the use of chemical agents to convert biomass

into liquid fuels.

Biochemical:
• Biochemical conversion involves the use of enzymes of bacteria or
other microorganisms to break down biomass through the processes
of anaerobic digestion, fermentation, or composting. Although
relevant technologies exist (and continue to be developed), some
are not yet cost effective, particularly for the large-scale conversion
of cellulosic biomass.
• In the biological conversion of lignocellulosic feedstocks,
pretreatment is required. Pretreatments break down cellulose
and hemicellulose into sugars and separate lignin and other plant
constituents from fermentable materials.
• Pretreatment technologies are physical, biological, and
combinatorial; the form of pretreatment used will depend on the
nature of the feedstock.
• Physical pretreatment includes gamma-ray exposure; chemical
pretreatment methods include the use of acids, alkali, and ionic
288
 liquids; and biological methods include use of microorganisms to Bioenergy
degrade lignin and hemicelluloses.

13.7 SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, ECOLOGICAL

AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF
BIOENERGY
There are many potential benefits of bioenergy, as well as many potential
negative effects.

Economic Impacts

Bioenergy and renewable energy may be viable economic development

options for communities that can grow dedicated energy crops and
develop energy industries to process those crops into power or fuel. The
development of a bioenergy industry may be particularly well suited for
local economies. Economic benefits must also be weighed against impacts
to water supply and other resources. Each community and situation is different,
and local decisions around the choice of energy crops, processing systems,
and markets will define the economic benefits, while policy can provide
incentives and influence outcomes.

Ecological and Environmental Impacts

As far as ecological and environmental impacts of bioenergy are concerned,

Bioenergy can have positive and negative effects on ecosystems and
species within them, and geophysical systems such as water and climate.
The overall net impact can also be positive or negative depending on the
particular system or project under consideration. Specific impacts and net
impacts depend on

- the feedstock type

- biomass production system

- conversion technology

- transportation/ distribution system

- use or disposal of co-products and byproducts, etc.

Major ecological and environmental impacts of bioenergy are on land

use change, greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, wildlife and
biodiversity, invasive and transgenic plants, marginal lands, and water
quantity and quality. Bioenergy production affects water availability and
quality through water use in biomass production and water use during
feedstock conversion. Emission of air pollutants from biopower combustion
and burning of biofuels also potentially impacts water quality, mostly via
precipitation. Bioenergy also affect food security. Sustainability analyses of
bioenergy is thus require a multitactic approach for resolving the multiple
challenges of providing food, energy, and environmental protection for the
world population. 289
Energy Resources
13.8 CHALLENGES IN SUSTAINABLE
BIOENERGY PRODUCTION
There are many challenges for sustainable bioenergy production. Many
governments, international agencies, and nongovernment organizations at
different levels have produced many white papers and various guidelines
in an effort to encourage sustainable practices in biomass production.
Although there is sufficient supply of biomass from forest, agricultural,
and waste resources for meeting current and future demands for bioenergy,
there is no scientific consensus regarding the simultaneous fulfillment of
food and feed needs. Bioenergy feedstock production involves risk. The
agricultural production of biomass involves more risk than forest-based
production because of seasonal weather uncertainties (e.g., flood, drought,
hail), fluctuating yields and rapidly fluctuating prices. Many bioenergy
feedstocks have relatively high water requirements when grown at
commercially viable levels. Expansion of biomass production, processing
into feedstocks, handling, transportation, and storage, if done sustainably,
may provide supply/value chains that support renewable energy goals
while enhancing rural livelihoods. Biomass supply is potentially available
to meet renewable energy goals. However, land availability, competing
land uses, yield potential, yield gaps, producer profitability, and other
important constraints influence the potential supply of biomass. Ultimately,
decision-makers at all levels must balance the costs, benefits, advantages,
and disadvantages among specific biomass types and production systems
to make informed decisions with regard to the desired goals for the present
and the future.

CHALLENGES IN MEETING THE DEMAND

Challenges in meeting the demands for bioenergy include competition for

land, water, and other resources needed to produce plant-based feedstocks. As
a biofuel feedstock, algae provides a very attractive alternative option. Algae
does not compete with food, land, and water resources. The algae fuel yield
is also estimated to be 100 times more than other biofuel sources. The low-
temperature fuel properties and energy density of algae fuel make it suitable as
jet fuel, home heating oil, and general transportation fuel for colder regions. In
addition, it ensures a continuous supply, can capture waste CO2 for generating
biomass, can manage farm nutrients runoff, and can treat wastewater. Critical
hurdles in terms of algae biofuel production and big economic barriers in
the production of algal-based biofuel include the cost-efficiency involved in
the development and production of algae biomass for biofuel. Now robust
oleagenous algae strains are availabe that can grow in nonsterile environments,
such as dairy farm manure wastewater and other lignocellulosic materials (e.g.,
residues: corn stover, straw, manure, rural food industry wastewater, molasses,
bagasse, wood chips/ bark, grasses, etc.) to efficiently use low-cost nutrient
sources of mainly carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Micro and macroalgae are
therefore being explored as commercially viable feedstocks for third generation
biofuels. The cost-effectiveness of commercial-scale systems would be the
determining factors in developing advanced biofuels.
290
Check Your Progress 3 Bioenergy

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Explain the conversion technologies for bioenergy generation.

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2. What are the economic, ecological and environmental impacts of bioenergy?

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3. Explain the challenges in sustainable bioenergy production.

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13.9 INDIA’S NATIONAL POLICY ON BIOFUELS

In recent years, India has become a pioneer in climate protection and is one of
the few countries to have performed exceptionally on the mitigation goals of
NDCs. Hon’ble Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, in his speech at COP26
highlighted how India expects developed nations to provide climate finance
of $1 trillion while also stating the nation’s five point resolution. India will
1. Bring its non-fossil based energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030
2. By 2030, fulfil 50% of its energy requirement through renewable energy
3. Cut down its net projected carbon emission by 1 billion tonnes till 2030
4. Reduce carbon intensity of its economy by more than 45% by 2030, and
5. By 2070, India will be ‘net-zero’.

India currently ranks 4th worldwide in installed renewable energy capacity.

Additionally, India has successfully produced energy from non-fossil fuel
sources by more than 25% in the last 7 years thereby reaching 40% of the
country’s energy mix.

Business Standard, November 2021

The Government has unveiled a new National Biofuel Policy (2018) that
incentivises biofuel generation through multiple measures. Major steps include
encouragement of biofuel generation from excess crop production and setting
apart Rs 5000 crores viability gap funding to establish second generation 291
Energy Resources ethanol refineries. The Policy widens the range of feedstocks that can be used
for producing ethanol and allows the use of damaged grains that is unusable for
food purposes for ethanol production. As per the policy, besides sugar molasses,
beet, sorghum, corn, damaged grains etc. can be used for ethanol production.
Following are the main features of the National Policy on Biofuels 2018. The
Policy was brought by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
MNRE previously unveiled a National Biofuel Policy in 2009.

Main features of the policy includes:

1. Categorisation of Biofuels: Biofuels are categorised into
a. ‘Basic Biofuels’ like First Generation (1G) bioethanol &biodiesel and
b ‘Advanced Biofuels’ – Second Generation (2G) ethanol, Municipal
Solid Waste (MSW) to drop-in fuels, Third Generation (3G) biofuels,
bio-CNG etc.
2. Expansion of the scope of raw materials for ethanol production: The
Policy expands the type of bio-raw materials for ethanol production by
including Sugarcane Juice, Sugar containing materials like Sugar Beet,
Sweet Sorghum, Starch containing materials like Corn, Cassava, Damaged
food grains like wheat, broken rice, Rotten Potatoes etc. which are unusable
for human consumption.
3. Surplus food grains can be used for ethanol production: During excess
production, crop prices fall. Here, the Policy allows use of surplus food
grains for production of ethanol with the approval of National Biofuel
Coordination Committee. For the generation of Advanced Biofuels,
the Policy proposes a viability gap funding scheme for 2G ethanol Bio
refineries with Rs.5000 crore in 6 years. In addition to this, additional tax
incentives, higher purchase price as compared to 1G biofuels will be given
for 2G ethanol generation. The Policy encourages setting up of supply
chain mechanisms for biodiesel production from non-edible oilseeds, Used
Cooking Oil, short gestation crops etc. For the success of the policy, roles
and responsibilities of all the concerned Ministries/Departments regarding
biofuels has been ensured.
4. The National Policy also specifies the various benefits from the use of
biofuels. These include reduction of import dependency, promoting cleaner
environment, ensuring health benefits, waste management benefits, raising
of infrastructure in rural areas besides providing additional income to the
farmers. T

Check Your Progress 4

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit
1. Explain the main features of India’s Biofuel Policy

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292
 ...................................................................................................................... Bioenergy

2. COP26 highlighted how India expects developed nations to provide climate

finance of $1 trillion. In this context state the nation’s five point resolution?

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13.10 KEY WORDS

Anaerobic Digestion : Degradation of organic matter by
microbes in the absence of oxygen to
produce methane and carbon dioxide.

Biochemical Conversion : The use of fermentation or anaerobic

digestion to produce fuels and
chemicals from organic sources

Biodiesel : Biodiesel is a renewable,

biodegradable fuel derived from
agricultural plant oils or animal
fats. It can be used alone or blended
with petroleum diesel fuel in diesel
engines.

Bioenergy : Energy forms derived from the

production, conversion, and use
of material directly or indirectly
produced by photosynthesis
(including organic waste) to
manufacture fuels and substitutes
for petrochemical and other energy-
intensive products.

Bioethanol : Ethanol produced from biomass.

Biofuel : A fuel derived from biomass.

Biogas : A gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide

and methane produced by the
anaerobic digestion of organic matter

Bioheat : Heat energy generated from biomass

sources.

Biomass : Any organic matter that is available

on a renewable basis, including
agricultural crops, agricultural
wastes and residues, wood and wood
wastes and residues, animal wastes,
municipal wastes, and aquatic plants 293
Energy Resources Biomass Energy : Energy produced by the conversion
of biomass directly to heat, or to a
liquid or gas that can be converted to
energy

Biomass Fuel : Biomass converted directly to energy,

or converted to liquid or gaseous fuels
such as ethanol, methanol, methane,
and hydrogen

13.11 LET US SUM UP

Bioenergy has a very promising future. A very small fraction of its potential
has been exploited so far. There are still huge quantities of bio-residues around
the world that can be converted into bioenergy. In this unit bioenergy and its
forms, conversion technology, social, economic, ecological, and environmental
impacts of bioenergy, and challenges in sustainable bioenergy production are
discussed. Various bioenergy policies and programs have been introduced to
accelerate bioenergy in India in past years. India’s National Policy on Biofuel
is also discussed in brief.

13.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
IEA bioenergy Reports 2021,2020, 2019,2017

Anju Dahiya (2015) Bioenergy. Elsevier Inc. [Link]

0-12-407909-0.00001-8

The Role of Bioenergy in the Emerging Bioeconomy. 2019 Elsevier Inc, https:
// [Link]/ 10.1016/ B978-0-12-813056-8.00006-6

Bioenergy- a Sustainable and Reliable Energy Source [Link]

com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ MAIN-REPORT-Bioenergy-a-sustainable-
and-reliable-energy-source.-[Link]

Technology Roadmap Delivering Sustainable Bioenergy, OECD/IEA, 2017

Technology_Roadmap_Delivering_Sustainable_Bioenergy [Link]

Shah, Shachi & Venkatramanan, V (2020). Advances in Microbial Technology

for Upscaling Sustainable Biofuel Production.

[Link]

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[Link]

13.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Refer section 13.2
2. Refer section 13.2
3. Refer section 13.4

Check Your Progress 2

1. Refer section 13.5.1
2. Refer section 13.5.2
3. Refer section 13.5.3

Check Your Progress 3

1. Refer section 13.6
2. Refer section 13.7
3. Refer section 13.8

Check your Progress 4

1. Refer section 13.9
2. Refer section 13.9

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