CHAPTER 2: Word building

1. Affixation
2. Conversion
3. Composition
4. Shortening
 What is a word? What is a root word? What is a
derived word? What is a compound word?
• A word is a symbolic unit which is a combination of
meaning and sound.
• A root word is a word which has only one root
morpheme in its structure.
Ex: teach, work , happy, agree
• A derived word is a word which consists of a root
and an affix (or several affixes) and are produced by
the process of word-building known as affixation (or
derivation)
Ex: teacher, worker, beautiful, unhappy, disagree
• A compound word: consists of two or more stems
• Ex: classroom, football, handbag
 Lesson 1 Affixation
1. What is affixation?
2. What are affixes? What is a prefix? What is a
suffix?
3. Classification of affixes
 What is affixation?
E.g.: dis+ agree = disagree
beauty+ful = beautiful

- Affixation is the formation of words by adding

derivational affixes to the roots.
 What are affixes?
- Affixes are bound morphemes that occur before
or behind a root and somewhat modify the basic
meaning of the root. Affixes include prefix, suffix,
infixes and suprafix (suprasegmental)
e.g. impossibility
root {possible},
suffix { -ity}
prefix {im-}
Affixes can function as derivational morphemes.
 What is a prefix? What is a suffix?

- Prefixes are bound morphemes which precede the root.

Prefixes don't change the grammatical class of words.
e.g. Ex + wife (n) = ex-wife (n)
ex + minister (n) = ex-minister (n)
pre + war (n) = pre-war (n)
pre +school (n) = pre-school (n)
dis + agree (v) = disagree (v)
- Suffixes are bound morphemes which follow the root.
Suffixes change the word-class.
e.g. Play (v) + er = player (n)
paint (v)+er = painter (n)
help (v) +ful = helpful (adj)
 Classification of affixes

1. Classification of prefixes
2. Classification of suffixes
 Classification of prefixes
Prefixes are classified in many ways, either according to their origin or meaning or
function.
a. Classified according to the meaning:
- Negative and positive prefixes (un-, in-, mis-, dis-, non-)
lucky - unlucky
honest - dishonest
sense - nonsense
understand - misunderstand
- Prefixes of location
- Prefixes of time and order
- Prefixes of size
- Prefixes of number
b. Classified according to their origin
+ Native : be-, mis- , un- , over-
+ Borrowed: dis- , ex- , super, re-
c. Classified according to productivity
Prefixes can be productive and non productive:
+ Productive: can be used synchronically to create a new word.
+ Non- productive: cannot be used synchronically to create a new word.
 Classification of suffixes
Like prefixes, suffixes can also be classified in different ways according
to different principles.
a. Classified according to the part of speech (function)
+ Noun – forming suffixes: -er , -or , -ing , -tion , -ness ,-ist
+ Adjective- suffixes: -able, -ish, -ed, -less, -y, etc.
+ Verb- suffixes: -ize, -en, -fy, etc.
+ Adverb- suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise, etc.
b. Classified according to their origin
+ Native suffixes: -dom, -ed, -hood, -less, -ness, -ship
+ Borrowed suffixes:
- Latin: -able, -ent
- French: -age, -ance, -ate, -sy
- Greek: -ist, -ism,-ite
c. Classified according to productivity
• Suffixes can be productive and non- productive
+ Productive: can be used synchronically to create a new word.
+ Non- productive: cannot be used synchronically to create a new
word.
 Lesson 2 Conversion
1. What is conversion?
2. Classification of conversion
 1. What is conversion?

lecture (n) - to lecture (v)

hand (n) - to hand (v)
to drop out (v)- a drop out (n)

• Conversion is an affixless way of word building or even

affixless derivation.
• Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different
part of speech without adding any element.
• Conversion is also called “ functional change” or “ zero
derivation”,
 2. Classification of conversion
• 1. Complete conversion
water ( n) ----- to water ( v)
slow ( adj) ---- to slow ( v)
• 2. Partial conversion
- Conversion with sound gradation or stress shift
graduate ( v ) - graduate ( n )
ˡprogress ( n ) - to proˡgress ( v)
ˡrecord ( n ) - to reˡcord ( v )
- Conversion with shift of meaning
native ( adj ) - a native ( n )
wrong ( adj ) - to wrong ( v)
- Conversion with vowel or consonant gradation
food ( n ) - feed ( v)
blood ( n ) - bleed ( v )
sing (v ) - song ( n )
live ( v ) - life ( n )
speak ( v ) - speech ( n )
 Lesson 3 Composition
1. What is a compound?
2. What is compounding or composition?
3. The characteristics of compounds.
4. Classification of compounds
5. How to distinguish between free word
groups and compounds?
 1. What is a compound?

e.g. goal-keeper
boyfriend
classroom
• A compound is a word that consists of at least
two root morphemes.
 2. What is compounding or composition?

Ex: class + room = classroom

boy + friend = boyfriend

• Compounding (or word formation) is the

building of a new word by joining two or more
words.
 3. The characteristics of compounds.
e.g. goal-keeper
boyfriend
classrooms

• The first free morpheme modifies the second free

morpheme.
• The first free morpheme usually receives the primary
stress.
• The first free morpheme functions as the modifier, whereas
the second free morpheme functions as the head.
• The second element determines the word class of the
compound.
• The second free morpheme is marked for number.
 4. Classification of compounds
1. Classified according to structure
- Neutral compounds: without linking element
+ Simple neutral compounds: affixless stem
e.g. sunflower, bedroom
+ derivational compounds: have affixes in their structure
e.g. absent-minded, housekeeper
+ contracted compounds: have a shortened stem inn their
structure.
e.g. TV-set
- Morphological compounds: non-productive. Hyphen,
vowel or consonant as linking element.
e.g. Anglo-Saxon, handiwork, spokesman
- Syntactic compounds
e.g. merry-go-round
 2. Classified according to meaning
According to their meaning, compounds can be
non–idiomatic (motivated) or idiomatic (non–
motivated ).
- Non idiomatic compounds : are those whose
meanings are easily deduced from the
meanings of the components
e.g. goal–keeper , salesgirl , kind–hearted
- Idiomatic compounds : Are those whose
meanings cannot be deduced because there is
no relationship between the meanings of the
components. Lack of motivation in these
words is related to figurative usage of their
components.
e.g. ladybird, tallboy
3. Classification according to the part of speech

- Compound nouns : door – handle , lady – killer

, black – board.
- Compound adjectives : hot – tempered , easy –
going , up – and – coming.
- Compound verbs : whitewash , team – teach .
- Compound adverbs : whole – heartedly , self –
confidently , therein, herein .
- Compound prepositions : onto , into.
 5. How to distinguish between free
word groups and compounds?
• Graphic criterion
e.g. a tall boy – a tallboy
• Phonetic criterion
e.g. a tall boy – a tallboy
• Semantic criterion
e.g.
• Morphological and syntactic criterion
e.g.
 Lesson 4 Shortening
1. Clipping
2. Blending
3. Abbreviation
4. Backformation
5. Reduplication
 [Link] first – clipping
• Clipping: a type of shortening in which a word is
made from a syllable of the original word.

• Initial clipping: the initial part of the word is clipped

telephone  phone
• Final clipping : the final part of the word is clipped
laboratory  lab
• Initial-final- clipping:both the beginning and ending of
the word are clipped:
influenza  flu
• Medial clipping : the medial part of the word is clipped
mathematics maths
 [Link] second – abbreviation
Ex:
UNO: the United Nations Organization
BBC: the British Broadcasting Corporation
UNESCO:the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization.

+ A type of shortening in which a new word is made

from the initial letters of a group.
+ This type is also called initial shortenings: E.g.:
g.f. from girl-friend.
 [Link] third – blending
Ex:
binary + digit = bit
channel + tunnel = chunnel
smoke + fog = smog
wiki + dictionary = Wiktionary
• a special type of shortening in which parts of
words merge into one to form a new word
 4. Reduplication
Ex: bye-bye; ping-pong; chit-chat
+ doubling the stem (without any phonetic
change or with a variation of the root-vowel
or consonant):
+ (informal): walkie-talkie; riff-raff, chi-chi
• Reduplication: a morphological device by
which a new word is coined by repeating the
entire word.
 5. Back-formation
+ beggar → to beg
+ burglar → to burgle
+ cobbler → to cobble
Back formation: a morphological
device whereby a new word is
coined from an existing one by
removing actual or supposed
affixes.