UNIT ONE: MATRIX ALGEBRA

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Linear algebra is a study of systems of linear equations and attempts to find a simultaneous solution
for announce of those equations if such a solution exists. Matrix algebra permits the concise
expression of a system of linear equations. Systems of linear equations arise in two ways in
economic theory. Some economics models have a natural linear structure. On the other hand, when
the relationships among the variables under consideration are described by a system of nonlinear
equations, one takes the derivative of these equations to convert them to approximating linear
system.

A matrix is a rectangular array (or arrangement) of numbers (or variables) arranged in such a

way that each number has a definite position allotted to it.

If a matrix has “m” rows and “n” columns, “m x n” is called the order or the dimension of the

matrix. Read “m x n” as m by n.

 a11 a12 a13 ....... a1n 

 
 a 21 a 22 a 23 ....... a 2 n 
  The a11, a12 … are called elements of the matrix
 
a a m 3 ..... a mn 
 m1 am2

This is m x n matrix. It has m number of rows and n number of columns.

Columns

 a11 a12 a13 .......... .a1n 

 
 a 21 a 22 a 23 .......... a 2 n 
Rows  
 
a am2 a m 3 ......... a mn 
 m1

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Note that every element in the matrix has define location. For example a23 is in the second row

and third column. Where is a32 located? At the third row and 2nd column. As a conviction, the

first number represents the row and the second number represents the column.

3 5 7
Question: Given A =  
2 4  3 

a) What is the order of A? Answer 2 X 3

b) How much is a13 element? Answer 7

c) How much is a22 element? Answer 4

A matrix, by definition, is simply an arrangement of numbers.

1.2 Matrix Operations

1.2.1 Equality of Matrices –Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if:
a) A and B are of the same order, and

b) Every corresponding elements in A and B are same.

Therefore, a matrix is equal to itself only.

Examples:

1 2 0  1 2 0 
   
a) If A =  5 3 4  and B =  5 3 4  , then
0 1 2  0 1 2 
   
A = B because every element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B.

1 3  1  1 3  1 
   
b) If M =  0 1 2  and N =  0 2 1  , then
2 1 5  2 4 5
   

M  N because the a22 element of M is l while the corresponding a22 element of N is 2 and the a23

element of M is 2 while the corresponding a23 element of N is 1.

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Note that although every element of M is also element of N the two are not equal because of the

differences in the locations of the elements.

1.2.2 Addition of Matrices –Two or more matrices can be added if and only if they are of the
same order; otherwise, they are said to be non-conformable for addition. If they are conformable

for addition, their sum will be the matrices formed by adding each corresponding element. If they

are non-conformable for addition, the sum of the matrices does not exist.

Generally, if

 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 

   
A =  a 21 a 22 a 23  and B =  b21 b22 b23 
a a33  b b33 
 31 a32  31 b32

Then

 a11  b11 a12  b12 a13  b13 

 
A + B =  a 21  b21 a 22  b22 a 23  b23 
a b a32  b32 a33  b33 
 31 31
Examples:

 2 5 2 1 3 
1. If M =   and N =  
  1 0 3   4 5 
M + N do not exist because M is 2 x 3 while N is 2 x 2. They are said to be non-conformable for

addition.

 2 5 2 1 3 0 
2. If A =   and B =   , A and B are conformable for addition
 1 0 3 4 5 2 
because both are of the same order, 2 x 3.

 2 1 53 2  0 3 8 2
A + B =  =  
  1 4 05 3  2  3 5 5
If two or more matrices, say A, B and C, are conformable for addition (that is if they are of the

same order), then:

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 i) Matrix addition is commutative

A+B=B+A

ii) Matrix addition is associative

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) = A + B + C

iii) If 0 denotes a null matrix of the same order as that of A, then

A+0=0+A=A

Examples:

 2 3  1 4  0 1 0 0 
Let A =   , B =   , C =   , and O =  
5 1   2 3   1 1 0 0

 2   1 3 4 1 7 
a) A + B =   =  
5 2 1  3  7 4

  1  0 4  1   1 5 
b) B + C =     
 2   1 3  1   1 4 

1 7   0 1  1 0 7 1 1 8 
c) (A + B) + C =   +   =   =  
7 4   1 1  7   1 4  1  6 5

 2 3   1 5  2   1 3  5  1 8 
d) A + (B + C) =   +   =   =  
5 1   1 4  5 1 1  4   6 5

 2 3  1 4  0 1
e) A + B + C =   +   +  
5 1   2 3  1 1 

 2   1  0 3  4  1 1 8 
=    
 5  2   1 1  3  1   6 5 

1 8 
Therefore, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) = A + B + C =  
 6 5

 2 3 0 0  20 3 0  2 3
f) A + O =   +   =   =  
5 1  0 0 5  0 1 0  5 1 

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 0 0   2 3 0 2 0  3  2 3
g) O + A =   +   =   =  
0 0 5 1  05 0 1  5 1 
Therefore, A + 0 = 0 + A = A

If A + B = B + A = 0, then A is the additive inverses of B that of A.

Example:

1  3  1 3
Let A =   and B =   , then
 4 5   4  5

1   1  3  3 0 0 
A + B =   =  
 4 4 5   5 0 0

  11 3   3 0 0 
B + A =   =  
 4   4   5  5  0 0
A is additive inverse of B and B is additive inverse of A.

Check Your Progress Questions

1. Which of the following matrices are equivalent?

 5 0 23 4  4
5 3  2    
A =  , B =  3 1 , C =  2 1 3 2
0 1 2   2
  2 2
   2 

2 4 6  1 2 0 
    1 3 
2. Let M =  7 8 9  , N =  0 1 3  , and L =  
  5 2 0  0 0 1  4 5
   
Then find

i) M + N ii) M + L iii) N + M iv) N + L

1. B and C are equivalent

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  3 6 6
 
2. i) M + N =  7 9 12  ii) M + L does not exist
 5 2 1 


 3 6 6 
 
iii) N + M =  7 9 12  iv) N + L does not exist
 5 2 1 
 

1.2.3 Subtraction of Matrices –A matrix can be subtracted from another matrix if both are of the
same order; otherwise, they are said to be non-conformable for subtraction. If they are conformable

for subtraction, the difference between the two matrices will be the matrix obtained by subtracting

each corresponding element.

Generally, if

 b11 b12 b13 

 a11 a12 a13   
   b21 b22 b23 
A =  a 21 a 22 a 23  and B= 
a b b32 b33 
 31 a32 a33   31



 
Then

 a11  b11 a12  b12 a13  b13 

 
 a 21  b21 a 22  b22 a 23  b23 
A–B= 
a b a32  b32 a 33  b33 
 31 31 
 
 

 b11  a11 b12  a12 b13  a13 

 
 b21  a 21 b22  a 22 b23  a 23 
B–A= 
b a b32  a32 b33  a33 
 31 31 
 
 
Example:

1 9    2 4
Let A =   and B =   , then
 0 3  5 8

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 1   2  9  4  3 5
A – B =   =  
05 3  8    5  5

 2 1 4  9  3  5
B – A =   =  
 50 8  3   5 5 

If 0 denotes a null matrix of the same order as the matrix A, then A – 0 = A and 0 – A = -A

1.2.4 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Constant

It is possible to multiply a matrix by a constant number. In doing so, the constant multiplies every

element of the matrix.

If K is a constant number, then:

 a11 a12   Ka11 Ka12 

KA = K   =  
 a 21 a 22   Ka 21 Ka 22 

Example:

3 5   23 25   6 10 
2   =   =  
 2  1  22  21  4  2
Prove yourself that the following statements are correct.

i) K (A+ B) = KA + KB

ii) (K1 + K2) A = K1 A + K2 A

iii) (K1.K2) A = K1 (K2.A)

1.2.5 Multiplication of Matrices

The product of two matrices, A and B, is defined only if the number columns of A is the same as

the number of rows of B. That is, in order to multiply two matrices, the first matrix must have as

many columns as the second matrix has rows. Matrices that fulfill this condition are said to be

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conformable for multiplication. Otherwise, multiplication is impossible and the two matrices are

said to be non-conformable for multiplication.

If A is a matrix of order (m x n) and B is another matrix of order (n x p), then multiplying A to B

is possible because the number of columns of A is “n” which is the same as the number of rows of

B. The product matrix, AB, will be of (m x p) order. That is, the product matrix will have the same

number of rows as the first matrix and the same number of columns as the second matrix.

Matrices A x B = AB

Orders mxn nx p = mxp

That n, the number of columns of A is the same to n, the number of rows of B confirms is AB

exists and therefore A and B are conformable for multiplications. AB will be a matrix of order m

x p.

Question:

If A is a 3 x 4 matrix and B is a 4 x 5 matrix, then what will be the order of a) AB, and b) that of

BA?

Answer:

a) AB exists because the number of columns of A is 4, which is the same as the number of

rows of B. Therefore, AB will have same number of rows as A (3) and the same number

of columns as B (5), which means the order of AB is 3 x 5.

Matrix A x B = AB

Order 3x4 4x5 3x5

b) BA does not exist because the number of columns of B is 5, which is different from the

number of rows of B(3). Thus, B and A are not conformable for multiplication

Matrix B x A = 

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 4x5 3x4

Order

[Link] Rules of Matrix Multiplication: In multiplying two matrices (that are conformable for

multiplication), you have to employ the strict rule of adding the products of elements of the rows

of the first matrix and elements of the columns of the second matrix. That is, you “go” along the

rows of the first matrix and down the columns of the second matrix. Columns of the product matrix.

The sum of products of elements of the 1st row of the 1st matrix and elements of the 1st column of

the 2nd matrix forms the 1st row 1st column of the product matrix. Likewise, the sum of products

of elements of 1st row of the 1st matrix and elements of 2nd columns of the 2nd matrix forms the 1st

row-2nd column of the product matrix and so on. The crucial point here is matrix multiplication is

row by column.

 b11 b12 
 a11 a12 a13     c11 c12 
If   x  b21 b22  =   , then
 a 21 a 22 a 23  b   c 21 c 22 
 31 b32 
2x3 3x2 2x2

C11 = a11 (b11) + a12 (b21) + a13 (b31)

C12 = a11 (b12) + a12 (b22) + a13 (b32)

C21 = a21 (b11) + a22 (b21) + a23 (b31)

C22= a21 (b12) + a22 (b22) + a23 (b32)

Note that since the first matrix is of 2 x 3 order and the second of 3 x 2 order, their product matrix

is a 2 x 2 matrix.

Examples:

1 5   2 1
1. Given A =   and B =   , find AB and BA
3 2   4 3

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Solutions:

1 5   2 1  12  5 4 11  53    18 16 

AB =     =  =  
 3 2    4 3  32  2 4 31  23  2 9 

Orders 2 x 2 2x2 2x2

 2 1 1 5   21  13 25  12   5 12 

BA =     =   =  
  4 3 3 2   41  33  45  32  5 14 

Order 2x2 2x2 2x2

2 3 X   4
2. Given     =   , Solve for X and Y.
5 2  Y  1 
2x2 2x1 2x1

Solution:

2 3 X   4 2( x)  3 y    4
If     =   ,
5 2  Y  1  5 x   2 y   1

2x2 2x1 2x1

2x  3y   4
By solving simultaneously, we get x = 1 and y = -2
5 x  2 y 1

Check:

2 3 1   21  3 2    4
    =   =  
5 2    2  51  2 2  1 
2x2 2x1 2x1

2  3 3  X   8
     
3. Convert  3 2 2   Y  =  10  in a system of linear equations
1  1  2  Z   1 
     
3x3 3x1 3 x 1 Solution:

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2  3 3  X   8
     
3 2 2   Y  =  10  can be written as:
1  1  2  Z   1 
     

2x – 3y + 3z = -8

3x + 2y + 2z = 10

x – y – 2z = 1

4. Convert the following system of linear equations into extended matrix form.

5X1 – 2X2 + X3 = 10

-3X1 + 7X2 – 2X3 = 15

Solution

 X1 
 5 2 1   10 
  X2    
 3 7  2    15 
 X3 
[Link] Properties of Matrix Multiplication
i) Matrix multiplication is associative. That is, if matrices A, B and C are conformable

for multiplication, then A (B C) = (AB) C

Example:

 2 3 1 0  5  2
Let A =   , B =   and C =  
 5 1 2 3 1 0 

 2 3 5  2  49  16 
A (BC) =     =  
 5 1 13  4   38  14 

8 9  5  2  49  16 
(AB) C =     =  
 7 3  1 0   38  14 
Therefore, A (BC) = (AB) C

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ii) Matrix multiplication is distributive. That is, if matrices A, B and C are conformable for

addition and multiplication, then

A (B + C) = AB + AC, and

(A + B) C = AC + BC

Examples:

  2 5 1 2   8 2
Let A =   , B =   , and C=  
 4 3  5 7   3 1

  2 5 9 4  8 32 
a) A (B + C) =     =  
 4 3  2 8  42 40 

 23 31    31 1   8 32 
AB + AC =   +   =  
19 29   23 11  42 40 

Therefore, A (B + C) = AB + AC

1 7  8 2   29 5 
b) (A + B) C =     =  
 9 10    3 1  42 28

  31 1   2 4   29 5 
AC + BC =   +   =  
 23 11 19 17   42 28
Therefore, (A + B) C = AC + BC

iii) Matrix multiplication is not always commutative. That is, AB is not necessarily equal to

BA. There are three possible cases.

Case I. Under certain conditions, AB may be equal to BA

2 3 1 0 
Example: Let A =   and B =   , then
1 4   0 1

 21  30  20   31 2 3

AB =  =  
11  40  10   41  1 4 

12
 12   01 13  04   2 3
BA =   =  
 02   11 03  14  1 4 

Thus, in this case AB = BA. Note that in this example AB =BA = A because B is an identity matrix

of the same order as A. Specifically, if either or both matrices are scalar matrix, then AB = BA .

Case II. It is possible that AB is defined (conformable for multiplication) while BA does not exist

(not conformable for multiplication)

Example:

 1 5  2 5 1
Let A =   and B=  
  2 3 0 1 3
AB exists because the orders 2 x 2 and 2 x 3 are conformable for multiplication, AB will be of

order 2 x 3. Therefore,

 1 5  2 5 1  2 10 16 
AB =     =  
  2 3 0 1 3  4  7 7 

BA does not exist because the orders 2 x 3 and 2 x 2 are not conformable for multiplications.

Therefore

 2 5 1  1 5
BA =     does not exist
0 1 3   2 3
Case III. It is possible that both AB and BA exist but they are different matrices. That is both AB

and BA are defined but AB is not equal to BA (AB  BA)

Example 1.

1 3  4 6
Let A =   and B =   , then
 2  1  2 1

1 3  4 6 16 9 
AB =     =  
 2  1  2 1  6 11

13
 4 6 1 3  16 6 
BA =     =  
 2 1  2  1  4 5
Both AB and BA exist, but AB  BA

Example 2.

5 
Let A = (2 4) and B =   , find AB and BA.
  3

5 
Solution: AB = 2 4   = 25  4 3 = (-2) = -2
  3
1x2 2x1 1x1

If A is a row vector and B is a column vector and if AB exist, then the product matrix will be a

constant number,

5   52  54   10 20 
BA =   2 4 =   =  
  3   32   34     6  12 
2x1 1x2 2x2

When a column vector is multiplied to row vector the product will be matrix.

Therefore, if A and B are vectors and o ne is a row vector while the other is column vector, then

AB  BA.

Reminder: Matrix multiplication is associative and distributive but not necessarily commutative.

1.2.6 Multiplication of a Matrix by a scalar

A scalar is a square and diagonal matrix whose every diagonal element are equal. When

multiplication is possible, multiplying a matrix by a scalar produces the same result as multiplying

the matrix by the constant diagonal element of the scalar.

Let K be a scalar and A be a square matrix of the same order as K, then KA = AK

K O  a11 a12 
Let K =   and A =  
O K   a 21 a 22 

14
  K a11   0a 21  K a12   0a 22   Ka Ka12 
KA =   =  11 
 0a11   K a 21  0a12   K a 22   Ka 21 Ka 22 

 a11 a12  K O  a11 K   a12 0 a11 0  a12 K   Ka Ka12 

AK =     =   =  11 
 a 21 a 22  O K   a 21 K   a 22 0 a 21 0  a 22 K   Ka 21 Ka 22 

Therefore, KA = AK. Note that multiplying matrix A by the constant number K produces the same

result.

 a11 a12   Ka11 Ka12 

KX  =  
 a 21 a 22   21
Ka Ka 22 

3 0  5 2
Example (1) Given A =   and B =   , evaluate AB and BA.
 0 3  3 4
Solution:

3 0  5 2  35  0 3 32   04    15 6 

AB =     =   =  
 0 3  3 4  05  3  3 02   3 4    9 12 

 5 2 3 0  53  20  50   23   15 6 

BA =     =   =  
  3 4   0 3   33  4 0   30   4 3   9 12 

Note that the result is the same as multiplying A by 3

 5 2  35 32   15 6 
3   =   =  
 3 4  3 3 34     9 12 
however, KA may not be equal to AK if A is not a square matrix

K O a a a 
Let K =   and A   11 12 13  , then
O K  a 21 a 22 a 23 

 Ka11 Ka12 Ka13 

KA =   ; K is of 2 x 2 order, A is 2 x 3 and therefore KA is a 2 x 3
 Ka 21 Ka 22 Ka 23 

matrix.

15
AK does not exit because a 2 x 3 matrix (A) cannot be multiplied by a 2 X 2 matrix since they are

not conformable for multiplication

Therefore, in this case KA  AK.

Check your progress

1. What are the two conditions for equality of matrices?

2. What condition should be fulfilled in order to add two or more matrices, or to subtract one

from the other?

3. State the rules of matrix multiplication

4. Is matrix multiplication associative?

5. Is matrix multiplication distribute?

6. Is matrix multiplication commutative?

2 5 1 4
7. Given A =   and B   
1  3 2 0 

a) 3A – 2B

b) Matrix X such that (2A – B) + X = 0, where 0 denotes a null square matrix of order

 30 2 
8. Evaluate 10   
 4 10 

1.2.7 Power of a Matrix

If A is square matrix, the A2, A3, A4 …. are defined.

 a11 a12 
If A =   , then
 a 21 a 22 

 a11 a12   a11 a12   a11 a11   a12 a 21  a11 a12   a12 a 22  
A2 =     =  
 a 21 a 22   a 21 a 22   a 21 a11   a 22 a 21  a 21 a12   a 22 a 22 

Example

16
 2 3
Given A =   , find A2 and A3
 1  2 
Solution

2 3 2 3  22   31 23  3 2   7 0 

A2 =     =   =  
1  2  1  2  12    21  13  (2)  2  0 7

7 0  2 3  72   01 73  0 2  14 21

A3 =     =   =  
0 7 1  2   02   71 03  7 2    7  14 
Only square matrices can be powered

1 2 3 
Example Given B =   , find B2
 4 5 6 
Solution B2 does not exist because a 2 x 3 and a 2 x 3 matrices are not conformable for

Multiplications

1.2.8 Transpose of a Matrix

Let A be a matrix. The matrix obtained from A by interchanging its rows and columns is called

the transpose of A. Transpose of A is denoted by A or AT

 a11 a12 a13 

If A =   , then
 a 21 a 22 a 23 

 a11 a 21 
 
A =  a12
T
a 22 
a a 23 
 13
Example:

2 5  T 2 4
If A =   , A =  
 4 6 5 6 

1 
 
1. If B = (1 2 3) , B =  2  T

3
 

17
 4 0  4 0 
2. If C =   , CT =  
0 4 0 4

3 2  3 2 
3. If D =   , DT =  
 2 3  2 3
Any matrix A for which A = AT is called a symmetric matrix. Examples 3 and 4 are symmetric

matrices.

1.3 Elementary Operation

The following types of row or column operations are called elementary operations.

i) Interchanging any two rows (or columns);

ii) Multiplying any row (or column) by a non-zero constant number; and

iii) Adding a multiple of one row (column) to a multiple of another row (column).

An elementary operation should be either row or column operation, not both at the same time.

If an elementary operation is conducted, it should involve every element of the row (or column).

It is prohibited to operate on some elements of a row (or column) and ignore some elements of the

same row (or column).

A new matrix formed by elementary operation can easily be restored back to its original matrix by

“undoing” the operations. Therefore, although the new matrix is not equivalent to the old one, the

information stored is the old matrix are retrievable from the new one, this is why the system

remains intact.

Notations: “ ” denotes interchanging. For example, R1  R2 reads as row 1 and row 2 are

interchanged.

18
 “ ” denotes replacement. For example, 2R1 – R2  R2 reads as 2 times row

one minus row 2 replaces row 2. that is the old R1 minus the old R2

Although elementary operation can be conducted either on rows or columns, we focus on row

operations only because they are appropriate for our purposes. However, the principle is the same

for both operations.

Example:

 3 5
1. Given   , change a12 element to zero. Using elementary row operation.
 2 1
Solution: To make a12 element, 5, become 0, we can multiply the 2nd row by 5 and subtract the

product (5 x 1 = 5) from 5; and the same operation should involve the whole row.

R1 – 5R2  R1 3 – 5 (2) 5 – 5 (1) = -7 0

R2  R1 2 1 2 1

  7 0
2. Given   Change a21 element to zero
2 1 
Solution:

R1  R1
-7 0 –7 0
2 R1  7 R2  R2

2 (-7) + 7 (2) 2 (0) + 7 (1) = 0 7

Check your progress

2 3 4 1
1. If A =   is converted int o B    by elementary operation, what row
4 1   2 3
operation was conducted?

 2 5 1
 
2. Convert M = 1 6 2  into an upper triangular matrix, using elementary row operations.
3 5 6 
 

19
 3 5 2
 
3. Convert N =  4 1 3  into a lower triangular matrix, using elementary row operations.
0 2 2 

4. Make the a22 element of matrix M equal to 1

1.3. Special Matrices

1.3.1 Row Matrix –A matrix which has exactly one raw is called a raw matrix or a row vector; its

dimension is 1xn.

Example 1 2 3 4
This is a raw vector of order one by four, (1 X 4). We can simply say “a row vector of order four.”

Question: If A = (5 6 7), what is the order of A?

Answer: A row vector of order 3.

1.3.2 Column Matrix –A matrix which has exactly one column is called a column matrix or a

column vector; its dimension is m x 1.

2 
 
Example   1 is a column matrix (vector) of order three.
5 
 

5 
 
7 
Question: If B =   , what is the order of B?
2
 
1 
 
Answer: B is a column matrix (vector) of order 4

1.3.3 Null or Zero Matrix –A matrix each of whose elements is zero is known as a null or zero

matrix.

0 0 0
Example   is 2 x 3 null matrix.
0 0 0

20
If 0 denotes zero matrix, then

a) A + 0 = A

b) A – 0 = A

c) 0 – A = -A

d) A.0 = 0.A = 0

Numerical Examples:

 2 5  0 0  2  0 5  0  2 5
1.           
  1 1   0 0    1 0 1 0    1 1 

 2 5  0 0  2  0 5  0  2 5 
2.           
  1 1   0 0    1  0 1  0    1 1

0 0  2 5   0  2 0  5   2  5
3.         
0 0    1 1  0   1 0 1   1  1 

 2 5   0 0   20   50  20   50   0 0 

4.          
  1 1   0 0    10   10  10   0    0 0 

0 0   2 5   02  0  1 05  01   0 0 

5.     
0 0    1 1  02  0 1 05  01  0 0 

1.3.4 Square Matrix –A matrix whose number of rows is equal to the number of columns is called

square matrix.

1 2 
Example:   is a 2 x 2 square matrix. It can simply be referred to as “a square matrix of order
 0 3 
two.”

Question: which of the following is not a square matrix?

21
 1 0 0   2 5 1 0 3 
0 0      
a).   b).  0 1 0  c).  5 3  d).  0 2  1
0 0   0 0 1 0 1  3 2 7 
     
Answer: C is not a square matrix because it has three rows but only two columns.

1.3.5 Diagonal Matrix –A square matrix whose every element other than the diagonal elements

is zero is known as a diagonal matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 

 
If A =  a 21 a 22 a 23  , elements a11, a22 and a33 are diagonal elements of matrix A.
 
 a31 a32 a33 
In order to classify a matrix as a diagonal matrix;

a) It should be a square matrix; that is its number of rows should be equal to its number of

columns, and

b) All the not-diagonal elements should be zero. Note that the diagonal elements themselves

may or may not be zero. What is required is that the non-diagonal elements be zero.

Example

1 0 0  0 0 0
  0 0  
A = 0 2 0 , B =   , C = 0 0 0
0 0 3 0 2 0 0 0
   
A, B and C are diagonal matrices

Student Activities: Which of the following matrices are not diagonal matrices?

2 0 0
 2 0  1   5 0 0 
  3 0  0 1 0  
A = 0 1 0  B =   , C=  , D = 0 3 0
0 0 3  0 2 0 0 3 0 0 0
     
0 0 0 

Answer:

- A is not a diagonal matrix because a13, which is a not-diagonal element is not zero.

22
 - B is a diagonal matrix because it is a square matrix and its every non-diagonal element are

zero.

- C is not a diagonal matrix because it is not a square matrix.

- D is a diagonal matrix because it is a square matrix and its every not-diagonal element are

zero.

1.3.6 Scalar Matrix –A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are equal is called scalar matrix.

Therefore, a scalar matrix must be a) a square matrix, b) a diagonal matrix and c) all its diagonal

elements must be equal.

Example:

0 0 0 0
 2 0 0  1 0 0   
3 0     0 0 0 0
   0 2 0   0 1 0 0
 0 3  0 0  2  0 0 1 0 0 0
     
0 0 0 0 

All the above matrices are scalar matrix.

Question: Which of the followings is not a scalar matrix?

 2 0 0 5 0 0
0 0 0    
A =   B = 0 2 1  C = 0 5 0
0 0 0 0 0 2  0 0 5
   
Answer: Both A and B are not scalar matrices because A is not a square matrix and a23 element of

B is not zero. Matrix C is a scalar matrix.

1.3.7 Identify (unit) Matrix –A scalar matrix whose every diagonal element is equal to one is

called Identity or Unit matrix. Identity matrix is a) square matrix, b) diagonal matrix, c) scalar

matrix, and d) all its diagonal elements equal to 1. Therefore, there is only one-unit matrix for each

square order; thus it is unique.

Example:

23
 1 0 0 0
1 0 0   
1 0    0 1 0 0
A =   , B = 0 1 0 , C= 
 0 1  0 0 1 0 0 1 0
   
0 0 0 1

A is called identity matrix of order 2

B is called identity matrix of order 3

C is called identity matrix of order 4

Identity matrix has some similar characteristics as the number 1 incommon algebra. If A is a non-

Zero (null) matrix and I is an identity matrix and if A and I are conformable for multiplication,

then

AxI=IxA=A

Example

 2 3 1 0 
If A =   and I =   , then
5 1   0 1

 2 3 1 0   21  3 0  20   31  2 3

A.I =     =  =  
5 1   0 1  51  10  50   11  5 1 

1 0   2 3 12  05 13  01  2 3

I.A =     =  =  
 0 1 5 1   02  15 03  11 5 1 
Therefore, AI = IA = A

1.3.8 Triangular Matrix –A matrix whose every element above (or below) the diagonal is equal

to zero is called triangular matrix. Specifically, a square matrix whose aij = 0 wherever i<j is called

lower triangular matrix. Analogously, a square matrix whose aij = 0 whenever i>j is called upper

triangular matrix.

24
Example (1)

1 0 0 0
 5 0 0  
  2 3 0 0  2 0
A=  3 1 0 B=  C =  
  2 5 9 0 5 0 0 1 2 
   
2 0 3 1 


0 0 0 1 0 0 
   
D = 0 0 0 E = 0 1 0
0 0 0  0 0 1
   
All the above matrices are lower triangular matrixes because their elements above the diagonal are

equal to zero. Note that their a12, a13, a14 … a23, a24, a25 … a34, a35, a36 … are zero. That is, every

element whose row number is less than its column number (aij, where i<j) is equal to zero.

Example 2

7 11 2 3 
3 1 2   
  0 1 5 2 1 2 
A = 0 2 5  , B=  C =  
0 0  2 0 0  3 4  0 1
   
0 0 0 1 


0 0 0 1 0 0 
   
D = 0 0 0 E = 0 1 0
0 0 0  0 0 1
   
All the above matrices are upper triangular matrices because their every element below the

diagonal is zero. Note that in each case a21, a31, a32, a41, a42, a43 … are equal to zero. That is aij = 0

whenever i>j.

Note that a square zero matrix (D) and identity matrix (E) can be classified as both upper and lower

triangular matrices because they fulfill both conditions.

Question: Which of the following matrices are not triangular and why?

25
  2 0 0 2 3 2 5  1 2 3 
  1 2     
A = 3 1 0  B =   C = 0 1 1 2  D = 0 5 6
5 1 2 0 3  0 0 2  3  2 0 0
     

Answer: A is a lower triangular matrix

B is an upper triangular matrix

C is not a triangular matrix because it is not a square matrix

D is not a triangular matrix because a31 element is not zero.

Therefore, the answer is C and D.

1.4. Determinants
If A is a square matrix with entries (elements) from the field of complex numbers, then determinant
of A is some complex number. This will be denoted by det A or /A/. Determinant is a numerical
value of a square matrix.
a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n
a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
If A= , , , ,

, , , ,

An1 an3 an3 ann

a11 a12 a13 . . . a1n

a21 a22 a23 . . . a2n
, , , ,

Then det A = /A/= , , , ,

an1 an3 an3 --------ann

Note: the following points.

i) det A or /A/ is defined for square matrix A only
26
 ii) det A or /A/ will be defined in such a way that A is invertible iffA0
iii) The determinant of an nxn matrix will be called determinant of order n.

1.4.1. Determinant of Order One

Let A = (a11) be a square matrix of order one. Then det A = a11
Example: let A = (3), then det A = /A/ = 3 by definition.

1.4.2. Determinant of Order Two

Let A = a11 a12 be a square matrix of order two.
a21 a22
then we define det A as: /A/ = a11 a22 – a12 a21
If B = a b
c d , then B= ad – bc

Example: find det A or /A/ if A= 3 4

5 6
Solution: Det A = /A/ = (3x6)-(4x5) = 18 -20 = -2

1.4.3. Determinant of Order Three or More

The determinant of order three or more is determined using two methods (Laplace’s expansion
method and Sarru’s method).
[Link]. Laplace’s Expansion Method
Laplace’s expansion method to determine the determinant of order three or more requires the
knowledge of minors and cofactors which will be covered in later topics. Thus, I will use the
formula which defines the determinant of a square matrix.
+ - +
Let A= a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 be a 3x3 square matrix.
a31 a32 a33
Then we define determinants of A as,
det A = a11 (a22 xa33 -a23 xa32 ) - a12 (a21 xa33 - a23 a31 ) +a13 (a21 xa32 -a22 xa31)

27
The above definition may be explained as follows:
 The first bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing first row and first
column. (a22 a33 -a23 a32 )
 The second bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing first row and second
column. (a21 a33 -a23 a31)
 The third bracket is determinant of matrix obtained after removing first row and third
column (a21 a32 -a22 a31)
 The elements before three brackets are first, second and third element respectively of first
row with alternate positive and negative signs.

Example1

Find the determinant of the following matrix

1 2 3
A= 4 5 -6
7 8 9
Solution:
The first bracket in the definition of det A is determinant of the matrix after deleting the first row
and first column. Of matrix A
1 2 3 5 -6
4 5 -6 = 8 9 = (5x9) – (-6x8) = 45+48 = 93
7 8 9
The second bracket is determinant of the matrix after removing the first row and the second column
of matrix A.

1 2 3 4 -6
4 5 -6 = 7 9 = (4x9) – (-6x7) = 36 +42 = 78
7 8 9

28
The third bracket is determinant of the matrix after removing the first row and third column of
matrix A.

1 2 3
4 5 -6 4 5
7 8 9 = 7 8 = (4x8) – (5x7) = 32 -35 = -3
So, det A = 1 (93) -2 (78) +3 (-3) = - 60

Example 2

Find the determinants of the following matrices.

2 -1 3 -4 -5 6
i) A= 1 2 -4 ii) B = 7 8 9
-3 1 5 1 2 3
1.4.4 Properties of Determinants
List of some important properties of determinants
If two rows (or columns) of a matrix are interchanged, its determinant retains its absolute value
but changes its sign,
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ = ad – bc

and B= c d
a b
, interchanging the two rows of A
/B/ = bc – ad = - (ad-bc) = -/A/
If rows are changed in to columns or columns into rows, the determinate remains unchanged.
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ = ad – bc

B= a c
b d rows are changed into columns

29
 /B/ = ad – bc = /A/
Hence, the result follows.
1. If two rows (or columns) are identical, the determinant is zero (vanishes).
Let A = a b
a b , then /A/ = ab – ab = 0

Similarly, if A = a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3 , then /A/ = 0
c1 c2 c3
2. If any row (or column) is multiplied by a real number k, then the determinant obtained is k times
the original determinant.
Let A = a b
c d , then /A/ ad – bc
and let B = ka kb
c d = multiplying the first row by K.
then /B/ = kadkbc = k (ad – bc) = k /A/
3. If to any row (or column) is added k times the corresponding elements of another row cor
column), the determinant remains unchanged.
i.e if A= a b
c d and

B= a+kc b+kd
c d adding k times of the second row to the first row

Now. /B/ = (a+kc) d- (b+kd) c

= ad + kdc – bc – kdc
= ad –bc = /A/

30
Self-test

Prove (show) the above five properties of determinants by taking your own examples of having
two and three orders.

1.4.5. Minors and Cofactors of the Element of a Determinant

[Link]. Minors
A minor is a sub determinant of a given order determinant obtained by deleting (canceling) the ith
and jth column of the required element and evaluating the n-1 order determinant Minors are denoted
by Mij. Mll is a minor of the element located in the first row and first column and obtained by
canceling the first row and first column.
Similarly, M23 is a minor of the element located in the 2nd row and 3rd column and obtained by
canceling the 2nd row and 3rd column of the given determinant.

Example1

If A = a b
c d , then find the minors of each element.
Solution:
/A/ = a b
= ad-bc
c d
M11 (minor of a) = a b =d
c d
M12 (minor of b) a b
c d =c
M21 = (minor of c) a b
c d =b

M22 (minor of d) a b
c d =a

31
Example 2

If A = 1 -2
-3 -4 , then find minors of each element

Solution:

/A/ = 1 -2 M11 = -4 M21 = -2

-3 -4 M12 = -3 M22= 1

Example 3

If A = a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 , find the minors of each
a3 b3 c3 element and evaluate then.
Solution:
The minor of any element in /A/ is a determinant of second order obtained by omitting from /A/
the row and column in which that element occurs. Thus minors by a1, b1, a2, b2, c2
M11 = b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2 a2 b2
b3 c3 , m12 = a3 c3 , M13 = a3 b3 , M21 = a3 b3, so on.

Example 4

Write the minors of the elements of the first row of the following determinant and hence evaluate
them.
/A/ = 1 2 3
-4 3 6
2 -7 9

32
Solution:
M11 = 3 6
-7 9 = 27 – (-42) = 69

-4 6
M12 = 2 9 = -36 -12 = -48

-4 3
M13 = 2 -7 = 28 -6 = 22

Use the same procedures to find minors of the 2nd and 3rd row elements

[Link]. Cofactors
The cofactor of any element in /A/ is the minor of that element in /A/ with proper sign depending
on the numbers of the row and the column in which the element occurs. If an element occurs in ith
row and jth column in /A/, then the cofactor of the element = (-1) i+j
x (Minor of the element),
cofactor of the element is denoted by Cij.
Thus, Cij = (-1) i+j x Mij

Example 1

If A = 2 -3
4 3 , find the cofactors of each element.
Solution:
Recalling the method of finding minor of an element, we obtain
M11 = 3, M21 = -3 and
M12 = 4 M22 = 2, after obtaining the minors of the elements, we simply substitute them
in the formula to find the corresponding cofactors.
C11 = (-1) 1+1 .M11 = 1x3=3
C12 = (-1) 1+2 .M12 = -1x4 = -4
C21 = (-1) 2+1 . M21 = -1x(-3) = 3
C22 = (-1) 2+2 .M22 = 1x2 = 2

33
In matrix form the cofactors can be put as follows
cA= 3 -4
3 2

Example2

If A = 1 2 3
-4 3 6 , find the cofactors of each element
2 -7 9
Solution:
First find the minors of each element and multiply each minor by (-1) i+j obtains cofactors.
M11 = 3 6
-7 9 = 27 – (-42) = 69
C11 = (-1) 1+1 M11 = M11 = 69

-4 6
M12 = 2 9 = -36 -12 = -48
C12 = (-1) 1+2 xM12 = -1x (-48) = 48
M13 = -4 3
2 -7 = 28 -6 =22
C13 = (-1) 1+3 xM13 = M13 = 22

Self test

Obtain the cofactors of the 2nd and 3rd row elements in a similar manner.
Note: that in the identity Cij = (-1) i+j xMij,
i. The minor and cofactor of an element is equal if the sum of row and column in which it
is located is even and
ii. The cofactor of an entry is the negative of its minor if the sum of row and column in
which the element is located is odd.

Exercise

34
 1. Find the determinants of the following matrices
1 2 3 2 5 7 1 1 1
A= 2 4 6 B= 3 6 10 C= 1 1+x 1
3 5 7 8 4 15 1 1 1+y

2. Solve for x if

1 1 1 x+1 2 3
i. 1 x 1 =0 ii. 3 x+2 1 =0
1 1 x 1 2 3

x 1 1 x-5 2
iii. 1 x 1 = 0 iv. -3 x =0
1 1 x
3. Find the minors and cofactors of each element for the following Matrices
1 2 0 2 5 4 46 32 15
i. A = 0 1 2 ii) B= 1 4 3 iii) C = 27 21 9
1 0 6 8 10 2 17 16 7
1.4.6. Adjoint of A Square Matrix
Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n. Then /A/ is the determinant of A of the same order n
formed by the corresponding elements of A. If Cij be the cofactors of aij in A, then the transpose
of the matrix (Cij) obtained by replacing the elements of A by their corresponding cofactors in A
is called the adjoint (or adjugate) of the matrix A and it is denoted by adj A,
Follow the following steps to obtain the adjoint of a square matrix.
Step 1: Obtain the cofactors of each element of the square matrix A
Step 2: From a cofactor matrix by replacing entries of the original matrix by the
corresponding cofactors
Step3: Transposing the cofactor matrix gives the adjoint matrix

35
Example

Let A= 1 2
3 4 , then find adj A.
Solution:
Step1: C11 = 4, C12 = -3, C21 = -2, C22 = 1
Step2: Cofactor of matrix A = CA = 4 -3
-2 1
Step3: Transposing the cofactor matrix, we get
CAt = 4 -2
-3 1 = adjA.

Hence, adj A = CAt = 4 -2

-3 1

Example2

For the following matrix A, prove that A adjA= 0

1 -1 1
A= 2 3 0
18 2 10
Solution: -
We have A = 1 -1 1
2 3 0
18 2 10
and using the steps above to find adjoint of a matrix we obtain

36
 adj A =

3 0 -1 1 -1 1
2 10 2 10 3 0

2 0 1 1 1 1
- 18 10 18 10 2 0

2 3 1 -1 1 -1
18 2 18 2 2 3

Adj A= 30 22 -3
-20 -8 2
-50 -20 5

Therefore, adj A = 1 -1 1 30 22 -3 multiplying

2 3 0 x -20 -8 2 the conformable
18 2 10 -50 -20 5 matrices

0 0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0
where 0 is the null matrix of order 3.

1.5. Matrix Inversion

If A is a square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B of the same order n is said to be inverse
of A if AB = BA = I (unit matrix of order n).

37
Consider the matrices
2 0 -1 3 -1 1
A= 5 -1 0 , B = -15 6 -5
0 1 3 5 -2 2
Multiplying A and B
It can be easily see that
AB = BA = I (unit matrix)
In this case, we can say that B is inverse of A and A is inverse of B.
Note that:
i. Inverse of a square matrix is defined only for square matrices. But this does not mean
that every square matrix is invertible.
ii. If B is an inverse of A, then A is also an inverse of B.
iii. If a matrix A has an inverse, then A is said to be invertible
iv. Inverse of a m-atrix is unique
Uniqueness of inverse of a matrix can be easily shown as follows
For, let B and C be two inverses of A.
then, AB = BA = I and AC = CA = I
So B = BI = B(AC) = (BA)C = IC = C
Hence, B = C
This shows that the matrix A cannot have two distinct inverse.
Notation: Inverse of A is denoted by A-1
In this section, we give a method to determine the inverse of a matrix. .
Let us see now the following two ways of finding the inverse of a square matrix, namely, adjoint
method and Gaussian elimination procedure.
a) The adjoint method of finding an inverse
Theorem: If A be a square matrix of order n, then A (adjA) = (adj A) A = ǀAǀI, where I is the
Identity matrix of order n.
By this theorem above, we have
A (adjA) = (adjA) A = ǀAǀI

A(adjA) (adjA) A A I
⇒ = ⇒ (Dividing both sides by ǀAǀ≠0.)
A A A

38
 A(adjA) (adjA)
 Since A-1A= AA-1= I, = A = AA -1
=I
A A

adj A 1
 This relation shows that A-1 = = ( adjA) dividing again both
A A

sides by A
1
Hence, A-1 = inverse of A= (adjA), where A ≠ 0
A

We can easily obtain the inverse of a square matrix A using adjoint method following
the steps below:

step 1: finding the determinant of the given matrix A

step 2: finding the adjoint of the given matrix
step 3: dividing the adjoint matrix by the determinant obtained in step1.
adjA CA t
-1
Thus, A = =
A A

Note that if ǀAǀ= 0, then A-1 does not exist.

Example

Find the inverse of each of the following matrices

i. 2 -1 a b 2 -3 5
-1 2 , ii. c d iii. 5 2 -7
-4 3 1
Solution:
We give below the solution to i and ii, and try iii by your own.
i. A = 2 -1
-1 2
Step1: ǀAǀ= 4-(1) = 3
Step2: C11 = 2, C12 = -(-1) = 1, C21 = -(-1) = 1, C22 = 2

39
Remember how to find cofactors of each element,
2 1
CA = -1 2
2 1
CAt= 1 2 = adj. A

  2 1
1 1  2 1 3 3
Step3: A = .adj A  
-1
 =
A 3   1 2
1 2  3 3

2 1
Thus, A = -1 3 3
1 2
3 3

b) The Gaussian Elimination Procedure

The following elementary operations are needed to use Gaussian method of finding an inverse of
a matrix
i. Interchanging two rows
ii. Multiplying a row by a non-zero scalar
iii. Adding a scalar multiple of one row to another.

Briefly, the Gaussian method starts by writing the given matrix at the left and the corresponding
identity matrix next to it at the right). Then select and carry out row operations that will convert
the given matrix into the identity matrix, and apply the same operations to the matrix at the right.
When the left matrix becomes the identity matrix, the matrix on the right will be the desired
inverse.
Zeros first: For simplicity, the Gauss- Jordan method proceeds to obtain ones on the main diagonal
and zeros on the off- diagonal elements.
obtain the off –diagonal zeros first and following this, obtain ones on the main diagonal.
To illustrate, let us find the inverse of the matrix

Example

40
Find the inverse of the following matrices using Gaussian elimination method.
i. A 7 3 ii. 0 1
2 1 , 2 3
Solution:
Applying the procedure of the above example, we can obtain the inverse of the matrices A and B
as follows.

i. A = AI= 7 3 1 0
2 1 0 1

2 1 0 1
= 7 3 1 0 - Interchanging rows.

𝑅1
= 2 ½ 0 ½ Dividing row 1 by 2 R1= 2

7 3 1 0

= 1 ½ 0 ½ R2 = R2 – 7 R1 converting a21 (7) to zero.

0 -½ 1 0

1 0 1 -3
7
= 0 -½ 1 /2 R1 = R1+R2

= 1 0 1 -3
0 1 -2 7 R2 = -2 R2
Since the left matrix is converted to identify, the inverse of A

A -1
= 1 -3
-2 3 at the right.

41
ii. B= 0 1
2 3

B= BI = 0 1 1 0 , we have un wanted zero as the upper left

2 3 0 1 diagonal element.

Inter changing rows we have,

= 2 3 0 1 Interchanging rows
0 1 1 0

= 2 0 -3 1 R1 = -3R2 +R1
0 1 1 0

3
= 1 0 /2 ½
0 1 1 0

Hence, A 1 = -3/2 ½
1 0

Exercise 4

1. Find the adjoint of the following matrices

i. 1 -2 ii. 4 6 iii. 1 -1 1 iv. 4 -2 1

-3 4 -2 -3 , 2 3 0 1 10 -7
16 2 10 2 -4 1
2. Find the inverse of the following matrices, if it exists,
i. 3 8 ii. 3 1 iii. 0 1 2 iv. 3 2 7
2 1 , 4 0 1 2 3 4 -3 -2
3 1 1 5 9 23

42
 1.6. Partitioned Matrices
A 4 by 5 matrix can be considered as a 2 by 2 matrix
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 AB
[ ]=[ ]
11 12 13 14 15 CD
16 17 18 19 20

with the matrices

1 2 3 4 5
A = [ 6 7 8 ], B = [ 9 10 ], C = [ 16 17 18 ], D = [ 19 20 ]
11 12 13 14 15
as the entries. This way of dividing a matrix into compatible smaller matrices is
a partition of the matrix.

1.7. Rank of a Matrix and Linear Independence

The rank of a matrix P  A is the maximum number of linearly independent rows/columns of the
matrix. The rank of a matrix cannot exceed the number of rows/columns/ whichever is smaller. It
can also be depended as the maximum order or dimension of a non-vanishing determinant that can
be constructed from the rows/columns/ of that matrix.
Example 1 Determine the rank V  A of the following matrices.

 2 6 1  2 4 1 
a) A =  2 3 4 b) B = 6 1 3
   
 1 5 0 8 2 4

3 4 2 4 2 3
Solution a) A = -2 6 1
5 0 1 0 1 5

43
 = -2  20  6 4  7

= 40+20+7 = 91  0 ,Thus, with A  0 , A is non-singular and the

three rows or columns are linearly independent, hence, V  A  3

1 3 6 3 6 1
b) B  2 4 
2 4 8 4 8 2

= 2  2  40  1 4  0

With  = B is singular and the three rows/columns are not linearly independent.

Hence   3 . Now test to see if any two rows/columns are independent. Starting

with the sub matrix in the upper left corner, take the 2 X 2 determinant,
2 4
= 2+24 = 26 0
6 1

Thus, V = 2. there are only two linearly independent rows and columns in 

For a square matrix, its rank can be used to determine whether the matrix is
singular or non-singular. An n x n matrix is non-singular if and only if rank of
matrix A = n
5 2
Example 2 The rank of matrix  is 2; because this second order matrix
 2  3

corresponds to the determinant of the matrix which is non – zero, thus the given
matrix contains a non –singular matrix of order 2.
8 6
Example 3 The rank of matrix  is the highest order determinant
4 3 L j

8 6
4 is zero, next to this would be of the first order which is non – zero.
 3

0 0
Example 4 Rank of  is also zero.
0 0

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Note the following points
 Rank of the transpose of a matrix is the same as the rank of the
original matrix.
 The row and column ranks of a matrix are equal
 A matrix A is non – singular if rank of A = n.
 If a matrix is an n x n matrix, then rank of A = n ፣ A is non -
singular or A  0

1.8. Vectors and Vector Space

In the preceding section, you saw transpose and inverse of matrices which enables you to cope
with solving linar equators. Let’s now highlight vectors and vector spaces in matrices.
Vectors; A vector is an ordered set or directed line segment
1- The ordered set V=( a1, a2,…. an) is called arrow vector.
b1 
 
2- V= b2  is called a column vector
b 
 n
3- a a a
1 2 n
are coordinates or components of the vector, these are ordinary scalars.

PROPERTIES OF VECTORS
Let v = a
1 1 a 2
and v 2
= b 1 b 2

1- v1
= v 2
 a 1 a  = b
2 1 b   a = b1 and a
2 1 2
= b 2

Two vectors are equal of corresponding components are equal

2- v +v
1 2
= v 3
= a 1 a  + b b  = a
2 1 2 1
 b
1,
a2  b 2

3- Let  be a scalar, i,e a real number..

 1
= a a  1, 2

4- The inner Product of two vectors is not a vector but a scalar /real number.
Example 1 v 1
= row vector v = row vector
2

V = 3
1
4 6 and V = 10 9 2
12

Find 3 +V 1 2

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 3 1
= 3x3 4 x3 6 x3 = 9 12 18

3 1
+V 2 = 9  10 12  18

= 19 21 30

Properties of the algebraic operation in vectors

1. Vector addition is commutative
     
2. Vector addition is associative
   +  =    
[Link] exists a zero/null/ vector  such that
         , so that  is a zero vector

i..e  = 0 0 .... 0
4. Each vector  has an additive inverse (-  ) such that
   
5. For all reals a and b and a vector  , a  b X  = a x  + b x 

6. For any real  ,  X     =    +  *  

7.  1  2
 =  1
  2
X 
 Where  1
and  2
are scalars and  is vector.

Example 1 Given V 1 = 4 1  and V 2 = 5 2 and V 3 = 5 4

Find the linear combination of these vectors if we have three scalars.  = 1,  2 = 2 and
1

 3
= 3.

Solution Let  be the linear combination of the above vector

Then  =   + 
1 1 2 2
+ 3 3

 =  +2
1 2
+3 3

= 4 , 1  23 , 2  35 , 4
= 4 , 1 6 , 4 15 , 12
= 4  6  15,1  4  12  25 , 17

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 2 1 0
Example 2 Let A = 6 2 4
4 2 0

Test the linear independence of the above matrix.

Solution: Let  1
= 2 , 1 , 0  2
= 6 ,2 ,4 and  3  4 ,2 0

If there is linear dependence among the three vectors, their linear combination varnishes for not
all scalars equal to zero, that is     
1 1 2 2 3 3
0

  2 , 1 , 0   6 , 2 , 4   4 , 2 , 0  0
1 2 3

 
 2 1 , 1 , 0  6  2 , 2  2 , 4  2  4  3  2  3  0 0

 2   6   4  , 
1 2 3 1

 2  2 ,  2  3 , 0  4  2  0  0 , 0 , 0

2   6
1 2
 4  3  0 , 1  2  2  2  3  0 , 4  2  0

  2
0

 2 1  4  3  0 and  1
 23  0

 Solving the above two systems of equations, we have

2 1  4  3  0

 1
 23  0

0 = 0
Thus,  1
 0 ,  3  0 , While  2  0

Therefore, there is linear dependence between  1

and  2 Since 2 1   3

Note : In a given matrix, if there is linear dependence among the column/row vectors of that
matrix, then the determinant of the matrix is zero and its inverse is undefined.

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