UNIT III

The Digestive System

51
12. Structure and Functions of the Organs of the Digestive Tract
• Organiz~tion of the structure of the digestive tract
• Innervation of GIT: Enteric nervous system
• Structure of the small intestine
• Structure of the large intestine
54
13. Saliva
• Composition and functions of saliva
• Control of salivary secretion
56
14. The Stomach - Gastric Juice
• Structure and functions of the stomach
•
Composition and functions of gastric juice
• Regulation of secretion of gastric juice
• Gastric motility and emptying
59
15. Pancreas, Liver and Gall bladder
• Pancreas: Structure; Nerve supply; Composition, functions and
regulation of secretion of pancreatic juice
• Liver: Structure, functions; Bile: Composition, functions and
control of secretion
• Functions of the gall bladder
63
16. Small and Large Intestine
• Small Intestine: Intestinal juice, digestion and movements
n
• Large Intestine (Colon) : Structure; movements; absorption and secretio
• Dietary fibres
66
17. Digest ion and Absorption in the Digestive Tract
• Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, fats and proteins
 .,,~·,
CHAPTER -
..
Structure and Functions of
the Organs of the Digestive Tract

j#fc/4$ -- - ---- --- -------- \ Competencies: Must-know areas

• Introduction I Functions of the digestive tract
• Organiz~tion of th e structure of the digestive tract
Innervation of the digestive tract: Enteric nervous
system 1

Structure of the small and the large intestine j

INTRODU CTION and the rectum which is 12.5-15 cm long, the exit of
The digestive tract or the gastro-intestinal tract which, guarded by two sphincter muscles, is known
(GIT) is the gate through which nutritive substances, as the 'anus'.
vitamins, minerals and fluids enter the body.
The digestive tract is more than 10 metres (30 feet) FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE 'IRACT
long from one end to the other. It is continuous, The digestive tract is responsible for breaking down
starting at the mouth, passing through the pharynx, food and supplying the body with water, nutrients
the oesophagus, the stomach, the small and large and electrolytes needed to sustain life. This is brought
intestines, ending in the rectum and finally into the
anus. Associated with it are accessory organs of
digestion: the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver and
pancreas (Fig. 12.1). Pharynx - ~ - / Salivary glands

From the mouth, the chewed food mixed with saliva ~ --r-- 1Parotid
Oral Cavity Sublingual
passes into the 'pharynx', then into the oesophagus, Uvula--- -
Submandibular

which is a 25 cm long fibre-muscular tube lined with Tongue--r

mucous membrane. The contraction and expansion
movements of its wall called peristaltic movements
cause the food to pass into the stomach. From the - -----Oeso phagus
stomach, the food passes into the small intestine, the
first part of this being the duodenum, which is about 25 Liver - - - - - - , .
cm long and shaped like the letter 'C'. The remainder Gallbladder --t--
of the small intestine consists of the jejunum, which is
about 2.5 metres long and the ileum, which is about
3.5 metres long. Common
The small intestine then merges with the large bile duct - - ~ , -

intestine, which, though wider than the small intestine, Colon

Transverse colon
is much shorter, being in total 1.5 to 1.8 metres long.
The large intestine is divided into nine parts, starting Ascending colon
Descending colon
with the 'caecum' into which the ileum opens. Then
there is the vermiform appendix, which is about 7.5cm Caecum - - - + - -
Ileum
in length and terminates in a blind end. Next, there Appendix - - - - -
--~Rectu m
is the ascending colon, which passes up along the right
side of the abdomen and leads into the transverse colon.
This further bends as the descending colon, which goes
down the left side of the abdomen to the sigmoid colon Fig. 12.1 The digestive tract
51
- Unit Ill: llw Di~l'Sliw sy~l\'l ll

about by the following processes: 5. The mucous layer: This is lined by the epith
elium
1. Ingestion invo lws and consists of a stroma which contains
(i) placing the food into the mouth; (i) glands;
(ii) chewing the food into sm,lller pieces (ii) 'muscularis mucosae' of smooth musc
le; and
(r,rnstication); (iii) loose connective tissue rich in lymphocy
tes.
(iii) moistening the food with salivary secretions
;
and INNERVATION OF GIT:
(iv) swallowing the food (degl11titio11) . ENT ERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
2. Digestion: During digestion, food is broken There are two major networks of nerve fibre
down s that
into small particles by the crushing action of innervate the digestive tract : intrinsic and
the extrinsic;
GIT and then degraded by digestive enzymes together they form the enteric nervous system - the
into little
utilizable nutrients. brain.
3. Absorption: During absorption, nutrients,
water
and electrolytes are transported from the A. Intrinsic Innervation
GIT
(mainly from the small intestine) to the circulatio It is further divided into two plexuses: Myen
n. teric and
-t Egestio11: During egestion, the undigested food, Meissner
along with various secretions and shedded- l. Myenteric plexus (Auerbach's plexus):
off It lies
epithelial cells from the GIT pass into rectum between the longitudinal and circular smoo
and
constitute the faeces, which are voided through th
the muscle layers and is mainly motor in funct
anus at periodic intervals. ion.
It controls the tone and intensity of the rhyth
mic
contraction of gut wall.
ORGANIZATION OF TH E STRUCTURE
2. Submucous plexus (Meissner's plexus):
OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT It lies
between the subrnucous layer and the
In general, organization of the wall of the diges inner
tive circular smooth muscle layer. It is mainly senso
tract from posterior pharynx to the anus ry
has the in function and is concerned with the contr
following layers from the outside inwards (Fig. ol of
12.2): exocrine and endocrine secretions by the cells
1. The serous layer (serosa): This layer in
helps in the the GIT.
attachment of the gut to the surrounding structures
.
2. The longitudinal smooth muscle layer.
B. Extrinsic Innervation
3. The circular smooth muscle layer: This layer
is This is unde r the autonomic nerv ous contr
thicker at the sphincter (constriction). ol, i.e.,
The longitudinal and circular smooth muscle layer
parasympathetic and sympathetic nerv e fibres.
s 1. Stimulation of para symp athe tic nerves
help in the both local mixing and the forw to GIT
ard produces
drive of the contents of the gut.
4. The submucous layer: It consists of loose conn (i) increase in motility and tone,
ective
tissue, blood vessels and lymphatics.

~ - - - - - - Mesentery

Myenteric nerve plexus

(Auerbach's plexus)
Serous layer
Longitudinal smooth muscle layer
Submucous nerve plexus
(Meissner's plexus)

Lymphatic nodule -ttlh t--lt----..1..-~ Circular smooth muscle layer

Submucous layer

Muscularis mucosa
Lamina propria

Mucous layer with glands

Brunner's gland
Fi g. 12.2 Cross-section of the digestive tract,
showing the different layers of its wall
 Chapter 12: Structure and Functions of the Organs of the Digestive Tract •

(ii) relaxation of sphincters, and

~ C e l l shedding Mlcrovilll
(iii) increased secretions.
2. Stimulation of sympatlietic nerves to GIT d
(1.) d ecrease m
· .
motility and tone
pro uces
(ii) contraction of sphincters, and
(iii) inhibition of secretions. C:
0
~::::, Intestinal gland cell
STRUCTURE OF THE SMALL INTEsTINE iii
E
The mucosa! surface of the duodenum d
. . . d an th e 'C
C: - - - - Direction of cell
sma11 ~testine 1s a apted to provide a huge area for a,
C:
migration
0
absorption. Mu~osa shows finger-like projections of
~
app~ox. 1 mm height called villi. There are 20-40 villi per C)
.E
mm of ~ucosa. These are covered by a layer of columnar
cells which possess a brush border consisting of microvilli
(1 µrn length and 0.1 µm width). Each villus in its core
contains (Fig. 12.3).
(i) a lymph vessel (lacteal); Argentaffin (or
(ii) smooth muscle fibres; enterochromaffin) cell

(iii) an arteriole and venule with their relevant Crypt of Lieberkuhn

(site of cell birth)
capillary plexus; and
(iv) a nerve net which has connections with submucosal
and myenteric plexuses.
Between villi are the intestinal glands, known as
the crypts of Lieberkuhn. They show 'active mitosis'
and replace the cells shed from the tip of villi. They
- - -- - Lymph vessel
produce a great variety of enzymes capable of digesting
proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids. Fig. 12.3 Arrangement of vascular supply in the small intestine

STRUCTURE OF THE LARGE INTESTINE (COLON) other hand, weight loss may be a result of bacterial
1. The mucosa! surface of the colon is smooth, i.e., overgrowth in the small intestine.
there are no villi on the mucosa.
2. Simple tubular glands are abundant, which secrete
mucus. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS
3. The wall of the colon is usually folded into sacs 1. Give the structure and functions of the small
by contraction of circular smooth muscle, thus intestine.
producing sacculations.
2. Describe briefly:
4. The longitudinal smooth muscle layer is collected
(i} Innervation of the digestive tract
into the three distinct bands called taenia coli.
(ii} Structure of the digestive tract
APPLICATION AND (iii} Functions of the digestive tract
IMPLICATION IN NURSING (iv} Crypts of Lieberkuhn
What happens when the digestive tract is not 3. Draw a labelled diagram to show:
working properly? (i} Different layers of the wall of the digestive
An unhealthy digestive tract can impair the body's tract
ability to absorb nutrients, store fat and regulate (ii} Arrangement of vascular supply in the
blood sugar. An urge to overeat due to decreased small intestine
nutrient absorption might cause weight gain. On the
 , CHAl?l'ER

·3 ~-
1
J~
Saliva

,;u,w, 1 1
, Competencies: Must-know areas
• Composition and functions of saliva
• Control of salivary secretion - - - - - - - ~
j Composition and functions of saliva

COMPOSIT ION AND Digestive enzymes

FUNCTION S OF SALIVA (i) ptyalin or salivary a-amylase
There are three pairs of salivary glands: parotid, (ii) lysozymes (bactericidal)
submandibular (or submaxillary) and sublingual salivary (iii) kallikrein, a proteolytic enzyme
glands. The chief differentiating features of these glands (iv) lipase, a lipolytic enzyme
are given in Table 13.1 and Fig. 13.1. Mucin
Salivary glands contain chiefly two types of cells: Cations: Na+, K+, Ca 2+
mucous cells and serous cells. Mucous cells form a Anions: c1-, HCO3-, phosphate, bromide
viscous secretion containing mucin; whereas, serous pH: slightly below 7.0
cells form a thin watery secretion containing ptyalin
(also called salivary a-amylase). FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA
1. Ptyalin (salivanJ a-amylase) aids the digestion of
COMPOSmO N OF SALIVA starch to maltose. It can only digest starch after
Daily secretion: 1,500 ml/day. the natural plant granules have been burst, e.g.,
Serous acinus

Parotid gland -~~-,----...~

---------+- Parotid duct
lnterlobar duct
Submandibular Main secretory
duct c-r- Sublingual duct
~.,,.,.,........ lntralobular duct duct
Submandibular
gland
--+---->.""--' ••~;'!:.--::-.,t- Sublingual gland ,l."!!~ ~-;:;t~'#-- Central lumen

(A) (B)
Fig . 13.1 Salivary glands: location (A) and structure (8)

Table 13.1: Salivary glands - main differentiating features

Gland type and location Percentage of total salivary

Histology
secretion (1,500 ml/day)
1. Parotid: ln front of the ears Contains purely 'serous' cells 25%
2. Submandibular or s11bmaxillary: 'Mixed ' contain more of 'serous' 70%
Medial to the mandible in the submaxillary triangle cells
3. S11blingual: Adjacent to mucosa of the floor of the mouth 'Mixed' but mainly 'mucous' cells 5%

54
 [Link] 13: Saliva l!JI
by cooking. It acts in a neutral or faintly acidic 3. Salivary secretion increases either by .
medium (optimally at pH 6.5). (i) taste of food within 20-30 seconds (mborn
2. Muciu has functions such as reflex); or
(i) lubrica~ g ~e food, _thus assisting in mastication (ii) by sight, smell or thought of food (psychic or
and fac1htating swallowing; conditioned reflex).
(ii) protecting the oral mucosa; and 4. Dry food, particularly if finely ground, is a
(iii) aiding speech by facilitating movements of the powerful stimulus for the mouth recept~rs and
lip and tongue. . · causes secretion of greater amounts of saliva than
3. It keeps the mouth moist and serves as a solvent moist food does.
for the molecules that stimulate the taste buds.
4. It minimizes the risk of buccal infection and dental APPLICATION AND
caries as it contains lysozymes, which kill the IMPLICATION IN NURSI NG
bacteria (bactericidal). What is dry mouth?
5. Buffers in saliva help to maintain the oral pH at Dry mouth or xerostomia is a condition in which the
7.0. At this pH, sali~a is saturated with calcium; salivary glands do not make enough saliva to keep the
therefore, teeth do not lose calcium to oral fluids. mouth wet. Dry mouth is often due to the side effect
Thus, it protects the tooth enamel. An acidic oral pH of certain medications or the ageing process or as a
causes calcium loss from the teeth. result of radiation therapy for cancer.

CON1ROL OF SALIVARY SECRETION

1. Stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves causes
profuse secretion ·of watery saliva with a ~elatively
low content of organic material and protein. Give the composition and functions of saliva.
2. Stimulation of the sympathetic nerve supply causes
secretion of small amounts of saliva rich in organic
constituents and mucus.
 1~CHABTER
: ,. ..
".' -

The Stomach - Gastric Juice

•
•
•
Structure and functions of the stomach
Composition and functions of gastric juice
Regulation of secretion of gastric juice
l. Composition and functions of gastric juice
2. Regulation of gastric juice secretion ~ - - J
I

• Gastric motility and emptying

2. When the stomach is empty, its walls are firmly

STRUCTURE AND
in apposition (close together). When food enters
FUNCTIONS OF THE STOMACH
the stomach, inner muscle fibres get elongated to
GROSS FEATURES OF THE STOMACH
enlarge the size of the cavity uniformly in order
The stoma~ is a hollow muscular organ consisting of
the following parts (Fig. 14.1): to accommodate the new contents, without much
l. Fundus: It is the upper part of the stomach above change in in temal pressure.
the level of the cardiac orifice. GASTRIC Mucous MEMBRANE
2. Body: It is the main part of the stomach. Gastric mucous membrane contains three types of
3. Pyloric part: It is the lower part of the stomach gastric glands: (A) main gastric glands; (B) cardiac
and is divided into: pyloric antrum and pyloric tubular glands; and (C) pyloric or antral glands .
canal.
A. Main Gastric Gland
Structure These glands are maximum in number and contain
l. As in the general organization of the wall of the cells such as:
digestive tract. l. Chief or peptic cells: secrete pepsinogen

----,r----:_-:::,-;:.-;:.::;.~---Oesophagus

----''I,--- Fundus
Cardia (cardiac tubular glands) - - - -
Pacemaker cells
I- soluble mucus I

Lesser curvature _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.,, Body

lncisura angularis - - - - -

1st part of duodenum

Greater curvature

2nd part of duodenum

Fundus and Body
Pyloric antrum (Main gastric glands)
Pylorus
(pyloric sphincter) 1. Parietal (oxyntic) cells
- ( I ) HCI; (ii) 1.F.
2. Chief (peptic) cells
Pyloric (Antral) glands - pepsinogen
(i) G-cells -+ gastrin 3. Surface epithelium
(ii) Soluble mucus
- visible mucus

Fig. 14.1 Structure of the stomach

56
 Chapter 14: The Stomach - Gas,

2. Parietal (or oxyntic) cells: secrete HCI and intrinsic 5. It stimulate s bile and pancreati c ju\
factor (Fig. 14.2).
The parietal (oxyntic) cells also secrete~
factor (IF), which combines very firmly
surface eplthellum vitamin B12 and helps in its subseque nt
t Secrete from the small intestine.
The surface epithelium of the gastric mucosa consists
visible mucus
of 'mucous' cells, which secrete visible mucus and
HCO3. This mucus along with HCO3- plus the tight
Parietal (oxyntlc) cells
t Secrete
junction between the mucosa! cells form the mucosa!
bicarbonate barrier that serves a protective function,
HCI; Intrinsic factor
preventin g damage to the mucosa by acid or peptic
digestion.

.-,_-r-
Lumen ---i"'io't-~ =+l

Chief (peptic) cells B. Cardiac Tubular Glands

t Secrete It secretes soluble mucus. This helps to lubricate the
Pepsinogen ~ surface over which a large volume of 'chyme' (paste-
like fluid) moves back and forth during digestion .

G-cells C. Pyloric (Antral) Glands

t Secrete 1. They secrete soluble mucus and a rich alkaline
Gastrin viscid juice, which is poor in enzyme content.
2. The deeper portion of pyloric glands have
Submucous layer G-cells or gastrin cells, which secrete a
hormone gastrin.
Fig. 14.2 Structure of the main gastric glands
GASTRI N
Pepsinog en Actions
It is secreted as an inactive protein, which is converted (i) It stimulate s mainly the gastric aciq secretion.
by acid HCI (optimall y at pH= 2) to active proteolyti c (ii) It stimulates the growth of mucosa of the stomach,
enzyme pepsin. small and large intestine (trophic action).
pepsinogen (HCI, only when pH of pepsin (iii) It stimulate s gastric motility.
(inactive) gasbic secretion is < 6.0) (active)
FuNCTIO NS OF THE STOMAC H
Functions 1. Storage: Stomach serves as a reservoir for the food
1. Digests proteins: It digests proteins to ingested. Food remains in the stomach for about
polypepti des. Optimal activity is seen at pH three hours and passes gradually into the intestine.
below 4.0. 2. Digestive-nutritive substance s undergo chemical
2. Curdles milk: Pepsin acts on caseinogen (milk changes by its secretory activity, which provides
protein) to form soluble 'casein'. This combines the enzymes; and HCI is required for the initial
with calcium salts to form insoluble calcium digestion of proteins.
caseinate. 3. Functions of HCI (see above).
4. Intrinsic factor is necessary for the absorptio n of
Parietal (oxyntic ) Cells vitamin B12 from the small intestine.
These are found chiefly in the body of the stomach. 5. Food is released at a controlled steady rate into the
Their secretion is a clear colourless fluid, which duodenum to provide proper time for digestion
contains 'HCI' with pH 1.0. and absorptio n by the small intestine.
Functions of HCI
1. It provides H+ concentra tion necessary for
? ,r<"\... ( COMPO SITION AND
optimum pepsin activity. FUNCT IONS OF GASTRIC JUICE
. . Daily secretion 2.5--3 litres/day
2. It activates 'pepsinog en' to 'pepsin'.
3. It helps in killing ingested bacteria (bactencid al pH 1-2
Reaction Acidic due to HCI
effect).
Electroly tes
4. It helps in iron absorptio n by convertin g fe~c
(Fe3+) to ferrous (fe2+) form of iron, the form m Cations Na+; K+; H+; Mg2+
Anions -. HPO4
CI-·, HCO3, 2-- SO 2-
which iron can be absorbed. ' 4
• Unit Ill: The Dtgestwe Syi-ham

£ri =.ymes 3. In man, peristaltic contractions in the stomach are

l. Pepsi,wgen coordinated by 'BER' and occur every 20 seconds
2. Rennin: (in infants); curdles milk (about 3/min). The gastric slow wave (BER) plays
3. Gastric lipase: a weak fat-splitting enzyme a major role in the control of gastric emptying.
4. Lysozymes: bacteriocidal enzymes
Mucus: It is of two types: soluble and visible. GASTRIC EMPTYING
lritriusic factors (IF): helps in the absorption of I. Normally, the food stays in the stomach for
vitamin 8 12 . ' \ \ \. 21 / 2-3 hours on a mixed diet.
Water 2. When food enters the stomach, it relaxes to easily
accommodate 1-2 litres of food. This is called
REGULATION OF SECRETION receptive relaxation.
OF GASTRIC JUICE 3. Food that enters the stomach is usually a mixture
The regulation of secretion of gastric juice is broadly of liquids and solids, while the chyme (paste-like
brought about by two mechanisms: nervous and fluid) that leaves the stomach is essentially liquid.
Immoral. 4. Rate of gastric emptying depends on the following
factors:
A. NERVOUS REGULATION (i) Directly on the volume of liquid meal remaining
Vngal s timulation increases gastric juice secretion by in the stomach.
two processes: (ii) Products of protein digestion and acid in the
1. Release of gastrin secretion. This, in turn, duodenum 'decreases' gastric emptying.
increases acid secretion mainly. (iii) Type of food ingested is as follows:
2. Release of acetyl choline (A-ch), which acts directly Type of food Gastric emptying
on gland cells located in the body and the fundus (a) Carbohydrate- rapid, within
of the stomach to increase acid and pepsinogen rich food a few hours
secretion. (b) Protein-rich food slow
B. HUMORAL REGULATION: ROLE OF [Link] (c) Fat-rich food slowest
The humoral mechanism is mediated by the release of
hormone 'gastrin'. APPLICATION AND
Psychic stimuli, food and its digestive products in IMPLICATION IN NURSING
the stomach increase the gastric juice secretion. 1. What is bariatric surgery?
Therefore, vagal activity causes It is a surgical weight loss procedure in the treatment
l. direct stimulation of secretion of gastric juice by of obesity that helps to lose weight. Here, the
the parietal cells; and stomach is stitched so that most of it is bypassed;
2. liberation of gastrin from the 'gastrin cells' of the therefore, the reservoir function of the stomach
pyloric antrum. is lost. It is characterized by the development of
weakness, dizziness and sweating after meals.
Other Influences 2. What will happen if there is excess of acid in the
I. Hypoglycaemia increases gastric juice secretion stomach?
(both acid and pepsin); it acts via the brain and The extra gastric acid can cause peptic 11/cer by
vagal efferents. the breakdown of the mucosa! bicarbonate barrier
2. Alcohol and caffeine both act directly on the gastric in the stomach and intestine. Symptoms include
mucosa to increase acid and pepsin secretion. abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, weight loss and
3. Emotional effects (vagally mediated). Anger, diarrhoea.
excitement increases the gastric juice secretion,
whereas fear and depression decreases it.

GASTRIC MOTILITY AND EMPTYING 1. Give the functions of the stomach.

GASTRIC MOTILITY
2. Give the composition and functions of gastric
I. Stomach shows a basic electrical rhythm (BER) or
juice.
gastric slow wave, i.e., a wave of depolarization
3. How is the regulation of secretion of gastric juice
of smooth muscle cells going on from the circular
brought about?
muscles of the fundus of the stomach to the
4. Describe briefly:
pylorus (pyloric sphincter).
2. BER is initiated by pacemaker cells situated near the (i) Functions of HCI in stomach
(ii) Gastrin
fundus on the greater curvature, which spreads
slowly, less than 1 cm/sec. (iii) Gastric motility and emptying
 CHAPTER

Pancreas, Liver and Gall Bladder

Competencies: Must-know areas

• Pancreas: Structure; Nerve supply; Composition, 1. Composition and functions of pancreatic juice
functions and regulation of the 2. Functions of liver and gall bladder
secretion of pancreatic juice 3. Composition of bile and functions
• Liver: Structure, functions
• Bile: Composition, functions and control of
secretion
• Functions of the gall bladder
' - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - --- ~

PANCREAS Specific gravitt;: l.010-1.018

Structure pH: 7.8 to 8.4, markedly alkaline due to high HC03-
The pancreas is a double function organ containing concentration. Thus, pancreatic juice along with
both 'exocrine' as well as 'endocrine' cells. alkaline bile neutralizes the gastric acid and helps in
(A) The portion of the pancreas which promotes raising the pH of the duodenal contents.
exocrine function consists of secretory acini Electrolytes
and duct cells that secrete pancreatic juice. The Cations: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2 +, Zn2 +
pancreatic juice is discharged from apices of Anions: HC03-, c1-, SO/-, HPO/- J l'f\.
the cells into the lumen of the pancreatic ducts, Enzymes (secreted by acinar cells)
which finally opens into the second part of the l. Pancreatic a-amylase: It splits and digests starch
duodenum (Fig. 15.1). (both boiled and unboiled) to maltose.
(B) The portion of the gland which helps endocrine 2. Pancreatic lipase: Hydrolyzes neutral fats to
function consists of the Islets of Langerhans. It glycerol and fatty acids. Its activity is greatly
forms internal secretions (hormones), insulin increased by bile salts.
and glucagon. 3. Pancreatic proteolytic enzymes: These are powerful
protein-breaking enzymes in the pancreatic juice
Intercalated
and are secreted as inactive pro-enzymes.
:;.-,,-duct (i) Trypsinogen
Acinar trypsinogen Enterokinase trypsin
cells Centroaclnar (inactive) and trypsin (active)
cells
It hydrolyzes (breaks) proteins to small
Nuclei
polypeptides.
Fig. 15.1 Secretory acini and duct cells of pancreas (ii) Chymotrypsinogen
.
Ch ymo trypsinogen trypsin
Chymotrypsin
____;c_..;__-

NERVE SUPPLY (inactive) (active)

Pancreatic acini are innervated by vagus nerve. Vagal It digests protein to small polypeptides. )
stimulation increases pancreatic juice secretion.
REGULATION OF SECRETION OF
Composition and Functions of PANCREATIC JUICE
Pancreatic Juice The secretion of pancreatic juice is controlled in part by
( Daily secretion: 1,200-1,500 mL; transparent; a reflex mechanism (nervous regulation) and in part by
colourless fluid. the digestive tract hormones (humoral regulation) .
59
- Unit ID: The Digestive System

Nervous Regulation: Role of Vagus IMPORTANT NOTE

1. Stimulation of vagus (X) nerve produces enzyme- 1. Each hormone (secretin and CCK-PZ 'potentiates'
rich pancreatic juice secretion with consistency of (increases) the action of other.
glycerine. Vagal effect is mediated by the release 2. Both 'secretin' and 'CCK-PZ' delay gastric
of acetylcholine (A-ch). emptying and stimulate the secretion of 'succus
2. Within a few minutes of ingestion of food, there is entericus' (intestinal juice).
increase in pancreatic juice secretion, which lasts
for 6-14 hours.
3. Reflex stimulation of the vagus nerve causes an LIVER
increase in pancreatic juice secretion. This is seen Structure
with 1. Liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing
(i) conditioned reflexes, e.g., sight and smell of food; about 1.5 kg in an adult. It consists of four 'lobes',
and which are subdivided into lobules. Lobule is the
(ii) unconditioned reflexes, e.g., chewing and swallowing basic functional unit of the liver.
of food . 2. The liver lobules are made up of columns of
hepatic cells. Bile is formed in small cavities in
Humoral Regulation the interior of hepatic cells (hepatocytes) and is
Two digestive tract
hormones, secretin and discharged through fine 'canaliculi' (channels) into
cholecystokinin-pancreozymin (CCK-PZ) (produced the bile ducts, which join to form the right and left
by mucosa! cells of upper part of small intestine), 'hepatic ducts'. These ducts join outside the liver
on liberation into portal venous blood via systemic to form the common hepatic duct.
circulation reach the pancreatic tissue to stimulate the
secretion of pancreatic juice (Fi g. 15.2). Functions of the Liver
The major functions of the liver are given in the
following Table 15.1.
Enzyme-rich
Acinar
,.;:,-~ - ""
-::,, .__ cell CCK-PZ
pancreatic THE BILE
juice
Bile is secreted continuously by the hepatic cells into
the bile capillaries, from where it is collected by the
hepatic ducts, which joins with the cystic duct to
Alkaline
Duct Secretin (HC03- rich)
form the common bile duct. Between the periods of
cells _..::..:..:c..;;..;;...-• watery digestion, bile is diverted via the cystic duct into the
pancreatic
juice
gall bladder, where it is concentrated and stored.

COMPOSIDON OF LIVER BILE

Fig. 15.2 Sites of action and effects of secretin and Daily secretion 500-1,000 mL; transparent alkaline
cholecytokinin-pancreozymin (CCK-PZ) on pancreatic fluid; light (golden) yellow in colour.
juice secretion pH 7.8-8.6
Water 97%
Role of Secretin Bile pigments
It is secreted as prosecretin (inactive), which gets Electrolytes, fatty acids and cholesterol.
converted by gastric HCI into secretin (active). It acts
on the duct cells of the pancreas to produce a flow Bile Salts
of alkaline watery pancreatic juice, but it is poor in 1. These are the sodium and potassium salts of bile
enzymes. acids.
2. Actions
Role of Cholecystokinin-Pancreozymin (CCK-PZ) (i) Hydrotropic (solubilizes) action
1. It causes contraction of the gall bladder to release
(a) Bile salts combine with lipids to fonn
bile and also acts on the acinar cells of the pancreas
micelles, i.e., water-soluble complexes
to cause secretion of pancreatic juice rich in
from which the lipids can be more easily
enzymes. absorbed.
2. It also produces trophic effect (i.e., increased
(b) Bile salts by decreasing the surface tension
growth) on the pancreas.
are responsible for the emulsification
(breaking) of fats .
 Chapter 15: Pancreas, Liver and Gall Bladder •

Table 15.1: Functions of the liver

I. Synthetic: Liver synthesizes:

1. Most of the 'plnsma proteins', especially albumin.

2. Some clotting factors, e.g., fibrinogen (I), pro-thrombin (II) and factors V, VII, IX and X.
11. Metabolic: Liver is the central organ of metabolism , and participates in all three major metabohsms
· of the body.
1. 011 carboltydrnte metabolism· Li h I . .
· ver e ps m synthesis, storage and release of glucose.
2. 011 protein 111et11bo/is111· Liver synth · . · · fr
amino acids. · esizes P1asma proteins, blood clotting factors, enzymes, urea and hpoprotem om
3. On fat metabolism:
(i) It oxidizes the fatty acids to form active acetate.
~'.~) Fatty aci_ds are esterified in the liver to form triglycerides.
(m) It helps m the synthesis of lipoproteins, which are vehicles of fat.
III. Bile Secretion

Liver is the site for the synthesis of bile salts and bile acids from cholesterol which helps in the (i) activation of lipase; and
(ii) in the emulsification (breakdown) of fats. '

IV. Detoxicating and Protective Function

Liver exerts its detoxicating and protective function:
1. By the complete destruction of drugs.
2. By activity of its reticulo-endothelial (R-E) system. Kupffer cells help in immune mechanism.
V. Miscellaneous Functions
1. Storage organ: Liver stores glycogen, fat, protein, vitamins (A and Bii), substances which help in blood formation and
regeneration of blood.
2. Honnone inactivation: Liver is the site of inactivation of many hormones.
3. Liver in the site of the formation and destruction of RBCs.

(ii) Bile salts also play a role in activating lipases 3. Excretion: It removes many drugs, toxins, bile
in the intestine. pigments and various inorganic substances, e.g.,
copper, zinc and mercury. ) ; \''- · I
Bile Pigments
1. Bile pigments are bilirubin, biliverdin and its Control of Bile Secretion
derivatives. These are formed from the globin The secretion of bile is brought about by two major
portion of haemoglobin after the destruction of old regulatory mechanisms: nervous and humoral.
RBCs in the reticulo-endothelial (R-E) system.
2. They are responsible for the golden yellow colour 1. Nervous Regulation
of liver bile. Vagal stimulation increases bile secretion by contraction
3. They are the only excretory products and have no of the gall bladder.
digestive function.
2. Hum,oral Regulation
~ctions of Bile Acid, products of carbohydrates, digestion of fats and
\I"' 1. Bile salts functions proteins in the stomach and small intestine increases
(i) They help in the digestion and absorption of the release of hormones, secretin and CCK-PZ, from
fats. the duodenum. Most potent stimuli for liberation of
(ii) They help in the absorption of fat-soluble 'CCK-PZ' are fats and products of protein digestion,
vitamins. whereas acid in the duodenum is the major stimulus
2. Neutralization of acid: Bile is the reservoir of for 'secretin' release.
alkali, which helps to neutralize the acid 'chyme' These hormones, 'secretin' and 'CCK-PZ', increase
from the stomach. biliary secretion by contraction of the gall bladder.
Ill Unit Ill: 11,e Digestive System

FUNCTIONS OF THE GALL BLADDER carbohydrates in the food you eat. In addition
t Storage of bile: Gall bladder is a thin-walled organ
with a storage capacity of 60 mL. The mucous
increase in faecal fat content due to imperfec;
digestion of fats results in bulky, foul-smelling, pale
membrane is extensively folded. This increases and greasy stools. This is called steatorrhoea.
its surface area and gives the interior of the gall 2. What is liver insufficiency?
bladder a honeycomb appearance. Its mucosa The inability of the liver to perform its normal
can 'actively' absorb fluid and electrolytes and synthetic and metabolic functions is known as
concentrate them 5-6 times. That is why its average liver insufficiency. The classical symptoms include:
water content is 89% as compared to liver bile nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, jaundice
whose water content is 97%. fatigue, weakness and weight loss. '
2. Control of flow of bile following a meal (see
above).
3. Reduces the alkalinity of the stored bile: Rapid SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS
absorption of HCO3- (mainly); Na+ and CI-, 1. Give the composition and functions of pancreatic
decreases the bile pH from 8.6 to 7.4. juice.
4. Gall bladder secretes mucin (mucous), which 2. Give the composition and functions of liver bile.
makes the bile thick (viscous).) 3. Describe briefly:
(i) Regulation of pancreatic juice secretion
APPLICATION AND (ii) Secretin and CCK-PZ actions
IMPLICATION IN NURSING (iii) Functions of liver and gall bladder
1. What happens if you have exocrine pancreatic
(iv) Bile pigments and bile salts
insufficiency?
(v) Emulsification of fats
If you have exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, your
(vi) Control of bile secretion
body cannot properly digest fats, proteins and
 CHAPTER

The Small and Large Intestine

16 1'

Competencies: Must-know areas

• Small intestine: Intestinal juice, digestion and Secretion and functions of the small and the large
movements intestine
• Large intestine (colon): Structure, movements,
absorption and secretion
• Dietary fibres

SMALL INTESTINE B. Control of Secretion of Intestinal Juice

1. The s~all intestine is the major site of digestion and Control of secretion of intestinal juice is affected by
absorption of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Here, local, mechanical and chemical stimuli on intestinal
the intestinal contents are mixed with intestinal mucosa in the presence of 'chyme' (a paste-like fluid)
juice and with pancreatic juice and bile. and the food particles which it contains.
2. Digestion, which begins in the mouth and stomach, 1. Ingestion of meal causes the flow of intestinal
is completed in the lumen and mucosa! cells of the juice. The flow of juice is slight during the first
small intestine. The nutrients and fluid that are two hours, but it is markedly increased in the
not absorbed in the small intestine are passed on third hour.
to the colon. 2. Mechanical stimulation, e.g., distension of intestinal
3. The small intestine is presented with approximately mucous membrane via local myenteric reflex,
9 litres of fluid/ day, of this 2 L comes from dietary increases the volume and total enzymes output
sources and 7 L from digestive tract secretions; of the small intestine.
" however, only 1-2 L passes into the colon. 3. Local irritants increase the volume of the intestinal
y· juice rich in 'mucous' content.
, '~TIN AL JUICE - SUCCUS ENTERICUS
) ~Comp osition and Functions DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTIN E
Crypts of Lieberkuhn (page 53), which characterize the 1. Carbohydrate Digestion
whole of the small intestine, secrete the intestinal juice, Intestinal juice contains disaccharidases, i.e., enzymes
also called succus entericus. for splitting disaccharides into monosaccharides;
Daily secretion : 3 litres; colourless fluid therefore,
pH : 7.6 invertase (sucrase)
(i) Sucrose Glucose and fructose
Water : 98.5% ) pHS-7
Solids : 1.5% (Electrolytes)
Maltase
(ii) Maltose Two molecules of
pH 5.8-6.2
Enzymes glucose
I..actase
1. Enterokinase (enteropeptidase): It activates (iii) Lactose Glucose and galactose
pH 5.4-6.0
trypsinogen.
a-limiting
2. Proteolytic enzymes (enzymes for breaking dextrinase
proteins): Erepsin is a mixture of several different (iv) a-limiting dextrins Glucose
specific peptidases.
3. Enzymes for breaking disaccharides into 2. Fat Digestion
monosaccharides, e.g., invertase (sucrase); maltase; Intestinal lipase is particularly concerned with the
lactase; and a-limiting dextrinase. hydrolysis (breakdown) of fats.
4. Intestinal lipase. )
63
- Unit III: Tor Digestive Syi,t\'m

Segmentation
fnl s

lip.1:--~• t '-I

Tri:,:lyc,·rid,·~ ~
• (♦

lip., :,.~• i---,. fa tty ,1cid

Diglycaidc
lip <1sc I
+--.,.. fatty acid
Circular muscles
contract. breaking
chyme Into even
... until chyme Is
thoroughly mixed
with digestive
Mo 11oglyceride smaller pieces ... juices
(main end products)
Fig. 16.1 Movements of the small intestine

3. Protein Digestion
Erepsin, a mixture of several specific enzymes, acts
Food
primarily and rapidly on peptones and polypeptides,
converting them into amino acids. It can also break
down caseinogen and other proteins slowly. Ringlike
l • •
l
peristaltic
contractions
Erepsin
Peptones and polypeptides Amino acids sweep food

MOVEMENTS OF THE SMALL INTEsTINE

Two types of contractions are seen in the small
along the GI
tract

Fig. 16.2 Peristalsis

l
intestine:
A. Rhythmic segmental contractions or pendular contractions occur simultaneously along the
movements length of the intestine, so that its movement
B. Peristaltic contractions is vermiform (like a worm). Therefore, they are
called vennicular or peristaltic movements.
A. Rhythmic Segmental Contractions 2. It can occur in either direction from a stimulated
or Pendular Movements (Fig. 16.1) point, but it normally dies out rapidly in oral
l. These contractions are generated by pacemaker direction while continuing for a considerable
cells located in the second part of duodenum. distance towards the anus. This is called polarity
2. These are ring-like contractions that appear at of the intestine or law of the gut.
fairly regular intervals along the gut involving 3. Function: These waves propel the intestinal contents
a localised 'segment' of 1-2 cm. towards the ileo-caecal valve. Each peristaltic wave
3. By 'rhythmic segmental contractions', the food lasts for 1-2 sec and propels the 'chyme' a few
is divided (segmented) and mixed together centimetres.
with digestive juices thoroughly (again and 4. The usual stimulus for peristalsis is distension, as
again) and finally chyme (a paste-like fluid) is a result of which peristaltic waves pass along the
formed. intestine towards the rectum at rates varying from
/ 2-25 cm/ sec.
B. Peristaltic Contractions (Fig. 16.2) 5. Peristaltic contractions are usually superimposed
l. When the intestinal wall is stretched or upon rhythmic segmental contractions.
distended by food (chyme), a circular
constriction forms above it due to the contraction LARGE INTESTINE (COLON)
of circular muscle layer, while the lumen below Structure
it is dilated due to contraction of longitudinal Refer to page 53.
muscle layer.,'{herefore, intestinal contents move
towards the dilated part. Then contraction of MOVEMENTS OF TIIE LARGE INTESTINE
circular muscles spread to this part, which, in Two main types of waves of contractions are seen in
tum is constricted, while the segment below the large intestine:
it is dilated by contraction of the longitudinal A. Segmental contractions
muscle layer. Several of these wave-like B. Peristaltic contractions
 Chapler 16: The Small and Large Intestine l!JI
A, Segmental Contractions as follows:
They are of two types: (i) The bacteria help in the synthesis of vitamins
t. Typ<' I co11tmctio11s: These are small amplitude (vitamin K, B-complex and folic acid).
waves which aid mixing of the contents of the (ii) Production of the carbon dioxide (CO2),
colon. hydrogen sulphide (H 25), hydrogen and
2. Type II co11tractio11s: These are larger pressure methane, which contribute to the flatus. The
waves which aid mixing of the contents of the smell is largely due to sulphides.
colon and facilitate absorption by exposing more (iii) Organic acids formed from carbohydrates by
of the contents to the mucosa. bacteria are responsible for the slightly acidic
reaction of the stools (pH 5 to 7).
B. Peristaltic Contractions (iv) A number of amines are formed in the colon by
They are also of two types: bacterial enzymes such as indole and skatole,
1. Type III contractions: These are very small pressure which are responsible for the odour of the faeces.
wave of prolonged duration. They propel the
contents towards the rectum. APPLICATION AND
2. Type IV contractions: Mass peristalsis or mass action IMPLICATION IN NURSING
contractions. These are simultaneous contractions DIETARY FIBRES. In humans, there is no appreciable
over a large portion of the colon. digestion of dietary fibres, e.g., cellulose, hemicellulose
and lignin, etc. Therefore, ingested cellulose passes
/ unction out unchanged and substances which are enclosed in
, These contractions propel contents from the caecal cellulose wall escape digestion and absorption.
region towards the rectum, i.e., they serve to empty
the colon rapidly. They are the the predominant Advantages
contraction force during defaecation. (i) A high-fibre diet plays an important role in the
Both segmental and peristaltic contractions occur prevention and treatment of constipation.
infrequently but are particularly evident following (ii) It reduces the blood cholesterol level by binding
a meal. Thus, distension of the stomach by the food the bile salts. Thus, it is useful for controlling
initiates contractions of the rectum and frequently a obesity.
desire to defaecate. This is called the gastrocolic reflex. (iii) It decreases the incidence of cancer of the colon
Because of the response, defaecation after meals is the by dilution of cancer-producing substances.
rule in children. ) ). \v''- ~ k ,o"\ l
SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS
ABSORPTION AND SECRETION IN THE
LARGE INTESTINE 1. Give the composition and function of intestinal
1. The main function of the colon is absorption of juice (succus entericus).
water. The main sites of water absorption are 2. Give the characteristic features of the movements
caecum and ascending colon. produced in the small intestine.
(i) Approx. 1-2 L of isotonic 'chyme' daily enters 3. How is the digestion of carbohydrates brought
the colon from the ileum and colon can remove about in the small intestine?
approx. 90% of the fluids. 5. Describe briefly:
(ii) The large intestine can absorb Na+, K+, ~1-, (i) Law of the gut
glucose and certain vitamins with net secreti?n (ii) Mass action contractions
of K+ and HCO3, but it cannot absorb protein, (iii) Colonic bacterial flora
fat or Ca2+. (iv) Gastrocolic reflex
2. No digestive enzymes are secreted in the colon . . (v) Control of secretion of the intestinal juice
3. At birth, the colon is sterile, but the colonic (vi) Peristalsis
bacterial flora becomes established early in life. (vii) Movements In the large intestine
Some of these are beneficial and others harmful. (viii) Dietary fibres
The beneficial effects of colonic bacterial flora are
 Di ge sti on an d Ab sor pti on
in the Di ge sti ve tra ct

Competencies: Mus t-kn ow areas

• Intro ducti on Diges tion and absor ption of majo r foods tuffs from
• Diges tion and absor ption of carbo hydra tes, fats the diges tive tract
and prote ins

INT ROD UCT ION maltase; pH 5.8-6.2

Diges tion of the majo r foods tuffs in an order ly proce Maltose 2 Glucose
ss
invol ves the action of a large numb er of diges tive /actase; pH 5.4-6. 0
enzym es. The action of the enzym es is helpe d by the Lactose Glucose and
HCl secre ted by the stoma ch and the bile secre ted galactose
by
the liver. ABSO RPTI ON OF CAR BOH YDR ATES
1. Mono sacch aride s are absor bed from the jejunu
DIG EST ION AND m
and uppe r ileum ; negli gible absor ption also occur s
ABS ORP TIO N OF CAR BOH YDR ATE S in the stoma ch and colon . In gener al, carbo hydra tes
CARBOHYDRATES OF FOO D
are comp letely absor bed befor e the rema ins of a
The daily intak e of carbo hydra tes repre sents appro
x. meal reach the termi nal ileum .
50-60% of the diet. The princ ipal carbo hydra tes of food
2. Proce ss of absor ption : It inclu des mono sacch aride
are as given under : s
move ment s acros s the cell into the blood capill aries
1. Polys accha rides: starch , cellul ose, glyco gen
by (i) simple diffusion and (ii) active transport.
2. Disac chari des
(i) Simp le diffus ion occur s when conce ntrati on of
(i) Sucro se (cane or beet sugar )
sugar in the gut is great er than that in the blood .
(ii) Lacto se (milk sugar )
(ii) Activ e trans port cause s the absor ption
(iii) Malto se of
sugar s again st their conce ntrati on difference
3. Monosaccharides: gluco se, fructo se, galac tose
into the mese nteric blood , which requires energy.
Energ y requi red for the proce ss is suppl ied
DIGE STIO N OF CARBOHYDRATES
from cellul ar metab olism .
1. Mout h: Saliv ary a-am ylase (ptya lin) aids the
diges tion of starch to malto se (page 54).
2. Stomach: The 'HCl' of the gastri c juice may DIG EST ION AND
hydro lyze some sucro se. ABS ORP TIO N OF FATS
CLASSIFICATION OF FATS (LIP IDS)
3. Duodenum: a-amy lase of the pancr eatic juice rapid ly
1. Simp le fats or neutr al fats: These are trigly ceride
conve rts all form of starch comp letely into malto se. s
forme d from one molec ule of glyce rol and three
Pancreatic a.-amylase molec ules of fatty acids .
Starch Maltose
Cl-; ph 7.1 2. Comp ound fats: These are comp lex comp ound
(completely) s
4. Smal l intest ine: Succu s enter icus conta ins forme d from fatty acids , glyce rol and variou s
disac chari dases , i.e., the enzym es for splitt ing nitrog en-co ntain ing bases .
disac chari des into mono sacch arides .
DIGE STIO N OF FATS
sucrase (invertase); Some hydro lysis (brea king) of neutr al fats takes place
pH 5-7 durin g cooki ng.
Sucrose Glucose and
fn1etose 1. Mout h: None .

66
 Chapter 17: Digestion and Absorption in the Digestive tract •

2. Stomach: . Gastric lipase is a weak fat-splitting

(ii) They solubilize the lipids .and p~ovid~ a
enzyme; 1t acts at an optimal pH 4-4.5 and is
inactivated at pH 2.5. mechanism for their transport mto the intestinal
3. Small intestine: cells.
2. Micelles themselves are passively absorbed along
(i) Pancreatic lipase and bile salts enter the second
their concentration gradient into the luminal brush
part of ~e duodenum at the duodenal papilla border. Once inside the intestinal wall, they are
and begin the fat digestion process.
dealt with in two ways (Fig. 17.1):
(ii) Pancreatic juice is markedly alkaline (pH 7.8 to
(i) Monoglycerides and fatty acids with> 14C atoms
8.4) and converts and adjusts the highly acidic are re-esterified to triglycerides, which are then
~yme (pH approx. 6.0) to the chyme at pH coated with a layer of ~-lipoprotein, cholesterol
sli~htly above 7.0. It is optimal pH for lipase and phospholipids, forming chylomicrons
action.
called esterified fatty acid. Chylomicrons enter
(iii) Bile salts play a role in activating lipase and the lymphatics and via thoracic duct gain entry
exert a 'detergent' (cleaning) action.
into the bloodstream.
(iv) Lipase acts on emulsified fats and successively (ii) Short-chain fatty acids with <12-14C atoms
hydrolyzes (breaks) the triglycerides into pass directly from the mucosa! cell into the
diglycerides and monoglycerides, with the villus blood capillaries and are· transported
release of the associated fatty acids (page 64). as free fatty acids (FFA), also, called _n_on:
esterified fatty acids (NEPA) or une~te~ed
ABSORPTION OF FATS fatty acids. They are bound to alburmn m the
1. Pancreatic electrolytes, monoglycerides, fatty acids bloodstream.
and bile salts interact spontaneously to form 4. Fat absorption is the greatest in the upper part of
polymolecular aggregates called micelles. the small intestine, but appreciable amounts are
'Micelles' features also absorbed from the ileum.
(i) They are water-soluble complexes, 3-lOnm in
diameter with variable lipid concentration.

Pancreatic~}
x qt Triglycerides - - -~ Fatty Acids (FAs)

lipase f
FAs FAs
Diglycerides

t''
onoglycerid.£\ l.
bbb
0
l""'"""·"
!
Fatty acids
Reabsorbed
from ileum Mlciles

°x1~ @ Chylomlcron
formation

7r'o
(x~ @
;q~ Chylomicrons FAs
~q ~ n in lymph 0
i
To portal vein i
(A) (B) To lymphatics

t during fat digestion and absorption (A); absorption of fat by intestinal mucosa! cells (B)
· I evens
Fi·g. 17.1 lntralumma
Ill Unit III: The Digestive System

DIGESTION AND 2. Absorption of amino acids is rapid in the duodenum

ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS and jejunum but slow in the ileum.
1. Amino acids linked together in chain by peptide 3. Some of the ingested proteins enter the colon and
bond are called polypcptidrs. are finally digested by bacterial action.
2. All proteolytic enzymes, or the enzymes concerned
with protein digestion, are secreted in the form of APPLICATION AND
inactive precursors (pro-enzymes) and activated in IMPLICATION IN NURSING
the GIT. Give some common disease of the digestive tract.
1. Heart burn: It typically feels like a burning in the
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS centre of chest behind the breast bone. It is a major
1. Mo11tli: None symptom in acid reflux.
2. Stomacli: Here, pepsins hydrolyze the protein 2. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): Emotional factors
bonds; therefore, the products of peptic digestion strongly influence the large intestinal motility
are polypeptides of variable sizes. via ANS. Irritable bowel syndrome may occur
. Pepsin-HCI mixture during a period of stress and may result in either
Pro te111 - - - - - - - Proteases and peptones
constipation (increased segmental contraction) or
(large polypeptides) diarrhoea (decreased segmental contraction).
(Details, refer to page 57) 3. Lactose intolerance: Low lactose levels are
associated with intolerance to milk. This is called
3. Duodenum: lactose intolerance. Symptoms include abdominal
Pancreatic cramps, bloating and diarrhoea.
P proteolytic enzymes
roteoses H B.O Small polypeptides
and peptones p and amino acids SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS
4. Small intestine: 1. Describe briefly the digestion and absorption of
any one major foodstuff in the small intestine.
Erepsin (page 63)
Peptides Free amino acids 2. Give the process of absorption of fats from the
pH 7.6
small intestine.
3. Describe briefly:
ABSORPTION OF AMINO ACIDS (i) Micelles and chylomicrons
1. O-amino acids are absorbed solely by passive (ii) Esterified and non-esterified fatty acids
diffusion only, while L-amino acids are actively (iii) Carbohydrates of food
transported. L-amino acids are absorbed more
rapidly than D-isomers.