ROM (Read only memory)

• Is also random access but only for reads, once data has been written onto a ROM chip,
it cannot be removed and can only be read.
It refers to special memory used to store programs that boot the computer and perform
diagnostics. Most personal computers have a small amount of ROM (a few thousand bytes).
Retains its contents even when the computer is turned off and is therefore referred to as being
nonvolatile.
Secondary storage: These are devices which are used to store huge information for future
use. This is mostly hard drives and removable media such as floppy disks, optical media (CD
ROM) etc.

Floppy Disk: Floppy disks allow information to be transported easily from onecomputer to
another they have limited storage capacity, generally 1.44 MB. Saving and retrieving
information from a floppy disk is slower than on a hard drive. They are more susceptible to
physical damage and viruses than the hard drive. The size of a hard drive is usually expressed
in terms of megabytes and gigabytes.

Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD ROM): CD ROMs are read only storagemedium.
Typically, a CD ROM holds up to 650 MB of information. While information retrieval is
faster than from a floppy disk, it is still not as fast as from the hard drive.

Compact Disk-Writable (CD- R): A CD-R is highly effective for storing a largeamount of
data. Can hold up to 700MB of information. A CD-R is a one time recordable compact disc.

Compact Disk-Re-Writable (CD-RW):

A CD-RW allows you to read, write, erase and write again. Writing takes place in a single
pass of the focused laser beam. This is sometimes referred to as direct overwriting and can be
repeated several thousand times per disc.

Computer Bus and Data Transmission

The bus is a medium used to transfer data and controls from one part to other part of
computers. Data is normally transferred between main storage and the processor along a
device called a bus which is effectively a means of sending multiple bits of data in parallel.
There are mainly tStrategyee types of bus: (a) Data bus (b) Address bus (c) Control bus,
a) Data bus: A bus which carries a word or a data to or from memory is known as data bus.
(ii) The data width is 8 in 8085, 16 in 8086 and 32 in 80386.
(iii) Data lines are bidirectional.
(iv) One part of the data bus runs between RAM and the microprocessor.
(v) Another part of the data bus runs between RAM and various storage devices.
b) Address bus: The address bus carries memory address.
(ii) The address lines can be 16 in 8085, 20 in 8086 and 32 in 80386.
(iii) It is unidirectional, the bits flow in only one direction.
c) Control bus: The control bus carries the control signals between the units of computers.
The signals like READ/WRITE, START/HALT etc are carried by a control bus.

Software is a Program commercially prepared and tested in software by one or agroup of

programmers and system analyst to perform a specified task. Software is simply set of
instructions that cause a computer to perform one or more tasks.

Classification of software

Software

System software Application software

Operating Service General /ready Special/tailor

System programs made made
applications applications

Classification of software

Utilities Development Communication

Programs programs

Software can be broadly classified into system software and application software

System software
System Software
Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and other application software
are called system software. System software acts as interface between hardware and user
applications. An interface is needed because hardware devices or machines and humans
speak in different languages.
Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal) and 1 (presence
of electric signal) while humans speak in English, French, German, Tamil, Hindi and many
other languages. English is the pre-dominant language of interacting with computers.
Software is required to convert all human instructions into machine understandable
instructions. And this is exactly what system software does. It Consists of programs that
control operations of the computer and enable user to make efficient use of computers. They
coordinate computer activities and optimize use of computers. They are used to control the
computer and develop and run application programs examples of jobs done by the system
software are management of computer resources, defragmentation etc.
Based on its function, system software is of four types −

 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Drivers

Language Processor
As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all user
instructions into machine understandable language. When we talk of human machine
interactions, languages are of three types −
 Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s that the
machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
 Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of abstraction by
defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to denote
a long string of 0s and 1s. For example, the word “READ” can be defined to mean
that computer has to retrieve data from the memory. The complete instruction will
also tell the memory address. Assembly level language is machine dependent.
 High level language − This language uses English like statements and is completely
independent of machines. Programs written using high level languages are easy to
create, read and understand.
Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is called source
code. Set of instructions in machine readable form is called object code or machine
code. System software that converts source code to object code is called language
processor.

Device Drivers
System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer is
called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs
to be attached externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you
attach a new device, you need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be
managed.
(i) Operating system – is a complex program and most important program that runs on a
computer and which controls the operation of a computer. It perform basic tasks, such as
recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of
files and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and
printers. In general the operating system supervises and directs all the software components
and the hardware components. Sophisticated operating system could handle multi-processors,
many users and tasks simultaneously. Examples of computers operating systems are UNIX,
Microsoft windows 95/98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista and
Linux.

(ii)Service programs are programs designed for general support of the processes of a
computer; "a computer system provides utility programs to perform the tasks needed by most
users". The service programs can further be divided into;

o Utilities Performs a variety of tasks that maintain or enhance the computer’s

operating system Utility programs are generally fairly small. Each type has a specific
job to do. Below are some descriptions of utilities.

ƒ Anti-virus applications protect your computer from the damage that can be
caused by viruses and similar programs
ƒ Compression utilities make files smaller for storage (or sendingover the
Internet) and then return them to normal size.
ƒ Data recovery utilities attempt to restore data and files that havebeen
damaged or accidentally deleted.
ƒ Disk defragmenters reorganize the data stored on disks so that it ismore
efficiently arranged.
ƒ Firewalls prevent outsiders from accessing your computer over anetwork such
as the Internet.
o Development programs are used in the creation of new software. Theycomprise of
sets of software tools to allow programs to be written and tested. Knowledge of
appropriate programming language is assumed. Tools used here are

ƒ Text editors that allows one to enter and modify

programsstatementsAssembler- allows one to code in machine programs
language .[Link] specific

ƒ Compilers-makes it possible for programmer to convert sourcecode to object

code which can be stored and saved on different computers.

ƒ Interpreters-used to convert source programs statement bystatement as it

executes the program without being compiled first.
 ƒ Libraries- commonly used parts or portions of a program whichcan be called
or included in the programmer’s code without having to recode that portion.

ƒ Diagnostic utilities-used to detect bugs in the logic of program

during program development

o Communication programs- refer to programs that make it possible totransmit data.

Application software

Are programs for user to do their jobs e.g. typing, recording keeping, production of financial
statements, drawing, and statistics.
o General/ready made software is developed to perform a variety of tasks,usually
determined by use. Such software can be customized by user to achieve specific goals
e.g. ms office which is a suit of programs performing a variety of tasks e.g. word
processing for producing documents, database for storing, retrieving and manipulating
data and various calculations on spreadsheets. General purpose programs are
discussed below;

Word processing [Link] tasks previously done ontypewriters with

considerable effort can now be easily completed with word-processing software. Documents
can be easily edited and formatted. Revisions can be made by deleting (cutting), inserting,
moving (cutting and pasting), and copying data. Documents can be stored (saved) and opened
again for revisions and/or printing. Many styles and sizes of fonts are available to make the
document attractive. Example: MS Word, Word Pad etc.

Spreadsheet [Link] software permitsperformance of an almost endless

variety of quantitative tasks such as budgeting, keeping track of inventory, preparing
financial reports, or manipulating numbers in any fashion, such as averaging each of ten
departmental monthly sales over a six-month period. A spreadsheet contains cells, the
intersection of rows and columns. Example: Excel, Lotus1-2-3 etc.

Database software: A database contains a list of information itemsthat are similar in format
and/or nature. An example is a phone book that lists a name, address, and phone number for
each entry. Once stored in a database, information can be retrieved in several ways, using
reports and queries. For example, all the names listed for a given area code could be printed
out and used for a commercial mailing to that area. Examples of database software is Ms
Access, Dbase, Oracle etc.

Presentation software: for making slide shows. Allows userstocreate visual presentation A
speaker may use presentation software to organize a slide show for an audience. Text,
graphics, sound, and movies can easily be included in the presentation. An added feature is
that the slide show may be enhanced by inclusion of handouts with two to six slides printed
on a page.

Desktop publishing software: This software permits the user toprepare documents by using
both word-processing devices and graphics. Desktop publishing software uses word-
processing software, with all its ease of entering and revising data, and supplements it with
sophisticated visual features that stem from graphics software. For example, one can enhance
a printed message with virtually any kind of illustration, such as drawings, paintings, and
photographs. . Examples of Desktop publishing software is PageMaker, Corel Draw, and Ms
Publisher

Multimedia applications for creating video and [Link] to create image, audio,
video etc. Example: Real Player, Media Player etc. Activity management programs like
calendars and address books
o Tailor made/special purpose software Tailor-made computer systemrefers to
computer application developed by in-house IT personnel or outside software house
according to specific user requirements in a firm. They are developed for given
purpose e.g. Payroll system, stock control system etc.

As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to function. A set of instructions
that achieve a single outcome are called program or procedure. Many programs functioning
together to do a task make a software.
For example, a word-processing software enables the user to create, edit and save
documents. A web browser enables the user to view and share web pages and multimedia
files. There are two categories of software −

 System Software
 Application Software
 Utility Software
Let us discuss them in detail.
Application Software
A software that performs a single task and nothing else is called application software.
Application software are very specialized in their function and approach to solving a
problem. So a spreadsheet software can only do operations with numbers and nothing else.
A hospital management software will manage hospital activities and nothing else. Here are
some commonly used application software −

 Word processing
 Spreadsheet
 Presentation
 Database management
 Multimedia tools

Utility Software
Application software that assist system software in doing their work is called utility
software. Thus utility software is actually a cross between system software and application
software. Examples of utility software include −

 Antivirus software
 Disk management tools
 File management tools
 Compression tools
 Backup tools
Basics of Computers - System S/W
As you know, system software acts as an interface for the underlying hardware system. Here
we will discuss some important system software in detail.

Operating System
Operating system (OS) is the lifeline of computer. You connect all the basic devices like
CPU, monitor, keyboard and mouse; plug in the power supply and switch it on thinking you
have everything in place. System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware
parts and their interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system
(OS). OS is the first software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer is
switched on and this is called booting. OS manages a computer’s basic functions like
storing data in memory, retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on
priority, [Link] the computer will not start or come to life unless it has an operating system
installed in it because OS −

 Keeps all hardware parts in a state of readiness to follow user instructions

 Co-ordinates between different devices
 Schedules multiple tasks as per priority
 Allocates resource to each task
 Enables computer to access network
 Enables users to access and use application software
Besides initial booting, these are some of the functions of an operating system −

 Managing computer resources like hardware, software, shared resources, etc.

 Allocating resources
 Prevent error during software use
 Control improper use of computer
One of the earliest operating systems was MS-DOS, developed by Microsoft for IBM PC. It
was a Command Line Interface (CLI) OS that revolutionized the PC market. DOS was
difficult to use because of its interface. The users needed to remember instructions to do
their tasks. To make computers more accessible and user-friendly, Microsoft
developed Graphical User Interface (GUI) based OS called Windows, which transformed
the way people used computers. There are three types of language interpreters−
 Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.
 Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level program line by line.
 Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one go
rather than line by line.

Assembler
Assembler is a system software that converts assembly level programs to machine level
code.

These are the advantages provided by assembly level programming −

  Increases efficiency of the programmer as remembering mnemonics is easier
 Productivity increases as number of errors decreases and hence debugging time
 Programmer has access to hardware resources and hence has flexibility in writing
programs customized to the specific computer

Interpreter
The major advantage of assembly level language was its ability to optimize memory usage
and hardware utilization. However, with technological advancements computers had more
memory and better hardware components. So ease of writing programs became more
important than optimizing memory and other hardware resources.
In addition, a need was felt to take programming out of a handful of trained scientists and
computer programmers, so that computers could be used in more areas. This led to
development of high level languages that were easy to understand due to resemblance of
commands to English language.
The system software used to translate high level language source code into machine level
language object code line by line is called an interpreter. An interpreter takes each line of
code and converts it into machine code and stores it into the object file.
The advantage of using an interpreter is that they are very easy to write and they do not
require a large memory space. However, there is a major disadvantage in using interpreters,
i.e., interpreted programs take a long time in executing. To overcome this disadvantage,
especially for large programs, compilers were developed.

Compiler
System software that store the complete program, scan it, translate the complete program
into object code and then creates an executable code is called a compiler. On the face of it
compilers compare unfavorably with interpreters because they −

 are more complex than interpreters

 need more memory space
 take more time in compiling source code
However, compiled programs execute very fast on computers. The following image shows
the step-by-step process of how a source code is transformed into an executable code −
These are the steps in compiling source code into executable code −
 Pre-processing − In this stage pre-processor instructions, typically used by
languages like C and C++ are interpreted, i.e. converted to assembly level language.
 Lexical analysis − Here all instructions are converted to lexical units like constants,
variables, arithmetic symbols, etc.
 Parsing − Here all instructions are checked to see if they conform to grammar
rules of the language. If there are errors, compiler will ask you to fix them before
you can proceed.
 Compiling − At this stage the source code is converted into object code.
 Linking − If there are any links to external files or libraries, addresses of their
executable will be added to the program. Also, if the code needs to be rearranged for
actual execution, they will be rearranged. The final output is the executable
code that is ready to be executed.

Basics of Computers - Functions of OS

As you know, operating system is responsible for functioning of the computer system. To do
that it carries out these three broad categories of activities −
 Essential functions − Ensures optimum and effective utilization of resources
 Monitoring functions − Monitors and collects information related to system
performance
 Service functions − Provides services to users
Let us look at some of the most important functions associated with these activities.

Processor management
Managing a computer’s CPU to ensure its optimum utilization is called processor
management. Managing processor basically involves allocating processor time to the tasks
that need to be completed. This is called job scheduling. Jobs must be scheduled in such a
way that −

 There is maximum utilization of CPU

 Turnaround time, i.e. time required to complete each job, is minimum
 Waiting time is minimum
 Each job gets the fastest possible response time
 Maximum throughput is achieved, where throughput is the average time taken to
complete each task
There are two methods of job scheduling done by operating systems −

 Preemptive scheduling
 Non-Preemptive scheduling

Preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling, next job to be done by the processor can be scheduled before the
current job completes. If a job of higher priority comes up, the processor can be forced to
release the current job and take up the next job. There are two scheduling techniques that use
pre-emptive scheduling −
 Round robin scheduling − A small unit of time called time slice is defined and each
program gets only one time slice at a time. If it is not completed during that time, it
must join the job queue at the end and wait till all programs have got one time slice.
The advantage here is that all programs get equal opportunity. The downside is that
if a program completes execution before the time slice is over, CPU is idle for the
rest of the duration.
 Response ratio scheduling − A job with shorter response time gets higher priority.
So a larger program may have to wait even if it was requested earlier than the shorter
program. This improves throughput of the CPU.

Non-preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling, job scheduling decisions are taken only after the current job
completes. A job is never interrupted to give precedence to higher priority jobs. Scheduling
techniques that use non-preemptive scheduling are −
 First come first serve scheduling − This is the simplest technique where the first
program to throw up a request is completed first.
 Shortest job next scheduling − Here the job that needs least amount of time for
execution is scheduled next.
 Deadline scheduling − The job with the earliest deadline is scheduled for execution
next.

Memory Management
Process of regulating computer memory and using optimization techniques to enhance
overall system performance is called memory management. Memory space is very
important in modern computing environment, so memory management is an important role
of operating systems.
As you know, computers have two types of memory – primary and secondary. Primary
memory is fast but expensive and secondary memory is cheap but slower. OS has to strike
a balance between the two to ensure that system performance is not hurt due to very less
primary memory or system costs do not shoot up due to too much primary memory.
Input and output data, user instructions and data interim to program execution need to be
stored, accessed and retrieved efficiently for high system performance. Once a program
request is accepted, OS allocates it primary and secondary storage areas as per requirement.
Once execution is completed, the memory space allocated to it is freed. OS uses many
storage management techniques to keep a track of all storage spaces that are allocated or
free.

Contiguous Storage Allocation

This is the simplest storage space allocation technique where contiguous memory locations
are assigned to each program. OS has to estimate the amount of memory required for the
complete process before allocation.

Non-contiguous Storage Allocation

As the name suggests, program and associated data need not be stored in contiguous
locations. The program is divided into smaller components and each component is stored in
a separate location. A table keeps a record of where each component of the program is
stored. When the processor needs to access any component, OS provides access using this
allocation table.
In a real-life scenario primary memory space might not be sufficient to store the whole
program. In that case, OS takes the help of Virtual Storage technique, where program is
physically stored in secondary memory but appears to be stored in primary memory. This
introduces a miniscule time lag in accessing the program components. There are two
approaches to virtual storages −
  Program paging − A program is broken down into fixed size page and stored in the
secondary memory. The pages are given logical address or virtual address from 0
to n. A page table maps the logical addresses to the physical addresses, which is
used to retrieve the pages when required.
 Program segmentation − A program is broken down into logical units
called segments, assigned logical address from 0 to n and stored in secondary
memory. A segment table is used to load segments from secondary memory to
primary memory.
Operating systems typically use a combination of page and program segmentation to
optimize memory usage. A large program segment may be broken into pages or more than
one small segments may be stored as a single page.

File Management
Data and information is stored on computers in form of files. Managing file system to enable
users to keep their data safely and correctly is an important function of operating systems.
Managing file systems by OS is called file management. File management is required to
provide tools for these file related activities −

 Creating new files for storing data

 Updating
 Sharing
 Securing data through passwords and encryption
 Recovery in case of system failure

Device Management
The process of implementation, operation and maintenance of a device by operating system
is called device management. Operating system uses a utility software called device
driver as interface to the device.
When many processes access the devices or request access to the devices, the OS manages
the devices in a way that efficiently shares the devices among all processes. Processes access
devices through system call interface, a programming interface provided by the OS.

Basics of Computers - Types of OS

As computers and computing technologies have evolved over the years, so have their usage
across many fields. To meet growing requirements more and more customized software
have flooded the market. As every software needs operating system to function, operating
systems have also evolved over the years to meet growing demand on their techniques and
capabilities. Here we discuss some common types of OS based on their working techniques
and some popularly used OS as well.

GUI OS
GUI is the acronym for Graphical User Interface. An operating system that presents an
interface comprising graphics and icons is called a GUI OS. GUI OS is very easy to
navigate and use as users need not remember commands to be given to accomplish each
task. Examples of GUI OS includes Windows, macOS, Ubuntu, etc.

Time Sharing OS
Operating systems that schedule tasks for efficient processor use are called time sharing
OS. Time sharing, or multitasking, is used by operating systems when multiple users
located at different terminals need processor time to complete their tasks. Many scheduling
techniques like round robin scheduling and shortest job next scheduling are used by time
sharing OS.

Real Time OS
An operating system that guarantees to process live events or data and deliver the results
within a stipulated span of time is called a real time OS. It may be single tasking or
multitasking.

Distributed OS
An operating system that manages many computers but presents an interface of single
computer to the user is called distributed OS. Such type of OS is required when
computational requirements cannot be met by a single computer and more systems have to
be used. User interaction is restricted to a single system; it’s the OS that distributed work to
multiple systems and then presents the consolidated output as if one computer has worked
on the problem at hand.

Popular Operating Systems

Initially computers had no operating systems. Every program needed full hardware
specifications to run correctly as processor, memory and device management had to be done
by the programs themselves. However, as sophisticated hardware and more complex
application programs developed, operating systems became essential. As personal computers
became popular among individuals and small businesses, demand for standard operating
system grew. Let us look at some of the currently popular operating systems −
 Windows − Windows is a GUI operating system first developed by Microsoft in
1985. The latest version of Windows is Windows 10. Windows is used by almost
88% of PCs and laptops globally.
 Linux − Linux is an open source operating system mostly used by mainframes an
supercomputers. Being open source means that its code is available for free and
anyone can develop a new OS based on it.
 BOSS − Bharat Operating System Solutions is an Indian distribution of Linux based
on Debian, an OS. It is localized to enable use of local Indian languages. BOSS
consists of −
o Linux kernel
o Office application suite BharteeyaOO
o Web browser
 o Email service Thunderbird
o Chat application Pidgim
o File sharing applications
o Multimedia applications

Instruction Set
A command given to a digital machine to perform an operation on a piece of data is called
an instruction. Basic set of machine level instructions that a microprocessor is designed to
execute is called its instruction set. These instructions do carry out these types of operations

 Data transfer
 Arithmetic operations
 Logical operations
 Control flow
 Input/output and machine control

Microprocessor Components
Compared to the first microprocessors, today’s processors are very small but still they have
these basic parts right from the first model −

 CPU
 Bus
 Memory

CPU
CPU is fabricated as a very large scale integrated circuit (VLSI) and has these parts −
 Instruction register − It holds the instruction to be executed.
 Decoder − It decodes (converts to machine level language) the instruction and sends
to the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit).
 ALU − It has necessary circuits to perform arithmetic, logical, memory, register and
program sequencing operations.
 Register − It holds intermediate results obtained during program processing.
Registers are used for holding such results rather than RAM because accessing
registers is almost 10 times faster than accessing RAM.

Bus
Connection lines used to connect the internal parts of the microprocessor chip is called bus.
There are three types of buses in a microprocessor −
 Data Bus − Lines that carry data to and from memory are called data bus. It is a
bidirectional bus with width equal to word length of the microprocessor.
  Address Bus − It is a unidirectional responsible for carrying address of a memory
location or I/O port from CPU to memory or I/O port.
 Control Bus − Lines that carry control signals like clock signals, interrupt
signal or ready signal are called control bus. They are bidirectional. Signal that
denotes that a device is ready for processing is called ready signal. Signal that
indicates to a device to interrupt its process is called an interrupt signal.
Basic Memory
Memory is required in computers to store data and instructions. Memory is physically
organized as a large number of cells that are capable of storing one bit each. Logically they
are organized as groups of bits called words that are assigned an address. Data and
instructions are accessed through these memory address. The speed with which these
memory addresses can be accessed determines the cost of the memory. Faster the memory
speed, higher the price.
Computer memory can be said to be organized in a hierarchical way where memory with the
fastest access speeds and highest costs lies at the top whereas those with lowest speeds and
hence lowest costs lie at the bottom. Based on this criteria memory is of two types
– primary and secondary. Here we will look at primary memory in detail.
The main features of primary memory, which distinguish it from secondary memory are −

 It is accessed directly by the processor

 It is the fastest memory available
 Each word is stored as well as
 It is volatile, i.e. its contents are lost once power is switched off
As primary memory is expensive, technologies are developed to optimize its use. These are
broad types of primary memory available.

Microprocessor has two types of memory

 RAM − Random Access Memory is volatile memory that gets erased when power is
switched off. All data and instructions are stored in RAM.
 ROM − Read Only Memory is non-volatile memory whose data remains intact even
after power is switched off. Microprocessor can read from it any time it wants but
 cannot write to it. It is preprogrammed with most essential data like booting
sequence by the manufacturer.

RAM: RAM stands for Random Access Memory. The processor accesses all memory

addresses directly, irrespective of word length, making storage and retrieval fast. RAM is the

fastest memory available and hence most expensive. These two factors imply that RAM is

available in very small quantities of up to 1GB. RAM is volatile but my be of any of these

two types

DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Each memory cell in a DRAM is made of one transistor and one
capacitor, which store one bit of data. However, this cell starts losing its charge and hence
data stored in less than thousandth of a second. So it needs to be refreshed thousand times a
second, which takes up processor time. However, due to small size of each cell, one DRAM
can have large number of cells. Primary memory of most of the personal computers is made
of DRAM.

SRAM (SRAM): Each cell in SRAM is made of a flip flop that stores one bit. It retains its bit
till the power supply is on and doesn’t need to be refreshed like DRAM. It also has shorter
read-write cycles as compared to DRAM. SRAM is used in specialized applications.

ROM: ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests, ROM can only be read

by the processor. New data cannot be written into ROM. Data to be stored into ROM is

written during the manufacturing phase itself. They contain data that does not need to be

altered, like booting sequence of a computer or algorithmic tables for mathematical

applications. ROM is slower and hence cheaper than RAM. It retains its data even when

power is switched off, i.e. it is non-volatile. ROM cannot be altered the way RAM can be but

technologies are available to program these types of ROMs −

PROM (Programmable ROM): PROM can be programmed using a special hardware device
called PROM programmer or PROM burner.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): EPROM can be erased and then programmed using
special electrical signals or UV rays. EPROMs that can be erased using UV rays are called
UVEPROM and those that can be erased using electrical signals are called EEPROM.
However, handling electric signals is easier and safer than UV rays.

NETWORK
It’s a connection of two or more devices to share resources.
Computer network is a telecommunication channel using which we can share data with other
coomputers or devices, connected to the same network. It is also called Data Network. The
best example of computer network is Internet. Computer network does not mean a system
with one Control Unit connected to multiple other systems as its slave. That is Distributed
system, not Computer Network. A network must be able to meet certain criterias, these are
mentioned below:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Scalability

Computer Networks: Performance

It can be measured in the following ways:

 Transit time : It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
 Response time : It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.

Other ways to measure performance are :

1. Efficiency of software
2. Number of users
3. Capability of connected hardware

Computer Networks: Reliability

It decides the frequency at which network failure take place. More the failures are, less is the
network's reliability.

Computer Networks: Security

It refers to the protection of data from any unauthorised user or access. While travelling
through network, data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if attempted.
Hence security is also a very important characteristic for Networks.

Properties of a Good Network

 1. Interpersonal Communication: We can communicate with each other efficiently
and easily. Example: emails, chat rooms, video conferencing etc, all of these are
possible because of computer networks.
2. Resources can be shared: We can share physical resources by making them
available on a network such as printers, scanners etc.
3. Sharing files, data: Authorised users are allowed to share the files on the network.

Uses of Computer Networks

Had it not been of high importance, nobody would have bothered connecting computers over
a network. Let's start exploring the uses of Computer Networks with some traditional
usecases at companies and for individuals and then move on to the recent developments in
the area of mobile users and home networking.

Computer Networks: Business Applications

Following are some business applications of computer networks:
1. Resource Sharing: The goal is to make all programs, equipments(like printers etc), and
especially data, available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of
the resource and the user.
2. Server-Client model: One can imagine a company's information system as consisting of
one or more databases and some employees who need to access it remotely. In this model, the
data is stored on powerful computers called Servers. Often these are centrally housed and
maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the employees have simple machines,
called Clients, on their desks, using which they access remote data.
3. Communication Medium: A computer network can provide a powerful communication
medium among employees. Virtually every company that has two or more computers now
has e-mail (electronic mail), which employees generally use for a great deal of daily
communication
4. e-commerce: A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing
business with consumers over the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music vendors have
discovered that many customers like the convenience of shopping from home. This sector is
expected to grow quickly in the future.

Computer Networks: Home Applications

Some of the most important uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:

 Access to remote information

 Person-to-person communication
 Interactive entertainment
 Electronic commerce

Computer Networks: Mobile Users

Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and Mobile phones, is one of the fastest-
growing segment of the entire computer industry. Although wireless networking and mobile
computing are often related, they are not identical, as the below figure shows.

Line Configuration in Computer Networks

A Network is nothing but a connection made through connection links between two or more
devices. Devices can be a computer, printer or any other device that is capable to send and
receive data. There are two ways to connect the devices :

1. Point-to-Point connection
2. Multipoint connection

Point-To-Point Connection

It is a protocol which is used as a communication link between two devices. It is simple to

establish. The most common example for Point-to-Point connection (PPP) is a computer
connected by telephone line. We can connect the two devices by means of a pair of wires or
using a microwave or satellite link. Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote
control and Television for changing the channels.

MultiPoint Connection
It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more devices share a
single link. There are two kinds of Multipoint Connections :

 If the links are used simultaneously between many devices, then it is spatially shared
line configuration.
 If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared (temporal) line
configuration.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices
connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the
direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission modes. They are:

1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication
is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional
communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send a command/signal,
and do not expect any response back. Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television
broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.
HALF DUPLEX Mode
Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a
signal carrier, but not at the same time.
For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission,
one workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from
the same direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission
implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry data in both directions) but data can be sent in
only one direction at a time. Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is
sent one at a time but messages are sent in both the directions.

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same
time in other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between
two persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for
receiving data.

Types of Communication Networks

Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

 2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Wireless
5. Inter Network (Internet)

Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot.
Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can use
different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc. LAN can be a
simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among each other
while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building. LAN networks are also
widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc.

Characteristics of LAN

 LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
 LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
 There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent
ones are Ethernet, Token ring.
 It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a
restricted geographical area.

Applications of LAN

 One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining
computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by
the remaining clients.
  Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with
each other locally without any internet access.
 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Advantages of LAN

 Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives

and hard disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost
and hardware purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network
instead of purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.
 Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over
networked computers.
 Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the
server computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access
their data. Because data is not stored on workstations locally.
 Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to
manage data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing
system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages of LAN

 High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer
resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files
of each and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and
computer use history of the LAN user.
 Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an
organization if centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN
administrator.
 LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because,
there are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances
in Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
 Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one
building or a group of nearby buildings.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in [Link] is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and
uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be
means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a single cable. It is
mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.
Characteristics of MAN

 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as
fibre optic cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions
simultaneously.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN

 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage(spying)
graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for
the network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to
design and maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links.
WAN operates on low data rates.
Characteristics of WAN

 It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).

 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers.

Advantages of WAN

 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one
network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages
can have picture, sounds or data included with them(called attachments).
 Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all
the computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each
computer.
 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some
users may have older information than others.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.
 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the
network the more expensive it is.
 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network
supervisors and technicians to be employed.
 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use information
from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity
and expense.

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

 1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with
100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node.
Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep
the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to
pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
 3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. There are two
techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic
to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which
has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have
routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to
unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

 1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the
same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three
devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

 2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is
used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
Computer File organization

It is used to determine an efficient file organization for each base relation. For example, if we
want to retrieve student records in alphabetical order of name, sorting the file by student
name is a good file organization. However, if we want to retrieve all students whose marks is
in a certain range, a file ordered by student name would not be a good file organization. Some
file organizations are efficient for bulk loading data into the database but inefficient for
retrieve and other activities.
The objective of this selection is to choose an optimal file organization for each relation.

Types of File Organization

In order to make effective selection of file organizations and indexes, here we present the
details different types of file Organization. These are:

Heap (unordered) File Organization

An unordered file, sometimes called a heap file, is the simplest type of file organization.
Records are placed in file in the same order as they are inserted. A new record is inserted in
the last page of the file; if there is insufficient space in the last page, a new page is added to
the file. This makes insertion very efficient. However, as a heap file has no particular
ordering with respect to field values, a linear search must be performed to access a record. A
linear search involves reading pages from the file until the required is found. This makes
retrievals from heap files that have more than a few pages relatively slow, unless the retrieval
involves a large proportion of the records in the file.
To delete a record, the required page first has to be retrieved, the record marked as deleted,
and the page written back to disk. The space with deleted records is not reused.
Consequently, performance progressively deteriorates as deletion occurs. This means that
heap files have to be periodically reorganized by the Database Administrator (DBA) to
reclaim the unused space of deleted records.
Heap files are one of the best organizations for bulk loading data into a table, as records are
inserted at the end of the sequence; there is no overhead of calculating what page the record
should go on.
Pros of Heap storage
Heap is a good storage structure in the following situations:
When data is being bulk-loaded into the relation.
The relation is only a few pages long. In this case, the time to locate any tuple is Short, even
if the entire relation has been searched serially.
When every tuple in the relation has to be retrieved (in any order) every time the relation is
accessed. For example, retrieve the name of all the students.
Cons of Heap storage
Heap files are inappropriate when only selected tuples of a relation are to be accessed.

Hash File Organization

In a hash file, records are not stored sequentially in a file instead a hash function is used to
calculate the address of the page in which the record is to be stored.
The field on which hash function is calculated is called as Hash field and if that field acts as
the key of the relation then it is called as Hash key. Records are randomly distributed in the
file so it is also called as Random or Direct files. Commonly some arithmetic function is
applied to the hash field so that records will be evenly distributed throughout the file.
Pros of Hash file organization
Hash is a good storage structure in the following situations:
When tuples are retrieve based on an exact match on the hash field value, particularly if the
access order is random. For example, if the STUDENT relation is hashed on Name then
retrieval of the tuple with Name equal to "Rahat Bhatia" is efficient.
Cons of Hash file organization
Hash is not a good storage structure in the following situations:
When tuples are retrieved based on a range of values for the hash field. For example, retrieve
all students whose name begins with the "R".
When tuples are retrieved based on a range of values for the hash field. For example, if
STUDENT relation has hash filed Roll Number and the query is to retrieve all students with
roll numbers in the range of 3000-5000.
When tuples re retrieved based on a field other than the hash field. For example, if the
STUDENT relation is hashed on Roll Number, then hashing cannot be used to search for a
tuple based on the Class attribute.
When tuples are retrieved based on only part of the hash field. For example, if the STUDENT
relation is hashed on Roll Number and Class, then hashing cannot be used to search for a
tuple based on the class attribute alone.
When the hash field frequently updated. When a hash field updated, the DBMS must deleted
the entire tuple and possible relocate it to a new address (if the has function results in a new
address). Thus, frequent updating of the hash field impacts performance.

Secondary indexes
Secondary indexes provide a mechanism for specifying a...'1additional key for a base relation
that can be used to retrieve data more efficiently. For example, the STUDENT relation may
be hashed on the Name the primary index. However, there may be frequent access to this
relation based on the Roll Number attribute. In this case, we may decide to add Roll Number
as a secondary index.
There is an overhead involved in the maintenance and use of secondary indexes that has to be
balanced against the performance improvement gained when retrieving data. This overhead
includes:
• adding an index record to every secondary index whenever a tuple is inserted into the
relation;
• updating a secondary index when the corresponding tuple in the relation is updated;
• The increase in disk space needed to store the secondary index;
• Possible performance degradation during query optimization, as the query optimizer may
consider all secondary indexes before selecting an optimal execution strategy.

Indexes Sequential Access Method (ISAM)

In an ISAM system, data is organized into records which are composed of fixed length fields.
Records are stored sequentially. A secondary set of hash tables known as indexes contain
"pointers" into the tables, allowing individual records to be retrieved without having to search
the entire data set.
It is a data structure that allows the DBMS to locate particular records in a file more quickly
and thereby speed response to user queries. An index in a database is similar to an index in a
book. It is an auxiliary structure associated with a file that can be referred to when searching
for an item of information, just like searching the index of a book, in which we look up a
keyword to get a list of one or more pages the keyword appears on. An index obviates the
need to scan sequentially through the file each time we want to find the item. In the case of
database indexes, the required item will be one or more records in a file. As in the book index
analogy, the index is ordered, and each index entry contains the item required and one or
more locations (record identifiers) where the item can be found.
While indexes are not strictly necessary to use the DBMS, they can have a significant impact
on performance. As with the book index, we could find the desired keyword by looking
through the entire book, but this would be tedious and time-consuming. Having an index at
the back of the book on alphabetical order to keYW0fd allows us to go directly to the page or
pages we want.
An index structure is associated with a particular search key and contains record consisting of
the key value and the address of the logical record in the file contains records consisting of
the key value of the address of the logical record in the file containing the key value. The file
containing the logical records is called the data file and the file containing the index records
is called the index file. The value in the index file are ordered according to the indexing field,
which is usually based on a single attribute.
A sorted data file with a primary index is called an indexed sequential file. This structure is a
compromise between a purely sequential file and a purely random file, in that records can be
processed sequentially or individually accessed using a search key value that accesses the
record via the index. An indexed sequential file is a more versatile structure, which normally
has.
• a primary storage area;
• a separate index or indexes;
• an overflow area.
When to use
ISAM is a more versatile storage structure than hash and it proved better when retrievals are
based on exact key match, pattern matching, range of values, and part key specification.
When not to use
However, the ISAM index is static, created when the file is created. Thus, the performance of
an ISAM file deteriorates as the relation is updated. Updates also cause an ISAM file to lose
the access key sequence, so that retrievals in order of the access key will become slower.
These two problems are overcome by the B+-tree file organization. However, unlike B+-
tree, concurrent access to the index can be easily managed because the index is static.

Computer viruses
COMPUTER VIRUS
A computer virus is a type of computer program that can replicate itself by making copies of
it by making copies of itself without the user's knowledge or consent.
Computer virus spread from following ways
i. Opening the infected email attachment.
ii. By downloading infected programs from the internet.
iii. By using infected floppy disk, pen drives and CDs.
iv. By transferring an infected program over a network and executing it.
Type of computer virus
i) Boot Sector Virus
Boot Sector virus is regarded as one of the most hostile types of virus, a boot sector virus
infects the boot record of a hard or a floppy disk. The virus moves the boot sector data to a
different part of a disk. This virus allows the actual boot sector data to be read as though a
normal start up were occurring.
ii) File Infecting Virus
This type of virus infects program files on a disk. When infected program is launched, the
virus code is also launched. After the virus code has been launched, it will normal load and
execute the program that has been infected.
iii) Multipartite Virus
This virus is the combination of parasitic and boot sector virus and due to this, it is able to
infect both the files or boot sector of a disk. They infect program files and when it is
executed, these viruses affect the boot record.
iv) Macro Virus
These viruses infect the Microsoft Office programs such as Excel, Word, Access and
PowerPoint. When we open the Microsoft program then the virus is loaded and it affects the
normal template or document. Since it is attached in the document, if the infected document
is opened on other computer, it affects the computer too.
v) Script Virus
Script Virus is written in script programming languages, such as VBScript and JavaScript. It
can infect a computer through various scripting environments, such as Windows Help,
Windows installation files and Windows registry files.

The symptoms of computer viruses

i. Programs take long time to load.
ii. Renaming all the files with different names.
iii. Shows unusual error messages on the screen frequently.
iv. Corrupt or deletes system data and programs.\
Anti-virus software
Anti-virus software is a computer program designed to detect and remove viruses from the
computer system.

Most Effective Antivirus

Following are the most popular and effective antivirus from which you can choose one for
your personal computer −

 McAfee Antivirus Plus

 Symantec Norton Antivirus
 Avast Pro Antivirus
 Bitdefender Antivirus Plus
 Kaspersky Anti-Virus
 Avira Antivirus
 Webroot Secure Anywhere Antivirus
 Emsisoft Anti-Malware
 Quick Heal Antivirus
 ESET NOD32 Antivirus

Avoid the virus attacks

i. Scanning the email attachment before executing them.
ii. Use of a good anti-virus program to scan for viruses.
iii. Scanning the disk frequently for viruses.
iv. Not installing the pirated software, especially computer games.
v. Patching up the operating system.

vi. Patching up the client software.

vii. Putting highly secured Passwords and Use of Firewalls.

Computer Numbering systems

The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number system. Decimal
number system is the most common number system. Other popular number systems
include binary number system, octal number system, hexadecimal number system, etc.

Decimal Number System

Decimal number system is a base 10 number system having 10 digits from 0 to 9. This
means that any numerical quantity can be represented using these 10 digits. Decimal number
system is also a positional value system. This means that the value of digits will depend on
its position. Let us take an example to understand this.
Say we have three numbers – 734, 971 and 207. The value of 7 in all three numbers is
different−

 In 734, value of 7 is 7 hundreds or 700 or 7 × 100 or 7 × 102

 In 971, value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7 × 10 or 7 × 101
 In 207, value 0f 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7 × 1 or 7 × 100
The weightage of each position can be represented as follows −

In digital systems, instructions are given through electric signals; variation is done by
varying the voltage of the signal. Having 10 different voltages to implement decimal number
system in digital equipment is difficult. So, many number systems that are easier to
implement digitally have been developed. Let’s look at them in detail.

Binary Number System

The easiest way to vary instructions through electric signals is two-state system – on and off.
On is represented as 1 and off as 0, though 0 is not actually no signal but signal at a lower
voltage. The number system having just these two digits – 0 and 1 – is called binary
number system.
Each binary digit is also called a bit. Binary number system is also positional value system,
where each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as displayed here.

In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least significant bit (LSB) and leftmost
digit is called most significant bit (MSB).

And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its positional
value.
110102 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 0×20
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 2610
Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. Here is a chart for
memory capacity conversion.

 1 byte (B) = 8 bits

 1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes
 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
 1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB
 1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB

Octal Number System

Octal number system has eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Octal number system is also
a positional value system with where each digit has its value expressed in powers of 8, as
shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any octal number is sum of product of each digit with its positional
value.
7268 = 7×82 + 2×81 + 6×80
= 448 + 16 + 6
= 47010

Hexadecimal Number System

Octal number system has 16 symbols – 0 to 9 and A to F where A is equal to 10, B is equal
to 11 and so on till F. Hexadecimal number system is also a positional value system with
where each digit has its value expressed in powers of 16, as shown here −

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each digit with its
positional value.
27FB16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160
= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10
= 1023410

Number System Relationship

The following table depicts the relationship between decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal
number systems.

HEXADECIMAL DECIMAL OCTAL BINARY

0 0 0 0000

1 1 1 0001

2 2 2 0010

3 3 3 0011

4 4 4 0100

5 5 5 0101

6 6 6 0110

7 7 7 0111

8 8 10 1000

9 9 11 1001

A 10 12 1010

B 11 13 1011

C 12 14 1100

D 13 15 1101

E 14 16 1110
 F 15 17 1111

ASCII

Besides numerical data, computer must be able to handle alphabets, punctuation marks,
mathematical operators, special symbols, etc. that form the complete character set of English
language. The complete set of characters or symbols are called alphanumeric codes. The
complete alphanumeric code typically includes −

 26 upper case letters

 26 lower case letters
 10 digits
 7 punctuation marks
 20 to 40 special characters
Now a computer understands only numeric values, whatever the number system used. So all
characters must have a numeric equivalent called the alphanumeric code. The most widely
used alphanumeric code is American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
ASCII is a 7-bit code that has 128 (27) possible codes.