Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

Embedded Systems Design (BEC601)

Module 1

Introduction to Embedded System: What is an Embedded Systems? Embedded systems Vs

General computing systems, History of Embedded Systems, Classification of Embedded systems,
Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems. Purpose of Embedded Systems, The Typical
Embedded System, Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller, Differences between RISC and CISC,
Harvard V/s VonNeumann Processor/Controller Architecture, Big-endian V/s Little-endian
processors, Memory (ROM and RAM types), Sensors & Actuators, The I/O Subsystem – I/O
Devices, Light Emitting Diode (LED), 7Segment LED Display, Optocoupler, Relay, Piezo buzzer,
Push button switch, Communication Interfaces, On-board Communication Interface, External
Communication Interface, Embedded Firmware, Other System Components.

What is an Embedded Systems?

An embedded system is an electrical/electro-mechanical system which is specifically designed for
an application catering to a specific domain.
It is a combination of specialized hardware and firmware (software), which is tailored to meet the
requirements of the application under consideration.
Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly specialized
to the application domain.
Embedded systems are inevitable part of all fields including household appliances,
telecommunications, medical equipment, industrial control, consumer products, etc.
Differentiation between EMBEDDED SYSTEMS vs GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS

Criteria General Computing system Embedded system

Contents A system which is a combination of a A system which is a combination of special
generic hardware and a General Purpose purpose hardware and embedded OS for
Operating System for executing a variety of executing a specific set of applications.
applications.
OS It contains a general-purpose operating It may or not contain an operating system for
system (GPOS). functioning.
Alterations Applications are alterable (programmable) The firmware of the embedded system is
by the user. (re-install the OS and also add preprogrammed and it is non-alterable by the
or remove user applications.) end-user.
Key factor Performance is the key deciding factor in Application specific requirements (like
the selection of the system. Faster is better. performance, power requirements, memory
usage, etc.) are key deciding factors.
Power More Less
Consumption
Response Time Not critical Critical for some applications
Execution Need not be deterministic Deterministic for certain types of ES like
‘Hard Real Time’ systems.
Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 1
 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

History of Embedded Systems

Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), 1963,

• The first recognizably modern embedded system developed by at the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory for Lunar expedition.
• Contains both command module (CM) and Lunar excursion module (LEM).
• Used in real-time by astronaut pilots to collect and provide flight information.
• Automatically control all of the navigational functions of the Apollo spacecraft.
• The Apollo flight computer was the first to use integrated circuits (ICs).
• The computer's RAM was magnetic core memory (4K words) and ROM was implemented
as core rope memory (32K words).
Autonetics D-17 Guidance Computer, 1961 – 1966
• The first mass-produced embedded system developed for Minuteman missile.
• Built from discrete transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory.
• When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new
computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.

Classification of Embedded systems

The classification of embedded system is based on following criteria’s:

1. Based on generation
2. Based on complexity & performance
3. Based on deterministic behaviour
4. Based on triggering
1. Based on generation
1. First generation(1G):
• Built around 8bit microprocessor & microcontroller.
• Simple in hardware circuit & firmware developed.
Examples: Digital telephone keypads.
2. Second generation(2G):
• Built around 16-bit μp & 8-bit μc.
• They are more complex & powerful than 1G μp & μc.
Examples: SCADA systems
3. Third generation(3G):
• Built around 32-bit μp & 16-bit μc.
• Concepts like Digital Signal Processors(DSPs), Application Specific Integrated
Circuits(ASICs) evolved.
Examples: Robotics, Media, etc.
4. Fourth generation:
• Built around 64-bit μp & 32-bit μc.
• The concept of System on Chips (SoC), Multicore Processors evolved.
• Highly complex & very powerful.
Examples: Smart Phones.
2. Based on complexity & performance
1. Small-scale:

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 2

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• Simple in application need

• Performance not time-critical.
• Built around low performance & low cost 8-bit or 16-bit μp/μc.
Example: an electronic toy
2. Medium-scale:
• Slightly complex in hardware & firmware requirement.
• Built around medium performance & low cost 16 or 32 bit μp/μc.
• Usually contain operating system.
Examples: Industrial machines.
3. Large-scale:
• Highly complex hardware & firmware.
• Built around 32 or 64 bit RISC μp/μc or PLDs or Multicore Processors.
• Response is time-critical. Examples: Mission critical applications.
3. Based on deterministic behaviour
• This classification is applicable for “Real Time” systems.
• The task execution behaviour, may be deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Based on execution behaviour, divided into Hard and Soft.
4. Based on triggering
• Embedded systems which are “Reactive” in nature can be based on triggering.
• Reactive systems can be, Event triggered.

Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless.
A few of the important domains and products are listed below:
1. Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
2. Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge, microwave
oven, etc.
3. Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection
alarms, closed circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.
4. Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition
systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer Networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.
9. Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, digital CROs, logic analyzers
PLC systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales
(POS).
11. Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

Purpose of Embedded Systems

Each embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks:
Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 3
 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

1. Data collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data Communication
3. Data (signal) processing
4. Monitoring
5. Control
6. Application specific user interface
1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation:
• An embedded system designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of
data from the external world.
• The term “data” refers all kinds of information, such as text, voice, image, video, electrical
signals and any other measurable quantities.
• Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital (discrete).
• Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
• These actions are purely dependent on the purpose for which the embedded system is
designed.
Example:
• A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded system with data
collection/storage/representation of data.
• Images are captured and the captured image may be stored within the memory of the
camera.
• The captured image can also be presented to the user through a graphic LCD unit.
2. Data Communication:
• Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications from complex
satellite communication systems to simple home networking systems.
• The data collected by an embedded terminal may require transferring of the same to some
other system located remotely.
• The transmission is achieved either by a wire-line medium or by a wire-less medium.
• Wire-line medium was the most common choice in all olden days embedded systems.
• As technology is changing, wireless medium is becoming the standard for data
communication in embedded systems.
Examples: Wireless modules -Bluetooth, Zig-Bee, Wi-Fi, EDGE, GPRS, etc.
Wire-line modules (RS-232C, USB, TCP/IP, PS2,etc).
Data transmission embedded systems- Network hubs, routers, switches, etc.
• Sophisticated functionalities like data packetizing, encrypting and decrypting for data
security, monitoring etc.
3. Data (Signal) Processing:
• The data collected by embedded systems may be used for various kinds of data processing.
• Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec,
transmission applications, etc.
Example: A digital hearing aid is a typical example of an embedded system employing data
processing. Digital hearing aid improves the hearing capacity of hearing impaired persons.
4. Monitoring:
• Almost all embedded products coming under the medical domain are with monitoring
functions only.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 4

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors.
• They cannot impose control over variables.
Example: Electro cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heartbeat of a patient.
• The machine is intended to do the monitoring of the heartbeat of a patient but it cannot
impose control over the heartbeat.
• The sensors used in ECG are the different electrodes connected to the patient’s body.
• Other examples, like digital CRO, digital multi-meters, logic analyzers., etc. used in control
& instrumentation applications.
5. Control:
• Embedded systems with control functionalities impose control over some variables
according to the changes in input variables.
• A system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators.
• Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental variable
or measuring variable.
• The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in the
input variable.
Example: Air conditioner system used in our home to control the room temperature to a
specified limit.
• An air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature.
• The air compressor unit acts as the actuator.
6. Applications specific user interface
• Buttons, switches, keypad, lights, speakers, display units, etc. are application-specific user
interfaces.
Example: Mobile phone is an example of application specific user interface.
• In mobile phone, the user interface is provided through the keypad, graphic LCD module,
system speaker, vibration alert, etc.
The Typical Embedded System

A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller, which acts as the master brain of the
system as shown in block diagram.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 5

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

Embedded hardware/software systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable or to

manipulate the state of devices by sending signals through actuators connected to the output ports
of the system with response to the input signals by Sensors connected at input ports.

The Memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm and other important
configuration details.

For Example, Embedded system is designed for any handheld application, such as a mobile
handset application, then the system should contain user interfaces like a keyboard for performing
input operations and display unit for providing users the status of various activities in progress.

Core of Embedded Systems:

Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a central core.
The core of the embedded system falls into any of the following categories:
1. General purpose and Domain Specific Processors
I. Microprocessors
II. Microcontrollers
III. Digital Signal Processors
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuits. (ASIC)
3. Programmable logic devices (PLD’s)
4. Commercial off-the-shelf components (COTs)
1. GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC PROCESSOR.
Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
The core may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor, depending
on the domain and application.
I. Microprocessors
• A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of
performing ALU operations according to a pre-defined set of Instructions.
• In general, the CPU contains the ALU, Control Unit and Working registers.
• Microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of other hardware
like Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc., for proper functioning.

II. Microcontrollers
• A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General-purpose Register, On Chip FLASH memory for program storage, Timer and
Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports.
• Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors.
• Microcontroller can be general purpose or application specific.
• Microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent working,
they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors.
• Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 6

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

III. Digital Signal Processors

• DSP are powerful special purpose microprocessor designed to meet the computational
demands and power constraints.
• DSP are 2 to 3 times faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal processing
applications.
• DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas
general purpose processor implement the algorithm in software depends primarily on
the clock.
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):
• A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application.
• It is used as replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.
• ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system
development cost.
• ASIC consumes very small area in the total system
• Design of smaller systems with high capabilities/functionalities.
• ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated for a
particular customer application.
3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):
Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost
every other function a system must perform.
Programmable logic devices (PLDs) contain set of functions which can be re-configured
to perform any number of functions at any time.
• PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design.
• Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test
their logic designs in PLD based design.
• The design can be quickly programmed into a device, and immediately tested in a live
circuit.
4. Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):
• A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) is one which is used „as-is‟
• COTS are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and interoperability with
existing system components.
Examples: Remote Controlled Toy Car control unit.

Notes:
Explain Digital Signal Processor
• DSP are powerful special purpose microprocessor designed to meet the computational
demands and power constraints.
• DSP are 2 to 3 times faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal processing
applications.
• DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general
purpose processor implement the algorithm in software depends primarily on the clock.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 7

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• DSP includes following key units:

1. Program memory: It is a memory for storing the program required by DSP to
process the data.
2. Data memory: It is a working memory for storing temporary variables and
data/signal to be processed.
3. Computational engine: It performs the signal processing in accordance with
computational engine incorporated many specialized arithmetic units and each of
them operates simultaneously to increase the execution speed.
It also includes multiple hardware shifters for shifting operands and saves
execution time.
4. I/O unit: It acts as an interface between the outside world and DSP. It is
responsible for capturing signals to be processed and delivering the processed
signals.
Examples: Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia
applications, SOP(Sum of Products) calculation, convolution, FFT(Fast Fourier
Transform), DFT(Discrete Fourier Transform), etc., are some of the operation performed
by DSP.
Explain the Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):
Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost
every other function a system must perform.
Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories,
1. Fixed
2. Programmable.
1. Fixed logic device, a permanent circuit, perform one function or set of functions - once
manufactured, they cannot be changed.
2. Programmable logic devices (PLDs) contain set of functions which can be re-
configured to perform any number of functions at any time.
• PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design.
• Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test
their logic designs in PLD based design.
• The design can be quickly programmed into a device, and immediately tested in a live
circuit.
Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) – CPLDs and FPGA
1. Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and
2. Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs) are the two major types of
programmable logic devices
FPGA:
• FPGA is an IC designed to be configured by a designer after manufacturing.
• FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and the highest
performance.
• Logic gate is Medium to high density ranging from 1K to 500K system gates

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 8

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• These advanced FPGA, offer features such as built-in hardwired processors, substantial
amounts of memory, clock management systems, and support for many of the latest,
very fast device-to-device signaling technologies.
• Examples: Data processing and storage, to instrumentation, telecommunications, and
digital signal processing etc.
Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD):
• A complex programmable logic device (CPLD) is a programmable logic device with
complexity between that of PALs and FPGAs, and architectural features of both.
• CPLDs, by contrast, offer much smaller amounts of logic - up to about 10,000 gates.
• CPLDs offer very predictable timing characteristics and ideal for critical control
applications.
• CPLDs, making them ideal for cost-sensitive, battery-operated, portable applications
such as mobile phones and digital handheld assistants.
Advantages OF PLDs:
• PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during design cycle.
• PLDSs do not require long lead times for prototype or production.
• PLDs do not require customers to pay for large NRE costs and purchase expensive
mask sets
• PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts required when they need them.
• PLDs are reprogrammable.
• Able to add new features or upgrade.

Explain Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):

• A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) is one which is used „as-is‟
• COTS are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and interoperability with
existing system components.
Examples: Remote Controlled Toy Car control unit.
• A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or Application
Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific Integrated Chip
(ASIC)/Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or Programmable Logic Device
(PLD).
Advantages of COTS:
1) Ready to use
2) Easy to integrate
3) Reduces development time
Disadvantages of COTS:
1) No operational or manufacturing standard (all proprietary)
2) Vendor or manufacturer may discontinue production of a particular COTS product

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 9

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

Differences between Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller:

[Link]. Microprocessor Microcontroller

1. A silicon chip representing a Central A microcontroller that contains a CPU,
Processing Unit (CPU), which is RAM, Special and General purpose
capable of performing arithmetic as Register, On Chip ROM/FLASH
well as logical operations according to memory for program storage, Timer
a pre-defined set of Instructions and Interrupt control units and
dedicated I/O ports
2 It is a dependent unit. It requires the It is a self contained unit and it doesn’t
combination of other chips like Timers, require
Program and data memory chips, external Interrupt Controller, Timer,
Interrupt controllers etc for functioning. UART etc for its functioning

3 Most of the time general purpose in Mostly application oriented or domain

design and operation specific
4 Doesn’t contain built in I/O Ports Contain built-in I/O Ports
5 Limited power saving options Includes lot of power saving features
compared to
microcontrollers

Differences between Harvard architecture and Von-Neumann architecture

[Link]. Harvard architecture Von-Neumann architecture

1

2 It has separate buses for instruction as well as It shares single common bus for
data fetching. instruction and data
fetching.
3 Easier to pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance as compared to
achieve. Harvard
Architecture
4 Comparatively high cost. It is cheaper.
5 Since data memory and program memory are Accidental corruption of program
stored physically in different locations, no memory may occur if data memory and
chances exist for accidental corruption of program memory are stored physically in
program memory. the same chip.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 10

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

Differences between CISC and RISC

[Link]. RISC CISC

1 Reduced Instruction Set Computing Complex Instruction Set Computing

2 It contains lesser number of It contains greater number of

instructions. instructions.

3 Instruction pipelining and increased Instruction pipelining feature does not

execution speed. exist.

4 Orthogonal instruction set(allows Non-orthogonal set(all instructions are

each instruction to operate on any not allowed to operate on any register
register and use any addressing and use any addressing mode.
mode.

5 Operations are performed on Operations are performed either on

registers only, only memory registers or
operations are load and store. memory depending on instruction.

6 A larger number of registers are The number of general purpose registers

available. are very limited

7 It is single, fixed length instruction. It is variable length instruction.

8 Less silicon usage and pin count. More silicon usage since more additional
 decoder logic is required to implement
the complex instruction decoding.

9 With Harvard Architecture. Can be Harvard or Von- Neumann

Architecture.

Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors:

• Endian-ness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor
operations in a multi byte system.
• Data can be stored in memory in two different ways
1. Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the higher-order byte at the highest address.
2. Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the lower-order byte at the highest address.

Differentiate between ASIC and ASSP.

ASIC (Application Specified Integrated Circuit)
• It is a customized integrated circuit.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 11

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• It is usually used by a person or company for a very limited usage.

• Developed for only the person or company who orders it can use it.
• It is not useful for other usages, for example, an IC designed for cellular phones, no other
products can use it.
• Only volume production of ASICs for one product can make sense which means low unit
cost for high volume products, otherwise the cost is not efficient.
• Can exploit parallelism to achieve high performance and Low power consumption.
ASSP (Application Specified Standard Processor)
• It is an integrated circuit that implements a specific function that appeals to a wide market,
which means its function is specified for example a motor drive chip.
• It is used widely, not limited to only one customer as ASIC does.
• ASSPs are available as off-the-shelf component which means you can go to electronic
shops and just buy it directly from the "shelf".
• It addresses the product space between ASIC and generic processor based products
• Extremely useful for low to medium volume applications because it help reduce cost and
design overheads.

Memory:
Memory is an important part of an embedded system.
Two types of memory,
1. Program Storage Memory (ROM)
2. Data memory (RAM).
Certain Embedded contain built in program memory and data memory and this memory is
known as on-chip memory
Certain Embedded do not contain sufficient memory inside the chip and requires external
memory called off-chip memory or external memory.
Memory Program Storage Memory:
• Stores the program instructions
• Retains its contents even after the power to it is turned off.
• It is generally known as Non-volatile storage memory
• Depending on the fabrication, erasing and programming techniques they are classified into
1. PROM(OTP)
2. Masked ROM(MROM)
3. EPROM
4. EEPROM
5. NVRAM
6. FLASH
1. Masked ROM (MROM):
• One-time programmable memory.
• Uses hardwired technology for storing data.
• The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process according
to the data provided by the end user.
• The primary advantage of MROM is low cost for high volume production.
• MROM is the least expensive type of solid state memory.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 12

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the device
firmware against firmware upgrades.
• The MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit information.
2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) / (OTP):
• It is not pre-programmed by the manufacturer.
• The end user is responsible for Programming these devices.
• PROM/OTP has poly-silicon wires arranged in a matrix, these wires can be functionally
viewed as fuses.
• PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses according to the bit pattern to be
stored.
• Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1”.
• Fuses which are blown/burned represents a logic “0”.
• OTP is widely used for commercial production of embedded systems whose proto-
typed versions are proven and the code is finalized.
• It is a low cost solution for commercial production.
• OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

3. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):

• Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip.
• During development phase, code is subject to continuous changes.
• EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET
• Bit information is stored by using an EPROM Programmer, which applies high voltage
to charge the floating gate
• EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information.
• If the window is exposed to Ultra violet rays for a fixed duration, the entire memory
will be erased
• Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs to be
taken out of the circuit board and needs to be put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30
minutes
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):
• The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using electrical
signals at the register/Byte level
• They can be erased and reprogrammed within the circuit
• These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a few
milliseconds
• It provides greater flexibility for system design
• The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard ROM
(A few kilobytes).
5. Program Storage Memory – FLASH
• FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology.
• FALSH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology used
in todays embedded designs

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 13

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard

ROMs
• FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages
• FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors
• The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the
other sectors or pages
• Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming
• The typical erasable capacity of FLASH is of the order of a few 1000 cycles.

Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM) :

• RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor
• RAM is volatile, meaning when the power is turned off, all the contents are destroyed
• RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory location
directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations to reach
the desired memory position (i.e. Random Access of memory location) SRAM, DRAM
and NVRAM.
1. Static RAM (SRAM):
• Static RAM stores data in the form of Voltage.
• They are made up of flip-flops
• In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using 6 transistors (or 6
MOSFETs).
• Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop) part of the memory cell
and 2 for controlling the access.
• Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available.
• SRAM is fast in operation due to its resistive networking and switching capabilities.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 14

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. They are made up of MOS transistor
gates
• The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to SRAM
• The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as charge it gets leaked off with
time and to prevent this they need to be refreshed periodically
• Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation. The refresh
operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval

3. Non Volatile RAM (NVRAM):

• Random access memory with battery backup
• It contains Static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the
memory in the absence of external power supply
• The memory and battery are packed together in a single package
• NVRAM is used for the non-volatile storage of results of operations or for setting up of
flags etc
• The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years
• DS1744 from Maxim/Dallas is an example for 32KB NVRAM

Different Between SRAM vs DRAM

Memory selection for Embedded Systems:

• Selection of suitable memory is very much essential step in high performance applications,
because the challenges and limitations of the system performance.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 15

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• Systems memory requirement depend primarily on the nature of the application that is
planned to run on the system.
• Memory performance and capacity requirement for low cost systems are small, whereas
memory throughput can be the most critical requirement in a complex, high performance
system.
• Following are the factors that are to be considered while selecting the memory devices
1. Speed
2. Data storage size and capacity
3. Bus width
4. Power consumption
5. Cost
Sensors & Actuators:
• Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world
• The changes in the system environment or variables are detected by the sensors connected
to the input port of the embedded system.
• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will produce
some changes in controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the desired value.
• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the embedded system.
Sensor:
• A transducer device which converts energy from one form to another for any measurement
or control purpose.
• Sensors acts as input device
Example: Hall Effect Sensor which measures the distance between the cushion and magnet in
the Smart Running shoes from adidas
Example: IR, humidity, PIR(passive infrared), ultrasonic, piezoelectric, smoke sensors.
Actuator:
• A form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to
corresponding physical action (motion).
• Actuator acts as an output device
Example: Micro motor actuator which adjusts the position of the cushioning element in the
Smart Running shoes from adidas
The I/O Subsystem:
• The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the embedded
system with external world
• The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the Input and
output ports respectively of the embedded system
• The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the Input ports, instead they may be interfaced
through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC, Optocouplers etc
Light Emitting Diode (LED):

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 16

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an output device for visual indication in any embedded
system
• LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals or situations
• Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions like „Device ON‟,
„Battery low‟ or „Charging of battery‟ for a battery operated handheld embedded devices
• LED is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a cathode.
• For proper functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal of
the supply voltage and cathode to the –ve terminal of supply voltage
• The current flowing through the LED must limited to a value below the maximum current
that it can conduct.
• A resister is used in series between the power supply and the resistor to limit the current
through the LED
7-Segment LED Display:

• The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric characters
• It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form.
• Out of the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters
• The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named as DP
• The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters
• The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
1. Common anode and 2. Common cathode
• In the Common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected
commonly whereas in the Common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a
common cathode line.
• LED segment anode or cathode is connected to the Port of the controller in the order „A‟
segment to the Least significant port Pin and DP segment to the most significant Port Pin.
• The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the maximum
value supported by the LED display unit
• The typical value for the current falls within the range of 20mA

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 17

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a current limiting resistor
to the anode or cathode of each segment
Opto-coupler:

• Optocoupler is a solid state device to isolate two parts of a circuit.

• Optocoupler combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing (package)
• In electronic circuits, optocoupler is used for suppressing interference in data
communication, circuit isolation, High voltage separation, simultaneous separation and
intensification signal etc
• Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output circuits

Stepper Motor:
• Stepper motor is an electro mechanical device which generates discrete displacement
(motion) in response to dc electrical signals
• It differs from the normal dc motor in its operation.
• The dc motor produces continuous rotation on applying dc voltage whereas a stepper motor
produces discrete rotation in response to the dc voltage applied to it
• Stepper motors are widely used in industrial embedded applications, consumer electronic
products and robotics control systems
• The paper feed mechanism of a printer/fax makes use of stepper motors for its functioning.
• Based on the coil winding arrangements, a two phase stepper motor is classified into
1. Unipolar
2. Bipolar
• Unipolar: A unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase.
The direction of rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor is controlled by
changing the direction of current flow.
Current in one direction flows through one coil and in the opposite direction flows through
the other coil.
It is easy to shift the direction of rotation by just switching the terminals to which the coils
are connected.

• Bipolar: A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase.

For reversing the motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed
dynamically.
It requires complex circuitry for current flow reversal
Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 18
 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

Relay:

• An electro mechanical device which acts as dynamic path selectors for signals and power.
• The “Relay” unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a
metal armature with one or more contacts.
• Relay works on electromagnetic principle.
• When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in turn
generates a magnetic field.

• The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point.
• The movement of the contact point changes the power/signal flow path.
• The Relay is normally controlled using a relay driver circuit connected to the port pin of
the processor/controller
• A transistor can be used as the relay driver. The transistor can be selected depending on
the relay driving current requirements.
Piezo Buzzer:
• It is a piezoelectric device for generating audio indications in embedded applications.
• A Piezo buzzer contains a piezoelectric diaphragm which produces audible sound in
response to the voltage applied to it.
• Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types
1. Self-driving
2. External driving
• Self-driving contains are the necessary components to generate sound at a predefined tone.
• External driving piezo Buzzers supports the generation of different tones.
• The tone can be varied by applying a variable pulse train to the piezoelectric buzzer.
• A Piezo Buzzer can be directly interfaced to the port pin of the processor/Controller.
Push button switch:
• Push Button switch is an input device.
• Push button switch comes in two configurations, namely “Push to Make” and “Push to
Break”
• The switch is normally in the open state and it makes a circuit contact when it is pushed or
pressed in the “Push to Make” configuration.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 19

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

•In the “Push to Break‟ configuration, the switch normally in the closed state and it breaks
the circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed
• The push button stays in the “closed” (For Push to Make type) or “opens” (For Push to
Break type) state as long as it is kept in the pushed state and it breaks/makes the circuit
connection when it is released.
• Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse
Communication Interface:
• Communication interface is essential for communicating with various subsystems of the
embedded system and with the external world
• The communication interface can be viewed in two different perspectives; namely;
1. Onboard Communication Interface
2. External Communication Interface
1. On board communication interfaces:
• The Communication channel which interconnects the various components within an
embedded product is referred as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard
Communication Interface)
• These are classified into
1. I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit) Bus
2. SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Bus
3. UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
4. 1-Wires Interface
5. Parallel Interface

1. Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C):

• It is synchronous, Bi-directional, half duplex , two wire serial interface bus
• Developed by Phillips semiconductors in 1980
• It comprises of two buses :
1. Serial clock –SCL
2. Serial Data – SDA
• SCL generates synchronization clock pulses
• SDA transmits data serially across devices
• I2C is a shared bus system to which many devices can be connected
• Devices connected by I2C can act as either master or slave
• The master device is responsible for controlling communication by initiating/ terminating
data transfer.
• Devices acting as slave wait for commands from the master and respond to those
commands.
Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 20
 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

The sequence of operation for communicating with an I2C slave device is:
1. Master device pulls the clock line (SCL) of the bus to “HIGH”
2. Master device pulls the data line (SDA) „LOW‟, when the SCL line is at logic “HIGH”
3. Master sends the address (7 bit or 10 bit wide) of the „Slave‟ device to which it wants to
communicate, over the SDA line.
4. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the slave device whose address is sent on the
bus along with the Read/Write operation command.
5. The Slave device with the address requested by the master device responds by sending an
acknowledge bit (Bit value =1) over the SDA line
6. Upon receiving the acknowledge bit, master sends the 8bit data to the slave device over
SDA line, if the requested operation is „Write to device‟.
7. If the requested operation is „Read from device‟, the slave device sends data to the master
over the SDA line.
8. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the device upon byte transfer complete for
a write operation and sends an acknowledge bit to the slave device for a read operation
9. Master terminates the transfer by pulling the SDA line „HIGH‟ when the clock line SCL
is at logic „HIGH‟ (Indicating the „STOP‟ condition).

Serial Peripheral Interface(SPI):

• SPI is a synchronous bi-direction full duplex four wire serial interface bus.
• It is a single master multi-slave system.
• It requires four signal lines for communication,
1. Master in slave out(MISO): Carrying data from master to slave devices.
2. Master out slave in(MOSI): Carrying data to master from slave devices.
3. Serial Clock(SCK): for generating synchronous serial clock.
4. Select Slave(SS): for selecting slave device to communicate with master.
• The master device is responsible for generating the clock signal.
Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 21
 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• Master device selects the required slave device by slave select signal “LOW”.
• The serial data transmission through SPI Bus is fully configurable.
• SPI devices contain certain set of registers for holding these configurations.
• The Serial Peripheral Control Register holds the various configuration parameters like
master/slave selection for the device, baud-rate selection for communication, clock signal
control etc.
• The status register holds the status of various conditions for transmission and reception.
• SPI works on the principle of „Shift Register‟.
• The master and slave devices contain a special shift register for the data to transmit or
receive.

1-wire interface (protocol):

• 1-Wire is a device communications bus system designed by Dallas Semiconductor Corp.
• Provides low-speed data, signaling, and power over a single conductor.
• 1-Wire is similar in concept to I²C, but with lower data rates and longer range.
• It is typically used to communicate with small inexpensive devices such as digital
thermometers and weather instruments.
• One distinctive feature of the bus is the possibility of using only two wires: data and
ground. To accomplish this, 1-Wire devices include an 800 pF capacitor to store charge,
and to power the device during periods when the data line is active
• There is always one master in overall charge, which may be a PC or a microcontroller.
• The master initiates activity on the bus, simplifying the avoidance of collisions on the bus.
• Protocols are built into the software to detect collisions.
• After a collision, the master retries the required communication.
• Many devices can share the same bus.
• Each device on the bus has a unique 64-bit serial number.
• The least significant byte of the serial number is an 8-bit number that tells the type of the
device.
• The most significant byte is a standard (for the 1-wire bus) 8-bit CRC.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 22

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter( UART):

• UART is asynchronous type of serial communication.
• In UART communication, two UARTs communicate directly with each other(TXD and
RXD pins).
• The transmitting UART converts parallel data from a controlling device into serial form,
transmits it in serial to the receiving UART, which then converts the serial data back into
parallel data for the receiving device.
• Only two wires are needed to transmit data between two UARTs.
• 8250 UART chip is considered as standard setting UART.

PARALLEL COMMUNICATION:

• In data transmission, parallel communication is a method of conveying multiple binary

digits (bits) simultaneously.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 23

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• The communication channel is the number of electrical conductors used at the physical
layer to convey bits.
• Parallel communication implies more than one such conductor.
• For example, an 8-bit parallel channel will convey eight bits (or a byte) simultaneously,
whereas a serial channel would convey those same bits sequentially, one at a time.
• Parallel communication is and always has been widely used within integrated circuits, in
peripheral buses, and in memory devices such as RAM.

External Communication Interface:

• The Product level communication interface‟ (External Communication Interface) is
responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or modules
• It is classified into two types
1. Wired communication interface
2. Wireless communication interface
1. Wired communication interface:
• Wired communication interface is an interface used to transfer information over a wired
network.
• It is classified into following types.
1. RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485
2. USB
1. RS-232C:
• RS-232 C (Recommended Standard number 232, revision C from the Electronic Industry
Association) is a legacy, full duplex, wired, asynchronous serial communication interface
• RS-232 extends the UART communication signals for external data communication.
• UART uses the standard TTL/CMOS logic for bit transmission whereas RS232 use the
EIA standard for bit transmission.
• As per EIA standard, a logic „0‟ is represented with voltage between +3 and +25V and a
logic „1‟ is represented with voltage between -3 and -25V.
• In EIA standard, logic „0‟ is known as „Space‟ and logic „1‟ as „Mark‟.
• As per the EIA standard RS-232 C supports baud-rates up to 20Kbps (Upper limit
19.2Kbps).
• The commonly used baud-rates by devices are 300bps, 1200bps, 2400bps, 9600bps,
11.52Kbps and 19.2Kbps.
• The RS232 interface define various handshaking and control signals for communication
apart from the „Transmit‟ and „Receive‟ signal lines for data communication
• RS-232 supports two different types of connectors, namely; DB-9: 9-Pin connector and
DB-25: 25-Pin connector.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 24

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

Note:
• RS-232 is a point-to-point communication interface and the devices involved in RS-232
communication are called „Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)‟ and „Data Communication
Equipment (DCE)‟.
• If no data flow control is required, only TXD and RXD signal lines and ground line (GND)
are required for data transmission and reception.
• The RXD pin of DCE should be connected to the TXD pin of DTE and vice versa for
proper data transmission.
• If hardware data flow control is required for serial transmission, various control signal lines
of the RS-232 connection are used appropriately.
• The control signals are implemented mainly for modem communication and some of them
may be irrelevant for other type of devices.
• The Request to Send (RTS) and Clear To Send (CTS) signals co-ordinate the
communication between DTE and DCE.
• Whenever the DTE has a data to send, it activates the RTS line and if the DCE is ready to
accept the data, it activates the CTS line.
• The Data Terminal Ready (DTR) signal is activated by DTE when it is ready to accept
data.
• Ring Indicator (RI) is a modem specific signal line for indicating an incoming call on the
telephone line.
• The Data Set Ready (DSR) is activated by DCE when it is ready for establishing a
communication link.
• DTR should be in the activated state before the activation of DSR.
• The Data Carrier Detect (DCD) is used by the DCE to indicate the DTE that a good signal
is being received.
2. USB (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS):
• The USB is a 4 wire bus that supports communication between a host and a
Peripheral.
• It support maximum of 127number of peripherals.
• The host controller allocates the bandwidth through a token based protocol.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 25

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• The bus supports hot plugging, un-plugging and dynamic configuration.

• All transactions are initiated by the host controller.
• There are 4 types of transfer, endpoints.
1. The control transfers are used to configure the device.
2. The interrupt transfers are used for periodic data transfer.
3. The bulk transfers are used when rate of transfer is not critical.
4. The isochronous transfers have guaranteed delivery time but no error
correction.
• The status of a completed USB transfer or error condition is indicated via status
registers.
• An interrupt is also generated if enabled.
• The DMA controller transfers data between the endpoint buffer and the USB
RAM.

IEEE 1394 (Firewire):

• IEEE 1394 (Firewire) is a wired, isochronous high speed serial communication bus. It is
also known as High Performance Serial Bus (HPSB).
• 1394 is a popular communication interface for connecting embedded devices like Digital
Camera, Camcorder, Scanners to desktop computers for data transfer and storage.
• Unlike USB interface, IEEE 1394 doesn’t require a host for communicating between
devices.
• Example, you can directly connect a scanner with a printer for printing.
• The data rate supported by 1394 is far higher than the one supported by USB 2.0 interface.
• The 1394 hardware implementation is much costlier than USB implementation.

2. Wireless communication interface:

• Wireless communication interface is an interface used to transmission of
information over a distance without help of wires, cables or any other forms of
electrical conductors.
• They are basically classified into following types
1. Infrared
2. Bluetooth
3. Wi-Fi
4. Zigbee

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 26

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

5. GPRS
1. INFRARED:
• Infrared is a certain region in the light spectrum
• Ranges from .7μ to 1000μ or .1mm
• Broken into near, mid, and far infrared
• One step up on the light spectrum from visible light
• Measure of heat
IR transmission:

• The transmitter of an IR LED inside its circuit, which emits infrared light for every electric
pulse given to it.
• This pulse is generated as a button on the remote is pressed, thus completing the circuit,
providing bias to the LED.
• The LED on being biased emits light of the wavelength of 940nm as a series of pulses,
corresponding to the button pressed.
• However since along with the IR LED many other sources of infrared light such as us
human beings, light bulbs, sun, etc, the transmitted information can be interfered.
• A solution to this problem is by modulation. The transmitted signal is modulated using a
carrier frequency of 38 KHz (or any other frequency between 36 to 46 KHz).
• The IR LED is made to oscillate at this frequency for the time duration of the pulse. The
information or the light signals are pulse width modulated and are contained in the 38 KHz
frequency.
• IR supports data rates ranging from 9600bits/second to 16Mbps
• Serial infrared: 9600bps to 115.2 kbps
• Medium infrared: 0.576Mbps to 1.152 Mbps
• Fast infrared: 4Mbps
2. BLUETOOTH:
• Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for short distances (using short-wavelength
UHF band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz)for exchanging data over radio waves.
• Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless
alternative to RS- 232 data cables.
• Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency- hopping spread spectrum.
• Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79
designated Bluetooth channels.
• Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz.
• It usually performs 800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH)
enabled
• Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master- slave structure.
• One master may communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 27

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• All devices share the master's clock.

• Packet exchange is based on the basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at312.5 μs
intervals.
• The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master.
3. Wi-Fi:

• Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to
provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections
• Wi-Fi follows the IEEE 802.11 standard
• Wi-Fi is intended for network communication and it supports Internet Protocol (IP) based
communication
• Wi-Fi based communications require an intermediate agent called Wi-Fi router/Wireless
Access point to manage the communications.
• The Wi-Fi router is responsible for restricting the access to a network, assigning IP address
to devices on the network, routing data packets to the intended devices on the network.
• Wi-Fi enabled devices contain a wireless adaptor for transmitting and receiving data in the
form of radio signals through an antenna.
• Wi-Fi operates at 2.4GHZ or 5GHZ of radio spectrum and they co-exist with other ISM
band devices like Bluetooth.
• A Wi-Fi network is identified with a Service Set Identifier (SSID). A Wi-Fi device can
connect to a network by selecting the SSID of the network and by providing the credentials
if the network is security enabled
• Wi-Fi networks implements different security mechanisms for authentication and data
transfer.
• Wireless Equivalency Protocol (WEP), Wireless Protected Access (WPA) etc., are some
of the security mechanisms supported by Wi-Fi networks in data communication.
4. ZIGBEE:
• Zigbee is an IEEE 802.15.4-based specification for a suite of high level communication
protocols used to create personal area networks with small, low-power digital radios, such
as for home automation, medical device data collection, and other low-power low-
bandwidth needs, designed for small scale projects which need wireless connection.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 28

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• Hence, zigbee is a low-power, low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area)
wireless ad hoc network.
• The technology defined by the zigbee specification is intended to be simpler and less
expensive than other wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or Wi-
Fi.
• Applications include wireless light switches, electrical meters with in-home-displays,
traffic management systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment that require
short-range low- rate wireless data transfer.
• Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10– 100 meters line-of-sight,
depending on power output and environmental characteristics.
• Zigbee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing data through a mesh
network of intermediate devices to reach more distant ones.
• Zigbee devices falls under any one of the following zigbee device cetagiries,

1. Zigbee Coordinator:
The zigbee coordinator acts as the root of the zigbee network.
The ZC is responsible for initiating the Zigbee network and it has the capability to store
information about the network.
2. Zigbee Router:
Responsible for passing information from device to another device or to another ZR.
3. Zigbee end device:
End device containing zigbee functionality for data communication. It can talk only
with a ZR or ZC and doesn’t have the capability to act as a mediator for transferring
data from one device to another.
o Zigbee supports an operating distance of up to 100 metres at a data rate of 20 to
250 Kbps.
5. General Packet Radio Service(GPRS):
• General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service on the
2G and 3G cellular communication system's global system for mobile communications
(GSM).
• GPRS was originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) GPRS usage is typically charged based on volume of data transferred, contrasting
with circuit switched data, which is usually billed per minute of connection time.
• Sometimes billing time is broken down to every third of a minute. Usage above the bundle
cap is charged per megabyte, speed limited, or disallowed.
Services offered:

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 29

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• GPRS extends the GSM Packet circuit switched data capabilities and makes the following
services possible:
1. SMS messaging and broadcasting
2. "Always on" internet access
3. Multimedia messaging service (MMS)
4. Push-to-talk over cellular (PoC)
5. Instant messaging and presence-wireless village Internet applications for smart devices
through wireless application protocol (WAP).
6. Point-to-point (P2P) service: inter-networking with the Internet (IP).
7. Point-to-multipoint (P2M) service: point-to- multipoint multicast and point-to-
multipoint group calls.
Reset Circuit:
• The reset circuit is essential to ensure that the device is not operating at a voltage level
where the device is not guaranteed to operate, during system power ON.
• The reset signal brings the internal registers and the different hardware systems of the
processor/controller to a known state and starts the firmware execution from the reset
vector.
• The reset signal can be either
1. Active high :The processor undergoes reset when the reset pin of the processor is at
logic high
2. Active low: The processor undergoes reset when the reset pin of the processor is at
logic low.
• Since the processor operation is synchronized to a clock signal, the reset pulse should be
wide enough to give time for the clock oscillator to stabilize before the internal reset state
starts.
• Some microprocessors/controllers contain built-in internal reset circuitry and they don’t
require external reset circuitry.

• The reset pulse width can be adjusted by changing the resistance value R and capacitance
value C.
Brown-out Protection Circuit:
• The brown-out protection circuit prevents the processor/controller from unexpected
program execution behavior when the supply voltage to the processor/controller falls below
a specified voltage.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 30

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• It is essential for battery powered devices since greater chances for voltage drops below
threshold.

• Zener diode Dz and transistor Q forms the heart of this circuit.

• Transistor conducts always when supply voltage vcc is greater then sum of VBE and Vz.
• Transistor stops conducting when supply voltage falls below the sum of VBE and Vz.
• Zener diode required voltage for setting the low threshold value for Vcc.
• Value of R1, R2 and R3 can be selected based on electrical characteristics.

Oscillator:
• The Oscillator unit generates clock signals for synchronizing the operations of the
processor.
• The speed of the operation of a processor is primarily dependent on the clock.
• Certain processor/controllers contain built in oscillators.
• Total system power consumption is directly proportional to the clock frequency.
• Accuracy of program execution depends on the accuracy of the clock signal.

Real-Time Clock (RTC):

• Real-Time Clock (RTC) is a system component responsible for keeping track of time.
• RTC holds information like current time (in hours, minutes and seconds) in 12 hour/24
hour format, date, month, year, day of the week, etc. and supplies timing reference to the
system.
• RTC is intended to function even in the absence of power.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 31

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• The RTC chip contains a microchip for holding the time and date related information and
backup battery cell for functioning in the absence of power, in a single IC package.
• The RTC chip is interfaced to the processor or controller of the embedded system. For
Operating System based embedded devices, a timing reference is essential for
synchronizing the operations of the OS kernel.

Watchdog Timer:
• A watchdog is to monitor the firmware execution and reset the system
processor/microcontroller when the program execution hangs up or generates an Interrupt
in case the execution time for a task is exceeding the maximum allowed limit.
• If the firmware execution doesn’t complete due to malfunctioning, within the time required
by the watchdog to reach the maximum count, the counter will generate a reset pulse and
this will reset the processor (if it is connected to the reset line of the processor).

• Most of the processors implement watchdog as a built-in component and provides status
register to control the watchdog timer (like enabling and disabling watchdog functioning)
and watchdog timer register for writing the count value. If the processor/controller doesn’t
contain a built in watchdog timer, the same can be implemented using an external watchdog
timer IC circuit.
PCB and Passive Components:
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is the backbone of every embedded system. After finalizing
the components and the inter-connection among them, a schematic design is created and
according to the schematic PCB is fabricated.
• PCS acts as a platform for mounting all the necessary components as per the design
requirement.
• Also it acts as a platform for testing your embedded firmware. You can also find some
passive electronic components like resistor, capacitor, diodes, etc. on your board.
• They are the co-workers of various chips contained in your embedded hardware.
• They are very essential for the proper functioning of your embedded system.
Software Architecture:
Embedded firmware:
• Embedded firmware refers to the control algorithm and/or the configuration settings that
an developer dumps into the code memory of the embedded system.
• It is an un-avoidable part of an embedded system.
• There are various methods available for developing the embedded firmware.
• They are listed below:
1. Write the program in high level languages like Embedded C/C++ using an Integrated
Development Environment.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 32

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

2. Write the program in Assembly language using the instructions supported by your
application’s target processor/controller.
Operating System Basics:
• The operating system provides an infrastructure to control applications and manage
hardware system resources.
• Many embedded systems do not require a full operating system.
• Divide operating systems into two main categories:
1. Real-time operating systems (RTOSs) and
2. Platform operating systems.
1. Real-time operating systems (RTOSs):
• RTOSs provide guaranteed response times to events.
• Different operating systems have different amounts of control over the system response
time.
1. A hard real-time application requires a guaranteed response to work at all.
2. A soft real-time application requires a good response time, but the performance
degrades more gracefully if the response time overruns.
2. Platform Operating System:
• Platform operating systems require a memory management unit to manage large, non-real
time applications and tend to have secondary storage.
• The Linux operating system is a typical example of a platform operating system.

Characteristics and role of RTOS in embedded systems:

Roles of RTOS:
• Operating Systems, which are deployed in embedded systems demanding real-time
response
• Deterministic in execution behavior. Consumes only known amount of time for kernel
applications
• Implements scheduling policies for executing the highest priority task/application always
• Implements policies and rules concerning time-critical allocation of a system’s resources
Characteristics of RTOS in ES:
• An application's requirements define the requirements of its underlying RTOS. Some of
the more common attributes are
1. Reliability
2. Predictability
3. performance,
4. compactness, and
5. scalability.
1. Reliability:
• Embedded systems must be reliable.
• Depending on the application, the system might need to operate for long periods without
human intervention.
2. Predictability
• Embedded systems meet time requirements is key to ensuring proper operation.
• The RTOS used in this case needs to be predictable to a certain degree.
3. Performance
Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 33
 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• This requirement dictates that an embedded system must perform fast enough to fulfill its
timing requirements.
• Typically, the more deadlines to be met-and the shorter the time between them-the faster
the system's CPU must be.
4. Compactness
• Application design constraints and cost constraints help determine how compact an
embedded system can be.
• For example, a cell phone clearly must be small, portable, and low cost.
• These design requirements limit system memory, which in turn limits the size of the
application and operating system.
5. Scalability
• Because RTOSes can be used in a wide variety of embedded systems, they must be able to
scale up or down to meet application-specific requirements.
• Depending on how much functionality is required, an RTOS should be capable of adding
or deleting modular components, including file systems and protocol stacks.
Embedded System Software:
• An embedded system needs software to drive it.
• The software components can run from ROM or RAM. ROM code that is fixed on the
device is called firmware.
• Figure shows four typical software components required to control an embedded device.

1. The initialization code:

• It is the first code executed on the board and is specific to a particular target or group of
targets.
• Initialization code (or boot code) takes the processor from the reset state to a state where
the operating system can run.
• The initialization code handles a number of administrative tasks prior to handing control
over to an operating system image.
• Initialization performs the tasks into three phases:
1. Initial hardware configuration,
2. diagnostics, and
3. booting
1. Initial hardware configuration:
• Initial hardware configuration involves setting up the target platform so it can boot an
image.
2. Diagnostics:

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 34

 Sri Sai Vidya Vikas Shikshana Samithi ®
SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka.
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ECE, ISE), NAAC ‘A’ Grade
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
RAJANUKUNTE, BENGALURU – 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: hodece@[Link] * URL [Link]

• Diagnostic code tests the system by exercising the hardware target to check if the target is
in working order.
• It also tracks down standard system-related issues.
• The primary purpose of diagnostic code is fault identification and isolation.
3. Booting:
• Booting involves loading an image and handing control over to that image.
• Booting an image is the final phase, but first you must load the image.
• Loading an image involves anything from copying an entire program including code and
data into RAM.
2. Device Drivers:
• They provide a consistent software interface to the peripherals on the hardware device.
3. Applications:
• ARM processors are found in numerous market segments, including networking,
automotive, mobile and consumer devices, mass storage, and imaging.

Dr. Chaya B M, Asso. Professor, Dept. of ECE, SVIT. 35