COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT-II
Unit – II
LAN: Wired LAN, Wireless LANs, Connecting LAN and Virtual LAN, Techniques for Bandwidth
utilization: Multiplexing - Frequency division, Time division and Wave division, Concepts on
spread spectrum.

In general, there are two types of LANs: client/server LANs and peer-to-peer LANs.
A Client/Server LAN:
A client/server LAN consists of several devices (the clients) connected to a central
server. The server manages file storage, application access, device access, and network
traffic. A client can be any connected device that runs or accesses applications or the
Internet. The clients connect to the server either with cables or through wireless
connections.
Typically, suites of applications can be kept on the LAN server. Users can access databases,
email, document sharing, printing, and other services through applications running on the
LAN server, with read and write access maintained by a network or IT administrator. Most
midsize to large business, government, research, and education networks are client/server-
based LANs.
A peer-to-peer LAN:
A peer-to-peer LAN doesn't have a central server and cannot handle heavy
workloads like a client/server LAN can, and so they're typically smaller. On a peer-to-peer
LAN, each device shares equally in the functioning of the network. The devices share
resources and data through wired or wireless connections to a switch or router. Most home
networks are peer-to-peer.
Point-to-Point Channels:
In Point-to-Point networks there are many connections between two machines.
When a packet is sent, it first travels from source to many intermediate machines, then
reaches to the destination. That is, a packet follows multiple routes of different lengths.
Thus, routing algorithms plays an important role on such networks.
Local networks are usually broadcast networks, whereas larger networks are point-
to-point.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Process:
Networks usually consist of series of layers where, each layer provides some service
to the layers above it and hides the details of their implementation from the higher layers.
The layer ‘N’ on one machine communicates with the layer ‘N’ on another machine in an
indirect way, such that corresponding layers are called “Peers”. The rules or conventions
that regulate or control the communication between the two layers are called “Protocols”.
A series of protocols one for each layer is called a ‘Protocol stack’. An ‘interface’ is present
between the adjacent layers which contain the services provided by one layer to the other.
The collection of layers and protocols is called the ‘network architecture’.
 When two devices communicate with each other the data moves from the higher
layer to the lower layer. Then, each layer adds its own information to the message it
receives, from the layer above it. At the final layer (i.e. at layer 1) the entire message is
converted to form that can be transmitted to the destination device, through a physical
media. At the destination machine, the message is unwrapped (or decoded) layer-by-layer,
such that each layer receives and removes the data meant for it. For instance, layer 2
removes data meant for it and passes the rest of the message to layer 3.
When layer ‘N’ on one machine wants to send a message to layer ‘N’ on the other
machine, it will be first sent to the layers below it, till the lowest layer is reached. It is then
transmitted to the lowest layer on the other machine over a physical media. Finally, it is sent
to the layer N.
The intermediated layers insert headers containing the sequence numbers in the
message to provide some control information and the message is divided into a number of
packets, if it is too long to handle.

LAN:
 A Local Area Network is a single broadcast domain.
 This means the broadcast will be received by every other user on the LAN if a user
broadcasts information on his/her LAN.
 Broadcasts are prevented from leaving a LAN by using a router.
LANs are privately owned and span a smaller geographical area (restricted to a few
kilometers). It can be used in various settings, including offices, residences, hospitals, and
schools. The setup and management of a LAN is quite straightforward.
Just like a traditional wired LAN in which the connected devices transmit data over Ethernet
cables, whereas in a WLAN, the connected devices transmit data through Wi-Fi. Mobile
users can connect to a WLAN through wireless connection. The IEEE 802.11 group of
standards describe the technologies for LANs.
What is a LAN?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private network that connects computers and devices
within a limited area like an office, a building or a campus. On a small scale, LANs are used
to connect personal computers to printers. However, LANs can also extend to a few
kilometers when used by companies, where a large number of computers share a variety of
resources like hardware (e.g. printers, scanners, audiovisual devices, etc.), software (e.g.
application programs), and data.
In a LAN, a switch or stack of switches connects a group of computers and devices using the
TCP/IP protocol's private addressing mechanism.
Routers are used to connect the LAN's edge to the wider WAN.
Data transmission in a LAN is fast because the number of computers linked is limited. The
connections must, by definition, be high-speed, and hardware must be reasonably
inexpensive (Such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables).
Twisted pair and coaxial cables are utilized as a LAN communication medium. Because it
only traverses a limited distance, the inaccuracy and noise are kept to a minimum.
Data speeds on early LANs were limited in a range of 4 to 16 Mbps; however, now the
speeds have improved significantly (100 to 1000 megabits per second).
A LAN usually uses wired connections; however, wireless connectivity can also be used. A
LAN's fault tolerance is higher, and the network is less congested.
In a LAN, the propagation delay is relatively short. Larger LANs can accommodate
thousands of computers, whereas smaller LANs may only employ two computers.
On the basis of Physical medium, LANs are classified into
 Wired LAN
 Wireless LAN
Applications of LANs:
 Home and small business computer networks can be built using either wired or
wireless technology.
 Large companies are trying to move toward wireless but there are more challenges,
especially with security.
 Wire Ethernet has been the traditional choice in homes, but Wi-Fi wireless
technologies are quickly replacing wired LANs.
Wired LAN:
 An electronic circuit or hardware grouping in which the configuration id determined
by the physical interconnection of the components.
 Most wired LANs are built with inexpensive hardware.
Advantages of Wired LAN:
 Wired LANs provide superior speed and performance.
Disadvantages of Wired LAN:
 Difficult to run cables under the floor or through walls especially when computers sit
in different rooms.
 Require central devices like hubs or routers to accommodate more computers,
which can be expensive.
 Generally it costs less than wireless equipment for the equivalent wired Ethernet
products.

What is a Wireless LAN (WLAN)?

WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. The primary advantage of using a WLAN is
that it requires no cables to connect the devices. It's extremely easy to establish a
connection.
WLANs use high-frequency radio waves and frequently incorporate an Internet access
point. A WLAN allows users to wander throughout the coverage area, often a house or a
small office, while remaining connected to the network.
Though WLAN looks dissimilar to the traditional LAN, it works in the same way.

 First, new devices are configured with the help of DHCP.

 Then, they can connect with other devices on the network in the same manner they
would work on a wired network.
 The main difference is how the data is passed on. In LAN, data is transferred through
physical cables in a series of Ethernet packets. However, in WLAN, packets are
transferred without any cables.
Wireless routers provide wireless connection to the devices whose Wi-Fi are ON and in the
range of the router’s signal. Devices can be laptops, tablets, smart phones, and other
wireless devices. Also, wireless routers frequently connect to the cable modem or the
devices to connect to the Internet easily.
WLAN is Different from Wi-Fi
WLAN is not to be confused with the Wi-Fi trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. While some
people use the terms "Wi-Fi" and "WLAN" interchangeably, there are fundamental
semantic distinctions to be made.
A Wi-Fi connection refers to a specific wireless connection that a device uses, whereas a
WLAN refers to the network as a whole. Furthermore, while Wi-Fi is not a technical term, it
is presented as a superset of the IEEE 802.11 standard and is occasionally used
interchangeably with it. Even though over 700 million people use Wi-Fi through over
750,000 Internet connection hotspots, not every Wi-Fi equipment has Wi-Fi Alliance
certification.

Difference between LAN and WLAN

The following table highlights the major differences between a LAN and a WLAN.

Key LAN WLAN

Stands for LAN stands for Local Area Network. WLAN stands for Wireless Local
Area Network.

Connection Type LAN connections include wired as WLAN connections are completely
well as wireless connection based on wireless technology.
technologies.

Cost LAN connections are less expensive WLAN connections are more
and more secure than the wireless expensive and considered less
connections of WLAN. secure than wired connections.

Complexity It is relatively complex to set up a It is relatively simple to configure

LAN. One needs to connect several and set up a WLAN.
network devices such as routers
and switches with the help of
Ethernet cables.

Performance LANs provide good performance WLAN provides high performance

and the impact of weather is but may get impacted in bad
limited. weather.

Mobility A LAN has limited mobility. It needs WLAN is highly mobile in nature.
Ethernet to connect devices. No Ethernet is required to connect
the devices to a WLAN.

Interruption LAN connections cannot be WLAN connections can be

interrupted easily. interrupted easily.

Examples Desktops, laptops connected to LAN Desktops, laptops connected on

in an office Wi-Fi or hotspot based networks
What is VLAN?

The data link layer of the OSI network model is used to create a Virtual Local Area Network
(VLAN). VLANs are created with isolated partitions in workstations. An individual node
address moves with the virtual division, not the physical workstation, unlike a physical local
area network or LAN. A hardware setup accommodates point-to-point identification and
access through a physical network.
VLANs can be implemented on higher-end switches. The goal of setting up a VLAN is to
improve a network's performance or to add necessary security features.
Computer networks are divided into two types: Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area
Networks (WANs). LANs are devices connected in the same network at a specific location
such as switches, hubs, bridges, workstations, and servers. A local area network (LAN) is
also a broadcast domain.
A VLAN enables several networks to function as if they were all part of the same LAN. One
of the most advantageous features of a VLAN is that it reduces network latency, saving
network resources, and increasing network efficiency.
VLANs are also used to provide segmentation and help with security, network
management, and scalability. VLANs can also be used to regulate traffic flows efficiently.

Difference between LAN and VLAN

The following table highlights the major differences between a LAN and a VLAN.

Key LAN WLAN

Definition LAN stands for Local Area VLAN stands for Virtual Local
Network. Area Network..

Cost The price of a LAN is prohibitively The cost of setting up a VLAN is

high minimal.

Latency Latency in a LAN is higher than The latency of VLANs is very low.
that of a VLAN.

Devices Hubs, Routers and Switches are Bridge and Switches are part of a
part of a LAN. VLAN.

Packet Broadcasting In a LAN, packets are broadcast to In a VLAN, packets are sent to a
each device. specific broadcast domain.

Efficiency LAN is less efficient than VLAN. VLAN is more efficient than a
traditional LAN.
Techniques for Bandwidth utilization:
Multiplexing technique used in bandwidth utilization
Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of
multiple signals across a single data link.
In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. Following Figure
shows the basic format of a multiplexed system. The lines on the left direct their
transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a single stream
(many-to one). At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which
separates the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs
them to their corresponding lines.

MULTIPLEXING TECHNQUIES:
There are three basic multiplexing techniques: frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-
division multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are techniques designed
for analog signals, the third, for digital signals.

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when
the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted.
 In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies.
 These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link.
 Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal.
 These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel.
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth-guard bands-to prevent
signals from overlapping.
 In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies

Above Figure gives a conceptual view of FDM. In this illustration, the transmission
path is divided into three parts, each representing a channel that carries one transmission.

Multiplexing Process:
Following Figure is a conceptual illustration of the multiplexing process. Each source
generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals
modulates different carrier frequencies (f1,f2, and f3). The resulting modulated signals are
then combined into a single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that has
enough bandwidth to accommodate it.

Demultiplexing Process:
The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into
its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator
that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines. Following
Figure is a conceptual illustration of demultiplexing process.
The Analog Carrier System:
To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone companies have traditionally
multiplexed signals from lower-bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines. In this way,
many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger channels. For analog
lines, FDM is used. One of these hierarchical systems used by AT&T is made up of groups,
supergroups, master groups, and jumbo groups (see Following Figure).

Applications of FDM:
A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting.
Problems on FDM:
Example1: Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to
multiplex 10 voice channels with guard bands of 500 Hz using FDM. Calculate the required
bandwidth.
Solution: Required Bandwidth = 10 × 4KHz + 9 × 500Hz = 44.5 KHz
Example2: Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together.
What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution: For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least 5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz

Example3: Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to

combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz.
Show the configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there are no guard bands.
Solution:
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different bandwidth, as
shown in figure in next slide. We use the 20-24 kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the
24-28 kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28-32 kHz bandwidth for the third
one. Then we combine them as shown in the figure.
Example4: Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a satellite
channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution:
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four channels, each channel having
a 250-kHz bandwidth. Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that each 4 bits is
modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16QAM modulation. Figure below shows one possible
configuration.

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM):

 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable.
 Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.
 WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing
involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels. The idea is the same:
We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the
frequencies are very high.
Following Figure gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer. Very
narrow bands of light from different sources are combined to make a wider band of
light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.
 The relationship between frequency and wavelength is given as follows: λ = c/f
Where, c and f are the velocity and frequency of the signal in the medium.
 Although WDM technology is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to
combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the
reverse at the demultiplexer.
 The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism. Recall from
basic physics that a prism bends a beam of light based on the angle of incidence and the
frequency.
 Using this technique, a multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of
light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider
band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process. Following
Figure shows the concept.

Applications of WDM:
One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical fiber lines are
multiplexed and demultiplexed.
Categories of WDM
Based upon the wavelength, WDM can be divided into two categories −
 Course WDM (CWDM) : CWDM generally operates with 8 channels where the
spacing between the channels is 20 nm (nanometers) apart. It consumes less energy
than DWDM and is less expensive. However, the capacity of the links, as well as the
distance supported, is lesser.
 Dense WDM (DWDM) : In DWDM, the number of multiplexed channels much larger
than CWDM. It is either 40 at 100GHz spacing or 80 with 50GHz spacing. Due to this,
they can transmit the huge quantity of data through a single fiber link. DWDM is
generally applied in core networks of telecommunications and cable networks. It is
also used in cloud data centers for their IaaS services.
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM):
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to
share the high bandwidth of a link.
 Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
 Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link. In the figure, portions of signals
1, 2, 3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.

Synchronous TDM: In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the
output even if it is not sending data.
Time Slots and Frames:
 In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where
each input occupies one input time slot.
 A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data.
 Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot.
 However, the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an
input time slot.
 If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is T/n s, where n is the number of
connections. Following Figure shows an example of synchronous TDM where n is 3.

 In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected
into a frame.
 If we have n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is
allocated for each unit, one for each input line.
 If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the duration
of each frame is T.
  The data rate of the output link must be n times the data rate of a connection to
guarantee the flow of data.
In above Figure, the data rate of the link is 3 times the data rate of a connection;
likewise, the duration of a unit on a connection is 3 times that of the time slot.
Interleaving:
 TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side
and the other on the demultiplexing side.
 The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite
directions.
 On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called
interleaving.
 On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.

Empty Slots:
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not have data to
send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty. Following Figure shows a case in
which one of the input lines has no data to send and one slot in another input line has
discontinuous data.

Data Rate Management:

One problem with TDM is how to handle a disparity in the input data rates. We
assumed that the data rates of all input lines were the same. However, if data rates are not
the same, three strategies, or a combination of them, can be used. We call these three
strategies multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse stuffing.
Multilevel Multiplexing:
Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a multiple
of others. For example, in Following Figure, we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three inputs
of 40 kbps. The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate
equal to the last three. A second level of multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.

Multiple-Slot Allocation:
Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input
line. For example, we might have an input line that has a data rate that is a multiple of
another input. In Following Figure, the input line with a 50-kbps data rate can be given two
slots in the output. We insert a serial-to-parallel converter in the line to make two inputs
out of one.

Pulse Stuffing:
Sometimes the bit rates of sources are not
multiple integers of each other. Therefore, neither of
the above two techniques can be applied. One
solution is to make the highest input data rate the
dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the
input lines with lower rates. This will increase their
rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit
padding, or bit stuffing. The idea is shown in
Following Figure. The input with a data rate of 46 is
pulse-stuffed to increase the rate to 50 kbps. Now
multiplexing can take place.

Problems on TDM:
Example 1: The following figure shows synchronous TDM with a data stream for each input
and one data stream for the output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration,
(b) the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the output frame rate.
Solution:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate: 1/1 Mbps = 1 µs.
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or 0.25 µs.
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or 1/(4µs) or 4 Mbps. This can
also be deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as fast as any input rate; so
the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.
d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So the frame rate is 1,000,000
frames per second. Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can verify the result
of the previous question by multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per frame.
Example 2: Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is 1 bit. Find (a) the
duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of
a time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.
Solution:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms).
b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection, or 4 kbps.
c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the duration of each bit before
multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or 250 µs. Note that we can also calculate this from the data
rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or
250 µs.
d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the duration of a unit before multiplexing,
or 1 ms. We can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in this case has four time
slots. So the duration of a frame is 4 times 250 µs, or 1 ms.