Measuring instruments

There are several measuring instruments in the manufacturing sector of a metalworking

company. Some are quite technical and complex, requiring some training and greater practice
in their handling. Others, simpler, are known to all of us and used in everyday life, such as the
tape measure, used at home when you want to measure the furniture in a room. It is some of
these devices and their characteristics that we will address in this chapter.
Caliper
The caliper, figure 2.1 is a measuring instrument used when the quantity of parts to be produced
does not justify a specific instrument and the required accuracy is not less than 0.02 mm. It is a
finished, fine-shaped instrument with perfectly flat and polished surfaces. The cursor is adjusted
to the ruler, so that it allows you to move freely in a perfectly adjusted way. The cursor is
equipped with a sliding scale, called a nonium, which moves in front of the scales on the ruler
and indicates the value of the required dimension, both in millimeters and inches. The figure
caliper performs exterior measurements, figure 2.2, interiors, depths and steps

Figure 2.1 – Pachymeter

Figure 2.2 – Caliper performing external measurements

The Nonius, figure 2.3, consists of a scale divided by N divisions, corresponding to a space of N-
1 divisions of the main ruler. In this case of the figure below we have a nonium with 50 divisions
and the difference between a division of the scale of the nonium and a division of the main scale
corresponds to a 0.02 mm. To calculate the nature of the nonium (the smallest measure that
can be obtained with this scale) we must divide the smallest division of the scale by the number
of divisions of the noni. For example, in the case below, 1 mm/50 divisions=0.02 mm.
 Figure 2.3 – 50-room nonium

For example, in the case of the following image, figure 2.4, the measurement value shown is
10.22 mm and in figure 2.5, the measurement value shown is 7.1 mm.

Figure 2.4 – Measurement 10.22 mm Figure 2.5 – Measurement 7.1 mm

How to use the caliper:

Move the cursor until the backrest is wider than the size to be checked, Figure 2.6;

Figure 2.6 – Larger aperture of the caliper

Rest the centre of the fixed stop at one end of the diameter you want to measure, Figure 2.7;

Figure 2.6 – Contato do encosto fixo

Close the caliper gently until the moving backrest touches the other end of the diameter, figure
2.7;
 Figure 2.7 – Movable backrest contact
Exert enough pressure to keep the piece slightly secured between the backrests;
Position the caliper backrests on the piece so that they are in the same measuring plane;
Read the measurement, figure 2.8. You should look perpendicular to the main ruler to avoid
parallax errors. The dimension reading is done by adding the number of the main scale with the
reading of the conium trace coinciding with the main scale. Each trait of the nonium or division
corresponds to its nature. For example, if the trace of the coincident nonium is the fourth,
corresponding to the fourth division of the noni, this multiplied by its nature, for example, 0.02,
will give an additional value of 0.08mm.

Figure 2.8 – Measurement reading

Record the measurement made;
Open the caliper and remove it from the piece, without the backrests touching.
In the regular use of a caliper we must take some precautions that it is important to remember
here:
Avoid shocks and sudden movements;
Do not use excessive force when measuring parts. Make an appropriate and constant pressure,
taking the reading without removing the instrument from the piece;
Avoid contact with cutting and percussion tools;
Avoid contact with filings;
Avoid falls;
Never scratch with a caliper;
Store the instrument in a case, in a dry place without exposure to heat.
Micrometer
The measurement accuracy that is obtained with the caliper is sometimes not enough, so for
more accurate measurements we can use the micrometer, which can ensure an accuracy of up
to 0.01 mm. The micrometer, figure 2.9, is an instrument of variable size that allows the
measurement, by direct reading, of the actual dimensions with an approximation of up to 0.01
mm. The principle used is that of the bolt/nut system, if in a fixed nut, a bolt makes a turn, there
will be an advance equal to its pitch, it means that, for example in a micrometer of 0.01 mm
resolution and with a drum of 50 divisions, each turn of the drum increases or decreases 0.50
mm and each division of the drum has a value of 0.01 mm, i.e. 0.50 mm/50 divisions, which
corresponds to the resolution or nature of the micrometer.

Figure 2.9 – Micrometer 0-25 mm

How to use or Micrometer:
Turn the drum until the contacts have an opening larger than the first measurement by
controlling it, figure 2.10;

Figure 2.10 – Micrometer aperture

Bring the fixed contact to one end of the diameter to be measured, Figure 2.11;
 Figure 2.11 – Encosto do contato fixo
Close the micrometer through the ratchet until the ratchet is operational, figure 2.12;

Figure 2.11 – Moving contact stop

Read the measurement, figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12 – Reading of the measurement

In the regular use of a micrometer we must take some precautions that are important to
remember here:
Keep the slider and backrest clean at all times to get accurate measurements;
 Afira or caliber whenever you use the micrometer;
Avoid blows with an instrument;
Avoid contact with cutting and percussion tools;
Avoid contact of the micrometer with filings;
Avoid falls;
Evite temperaturas superiores a 18 graus;
Never overtighten the moving contact against the workpiece or against the fixed contact as it
may miscalibrate the micrometer;
To store the instrument, release the spindle lock, separate the measuring faces by approximately
0.2 to 2 mm, and then store it in its case to prevent damage and leave it free of dust.

Indoor Micrometer

The interior micrometer is used to measure small interior diameters and the width of grooves.
Like the outdoor micrometer, this device has a measuring range of 25 mm, ranging from 5 – 30
mm, 25 – 50 mm, 50 – 75 mm, 75 – 100 mm, etc. Figure 2.13 shows a 25 – 50 mm indoor
micrometer.

Figure 2.12 – Indoor micrometer

The reading of the indoor micrometer follows the same reasoning as the outdoor micrometer,
although it has some differences. As we have seen in the outdoor micrometer, the fixed scale is
read from left to right. On the indoor micrometer, the highest value of the scale is on the left,
so the reading is from right to left. As far as the nonium is concerned, the reading is the same
on both devices.
In Figure 2.13 we see that the value on the fixed scale is between 33 – 32.5 mm. We then take
the lowest value, i.e. 32.5 mm, since we will read the rest on the scale of the nonius. On the
nonium scale we read 15 so dividing this value by 100 we get 15 / 100 = 0.15 mm. Adding the
two values, we get the final reading.
Final reading = 32.5 + 0.15 = 32.65 mm.
 Figure 2.13 – 32.65 mm reading

Depth micrometer

The depth micrometer, figure 2.14, is used to measure the depth of holes and tears of parts. It
consists of a perfectly flat base on which the device rests, a depth rod and a circular nonius,
engraved on the graduated drum. On the hem is engraved the scale fixed in millimeters and half
millimeters. Its resolution is usually 0.01 mm.

Figure 2.14 – Depth micrometer

In the most complete models, along with the micrometer, a set of extension rods of various
lengths is supplied that can be changed according to the need to be measured profundidades
maiores thus increasing its versatility. When using the depth micrometer, we must hold its base
firmly when we are turning the ratchet, so as to prevent the base from lifting off the measuring
plane, Figure 2.15.
 Figure 2.14 – Measuring the depth of a box

Three-pronged interior micrometer

When we want to measure the diameter of a blind or through cylindrical hole accurately, we use
the three-pronged micrometer, figure 2.15. This device has three contact tips spaced apart at
an angle of 120° that move together as we rotate the graduated drum, thus becoming self-
centering. The contact tips are made of carbide or titanium for greater wear and impact
resistance. The sheath has a scale engraved in millimeters and half millimeters and on the
graduated drum there is a nonium that gives us the resolution of the device.

Figure 2.15 – Three-pronged interior micrometer

The measuring range of this micrometer is small, figure 2.16, and can be only 1 mm for smaller
devices. Larger devices have amplitudes of 5 or 10 mm. In this way, it is normal for these
micrometers to be purchased in games of various devices.
 Figure 2.16 – Measurement with three-pronged interior micrometer
On the three-point indoor micrometer, the scale in millimeters is engraved on the hem, with the
highest value on the left-hand side. As with the indoor micrometer, the scale is read from right
to left and the nonium rotates in the opposite direction to that of the outdoor micrometer.

Gear Caliper

Gears are very important machine elements. They are used for the transmission of movements
or forces and are found in almost all mechanisms, devices, machines or engines. The demands
on their quality and precision are increasing. Such requirements lead to the need for increasingly
efficient control. Efficient gear control consists mainly of checking their manufacture, thus
making it possible to improve it. The interpretation of the results of the measurements made
makes it possible to discover and eliminate sources of error.
The thickness of gear teeth is measured using a special caliper, consisting of two scales
perpendicular to each other, and commonly referred to as the gear caliper, Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17 – Gear caliper

The thickness of the gear teeth is made in the primitive diameter, between points 1 and 2 as
shown in Figure 2.18.
 Figure 2.18 – Tooth thickness in primitive diameter
For greater accuracy, it is advisable to take the measurement on three equidistant teeth and
then take the average between them, Figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19 – Measurement between 3 teeth

The measurement is made by adjusting the vertical rod in the previously calculated H measure
and then the horizontal rod is adjusted in the C measure and the reading is taken there. To
determine these measurements we need to know N (Number of teeth), M (Modulus), H and the
theoretical C, figure 2.20.
In the gears of the modulus system (M), the height H and the thickness C are calculated by the
following formulas:
 90°
Ângulo ∝=
N
In N corresponds to the number of teeth of
the wheel to be carved.
C = Dp x sen ∝
Where Dp corresponds to the primitive
diameter of the wheel.
Dp (1 − cos ∝)
f=
2
H= f+M
Where M corresponds to the module of
the wheel to be carved.

Figure 2.20 – Parameters H, C, f e α

Example:
Measure Sprocket with N = 30 teeth and M (Modulus) = 3.5 mm
90° 90°
Ângulo ∝= = = 3° sen 3° = 0.0523 cos 3° = 0.9986
N 30

C = Dp x sen ∝= 30 x 3.5 x 0.0523 = 105 x 0.0523 = 5.4915

Dp (1 − cos ∝) 105 (1 − 0.9986) 105 x 0.0014

f= = = = 0.0735 mm
2 2 2

H = M + f = 3.5 + 0.0735 = 3.5735 mm

bevel gauge

The suta is an instrument used to trace (with the aid of a scriber), transfer, compare and verify
angles. The most common type of universal support is the one shown in Figure 2.21. A suta is an
instrument composed of two main components, both made of steel, the base and the blade.
These elements, quenched and ground, can slide along longitudinal slots that allow different
functional positions to be obtained between them and are fixed by screws.
 Figure 2.20 – Bevel gauge
To obtain an opening with a certain angle, the fixing screw is slightly loosened, then the blade is
slid, making its opening in relation to the base. Once the angle has been obtained, the fixing
screw is tightened, taking care to avoid any displacement of the elements so as not to tamper
with the angular measurement taken. When applied on a press, the base of the mount should
rest on the fixed jaw, Figure 2.21.

Figure 2.21 – Application of the Label on the fixed jaw of the press
As a precision instrument that it is, we must take some specific care with this equipment:
Avoid shocks or falls;
Avoid introducing the equipment in areas that may damage its scale;
Always clean it thoroughly after use and store it in its own case;
As any precision instrument needs to be calibrated regularly, for this we must compare some
angular apertures with standard reference elements.
The suta model, shown in Figure 2.20, has an angular nonium that allows measuring angles up
to 5 minutes, i.e., the nonium has 12 divisions, Figure 2.22. To obtain the nature of this nonium
(the smallest angular measure we can evaluate) we divide the smallest division of the main scale,
1 degree, which is equal to 60 minutes, which divided by 12 divisions gives 5 minutes.
 Figure 2.22 – Angular nonium with 12 divisions
Square
The square is an instrument composed of a steel blade and a base, which can be made of steel
or another material. The blade is ground and mounted on the base so that they form a 90° angle,
Figure 2.23.

Figure 2.23 – Square

With this instrument we can verify the perfect perpendicularity between faces of different
mechanical components. The common procedure for evaluating the perpendicularity between
two faces is to check the perfect contact of the blade with the face of the workpiece in the
backlight. If there is a perfect contact, synonymous with perfect perpendicularity, no light will
pass, otherwise there will be light passage due to the relative imperfections of the faces to be
checked, figure 2.24.

Figure 2.24 – Checking the miter with a square

 Another example of the application of the square is its use to ensure the perpendicularity of a
part to the base of the press, where it is tight, figure 2.25.

Figure 2.25 – Verification of the perpendicularity of the part to the base of the press
As this instrument is a precision equipment, we must take some special care with its use that it
is important to retain:
It must be guarded and maintained with care;
Avoid shocks or falls;
Avoid contact of this tool with other power tools;
It should keep it clean and lubricated;
The rigor of the 90°, formed by the two pieces of the square, must be checked from time to time
using a standard element.
Ruler
The simplest measuring instrument used in a machine shop is the graduated ruler, Figure 2.26.
These instruments, which are often frequently used, are made of stainless steel.

Figure 2.26 – Water

The rulers have graduated scales that allow the simple measurement of mechanical
components, figure 2.27.

Figure 2.27 – Simple ruler measurement

Caliber
Interchangeability consists of the fact that we can use indistinctly any part of a finished and
verified batch in the assembly of any mechanism without the need for rectifications in the
dimensions and shape of the part so that it performs its function in the fullness for which it was
designed. Interchangeability requires precision, but not absolute precision, as the most common
manufacturing processes do not allow it. For two parts to be interchangeable, they do not need
to have the same absolute dimensions, it is enough that its dimensions, especially the functional
ones, are at perfectly defined intervals by a maximum and minimum value. The range defined
between these maximum and minimum values defines the tolerance of the dimension. The
effective dimension of each of the dimensions will have to be included between these two
values.
Serial production requires that the verification and control of these dimensions be done quickly,
for this purpose calibers that have these two dimensions, maximum and minimum, figure 2.28,
are often used.

Figure 2.28 – 10H7 Caliber

The calibers have these two dimensions in a strictly fixed way, on one side the minimum
dimension and on the other the maximum dimension. Between these two dimensions will be
the effective dimension of the element. If we are talking about a gauge for holes, the side of the
minimum dimension must pass through the hole to be controlled, but the side of the maximum
dimension must not pass through the hole, figure 2.29 and figure 2.30. Hence the common
expression in the use of the pass-not-pass calibers.

Figure 2.29 – Pass Figure 2.30 – Does not pass

There are different types of gauges, with different functionalities, for example, horseshoe type
gauges, figure 2.31, gauges for inner threads, figure 2.32 and gauges for outer threads, figure
2.33, among others.
 Figure 2.31 – Iron type caliber Figure 2.32 – M20 quality 6H internal thread gauge

Figure 2.31 – Outer thread gauge M18 quality 6g

The manufacture of calibers is associated with precision mechanics. These are instruments
manufactured with superior qualities and used in the dimensional control of machined parts
with inferior qualities. For example, the instruments are manufactured in IT4 qualities and the
careful mechanics usually work between IT6 to IT8 qualities.

Dial indicator

The Dial Indicator is a highly accurate device, which can be analogue or digital, for measurements
of the order of 0.001 mm. It is used to measure dimensions, flatnesses, and parallelisms of faces
of a part by comparison, thus determining the difference between it and a predetermined
dimension pattern which, for example, may be an original part with known measurements. The
comparator can be tightened using an accessory mounted on the opposite side of the dial to
facilitate tightening on a rod which in turn will be tightened on a magnetic base, figure 2.32.

Figure 2.32 – Dial indicator mounted on the rod with magnetic base
This set allows its use and fixation in the most diverse situations, one of which is shown in figure
2.33, where we use it to align a press mounted on the table of a milling machine.

Figure 2.33 – Alignment of a press using a dial indicator

Lightning cantillion

The radius scantillers, figure 2.34, are instruments used in the verification of radii, as they
already have them defined. These instruments are used to measure rays in concave or convex
shapes, and several types are manufactured within a range of measurements, for example, a
cantillion of radii from 15 mm to 25 mm, varying, for example, from 0.5 mm from one
measurement to another. These instruments are manufactured to suit needs and have a wide
variety of shapes and sizes.

Figure 2.34 – Radius cantillion from R7.5 to R15

Figure 2.35 shows examples of the application of an inspection tool used mainly in adjustment
tasks.

Figure 2.35 – Example of the application of a ray cantillion

Thread cantillion (or thread count)

Thread scantlings, figure 2.36, are among the most useful instruments in a miller's or lathe's
toolbox. These instruments allow you to quickly determine the pitch of various types of threads.
Screw scantillers are composed of a set of steel blades, in the form of combs, at each end. Each
blade contains a set of teeth corresponding to a defined pitch.
 Figure 2.36 – Thread cantillion

An example of the application of this instrument is shown in Figure 2.37.

Figura 2.37 – Aplicação do escantilhão de roscas

Tap Clearances

The clearance probe, Figure 2.38, is an instrument consisting of a set of hardened steel blades,
rigorously calibrated, in various thicknesses. The blades are movable and interchangeable and
are used to measure gaps in mechanisms or assemblies. Clearance probes are generally in the form
of a pocket knife.

Figure 2.38 – Apalpa folgas

 Like any instrument, it requires some care in its use that should be retained:
You should not exert excessive exertion, as it can damage your blades;
Avoid hitting them;
After use, you should clean it and store it in an appropriate place.
Figure 2.39 represents an example of the application of a clearance probe for checking the
clearance inside a bearing.

Figure 2.39 – Example of practical application of a clearance probe

Tracer gauge
The gauge, also known as a height tracer, is a device used in metalworking to trace parts to assist
other machining or drilling operations, figure 2.40. It consists of a ground steel base, with a fine
finish and resistant to wear, on which is a vertical rod.

Figure 2.40 – Gauge or height tracer

This rod is marked with a fixed scale in millimeters and slides over it a sliding scale, called nonius,
Figure 2.41. Attached to the nonium is a hard steel tip used in the tracing operations of the parts.
 Figure 2.41 – Gauge nonium

The resolution of an analog pixel is 0.02 mm, and it can be higher in digital language bands. Its
measuring range varies between 300 and 1000 mm. The principle of operation of the noion of the
gauge is similar to the universal caliper. The whole millimeters are read on the fixed scale and their
fractions on the nonium scale.
Figure 2.42 shows the example of tracing a piece using a gauge.

Figure 2.42 – Tracing of a piece with plate with the aid of the gauge

Scratcher

The scriber, Figure 2.43, is an indispensable instrument for the tracing operation. It can be said that
the scriber is the pencil of the tracer, because it is with it that the scratches on the surface of the
material or part are made. This instrument consists of a steel rod with a length, usually between
200 and 300 mm. At one end it has a right-angled or ring-shaped bend of about 50 mm and at the
other end a sharp tip with an angle of about 20°.
 Figure 2.42 – Scriber with a ring at one end

Figure 2.44 represents an example of the application of a scriber in the tracing of a part with the aid of a
ruler.

Figure 2.42 – Trace operation with a scriber