CHAPTER ONE

1.0INTRODUCTION
1.1 EDIBLE OIL

Edible oils are essential ingredients for our daily diet that serve as a transporter

for vitamins that are fat soluble, provide energy, and those essential to human

health. Edible oils are also known as cooking oils, which are mostly extracted

from plants and animals. According to the Canadian government, the definition

of an edible oil is "a substance of food, which should not be from any dairy

product and, whatever its composition, source, or whatever its origin, that is

completely synthesized for consumption of humans or in part from a fat or oil

other than that of milk. Regarding nutritional requirements, many modifications

of ingesting dietary fats have been seen over the years, although worldwide

health organizations have continuously been emphasizing dietary guidelines to

reduce the utilization levels of saturated and trans-fats. These fats have negative

effects on cardiovascular health, which is associated with enhancing the levels

of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), also known as "bad cholesterol". Contrary to

that, both unsaturated fats (mono and poly) tend to reduce LDL levels. Owing to

that, nutritional guidelines endorse replacing saturated and trans-fats with

unsaturated fats in our diet. Recently, it has been declared that saturated fats are

not that bad as they were perceived to be. Com- pared with that, trans-fats and

exchange of carbohydrates with saturated fats (to reduce intake of saturated

fats) is actually a bad option. The sunflower and soybean oils are decent sources

1
of polyunsaturated fats, whereas the canola and olive oils are best sources of

monounsaturated oils. To overcome hazards of cardiovascular diseases, use of

non- hydrogenated unsaturated oils such as sunflower and soybean is better

compared with palm oil. Several factors are responsible for the deterioration of

edible oil quality such as harvesting and packaging systems, agronomic

practices, ripening stage, seasonal conditions, and sanitary state of drupes,

processing technologies, and storage duration. To avoid likely adulterations and

to check the oil quality, several analytical techniques are used.

1.2 SOURCES OF EDIBLE OIL

There are a wide variety of cooking oils from plant sources such as olive oil,

palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil (rapeseed oil), corn oil, peanut oil and other

vegetable oils, as well as animal- based oils like butter and lard. Oil can be

flavored with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chilies or garlic.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF EDIBLE OIL

The demand for edible oils for cooking is increasing in developing countries of

Middle East, Africa, and Asia. In the United States, marketing of saturated fats

and popular public education about advantages of edible oils are used to

convince people to use edible oils. The edible oils also play an important role in

human nutrition and our daily life food. They are used as nutritional

components but not as particular essential fatty acids such as tocopherols,

2
phytosterols, phenolic compounds, and vitamins, which further- more

extraordinarily influence the flavor and taste of food. It has been proven that the

quality of fat, besides the quantity of fat, has a major effect on user's health. The

Public Health Institutes of many countries as well as international organizations,

Le. FAT/ OMS, have suggested through publications about daily absorption of

different types of fatty acids, such as SEA, monounsaturated fatty acids

(MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). These commonly check the

SFA absorption, and stimulate the destruction of MUFA and PUFA. Nowadays,

oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids are pre- scribed as components of saturated

fats used in industrialized countries.

Oils and fats are used as major sources for energy. Lipids play a basic role as a

structural ingredient of cell walk. In food, lipids give flavor, physical

appearance, and mouth fresh products. Furthermore, fats and oils work as

heating media. Some of them come from direct interaction of lipids and their

degeneration products with food components. More than 95% of the world's

biodiesel is manufactured from edible oils, which is simply accessible from

agricultural industries. Biodiesels are also useful in recycling degradable lands.

In fact, biodiesel production in rural areas provides employment to people.

Biodiesel incorporates neutral chemicals in the air, which is why it is used to

neutralize the land's toxicity.

3
Nonedible plants have been considered as pressing agents for the manufacturing

of biodiesel. The utilization of nonedible oils along with edible oils has been

significant in the progress of many countries. The edible oils are mainly used as

food because they are too costly to be used as fuel. The nonedible oils are found

in nature on a large scale throughout the world. These essential oils are used to

preserve food by bioactive edible coatings. As we know, natural antimicrobials

in essential oils have been intensively studied. Essential oils (EO) are available

on a large scale for action. Hence, microorganisms and foodborne and

postharvest pathogens are sensitive to these antimicrobials. Although, due to the

huge embryonic of essential oils, their uses in the food manufacturing residue

are modified generally due to their intense aroma and toxicity problems. Many

authors have reported changes in the organoleptic properties of a food when

these oils are used. Edible coatings have currently achieved a landmark in the

field of food preservation due to promising results. Biodegradable films can

improve the variety of food products. Edible oils are the major source of fats

and vitamin E in our diet. These are also used for food cooking purposes. Edible

oils are also known as vegetable oils. These are also a source of omega 3 fatty

acids for the body, hence reducing the chances of breast cancer and heart

diseases. For cell growth and protection, vitamin E is an essential compound in

the body. Vitamin E-rich vegetable oils are obtained from almond, cottonseed,

sunflower, safflower, and wheat germ. It is also used to protect body tissues

such as breasts, eyes, skin, liver, and testes. Oleic acid and hydroxytyrosol

4
found in olive oil disturbs the occurrence of acute pancreatitis. Scientists have

discovered that the segments of extra virgin olive oil could be helpful in

protecting acute pancreatitis. Some of the edible oils, i.e., almond oil, peanut

oil, and wheat germ oils, have vitamin E, which benefits our body because it

plays an important role in the improvement of the immune system. These oils

work as enemies of oxidants and secure the distinctive body tissues, for

example, liver, skin, eyes, testes, and preventing heart illnesses. Vitamin E is an

antioxidant, which controls free radicals, and helps to prevent blood clusters and

blockages in coronary arteries, therefore helping prevent cardiovascular

illnesses.

1.4 OIL EXTRACTION METHOD

Two different methods for the extraction of oil from prepared seeds are used, ie,

chemical and mechanical oil extraction methods. The chemical extraction

method uses n-hexane solvents, whereas the other uses electric power in the oil

extraction process. Both processes are managed to determine the optimized

moisture contents for high oil yield.

1.4.1 MECHANICAL EXTRACTION

In the case of mechanical process, oil extraction is the most convenient method.

In this process, both manual ram press and an engine-driven screw press are

used. In this method, properly dried leaf seed is used for the oil extraction. By

5
using a screw press, it is difficult to process the seed. In an experiment, three

grated samples and whole seeds are used. Blender machine is used for the

grinding purpose. It has been observed that it takes several hours to process one

sample under the control of an operator. This is required to check the efficiency

of the machine. That is why the rate of reaction is slow. It has been shown that

the grinded seeds provide higher oil yield than the non-grinded seeds [20]. It is

declared that oil yield by ram press has 60%-65% efficiency, whereas 68%-80%

efficiency is achieved by the screw press. It is reported that mechanical press is

not suitable for extracting oil, owing to the issues related with nonedible oil

seeds. Moreover, with 15% absolute moisture contents, most compatible oil

yield is obtained. In addition to that, the extraction of oil from leaf involves the

changing of parameters by using screw press in the machine. These parameters

involve compression ratio, pressure, speed, and hot pressing.

1.4.2 SOLVENT OR CHEMICAL EXTRACTION

In this process, excessive components are removed by using liquid solvent from

solid. This process is also known as leaching. Chemical extraction done by

using n-hexane method gives high efficiency of oil yield. In this method, oil is

extracted using three grated samples of seeds. Dried samples of seed are grinded

in the coffee grinder and blended to maximize the particle size in the chemical

oil extraction method. The n-hexane with 2:1 ml. (hexane seed) ratio are added

in the grinded seed placed in a conical flask. Initially, the mixture is stirred to

6
dissolve all seeds in hexane. The opening of the conical flask is placed in an

incubator for 20 to 24h and is wrapped with aluminum foil. For solvent

evaporation, the mixture of hexane is now filtered into aluminum foil. For good

oil recovery, five-time extraction is completed. When it is confirmed that the

hexane is fully evaporated from the oil, then for further processing oil is

transferred into a container. Solvent extraction method is vastly more

successful, with approximately 54% for the oil yield. However, the cost of

solvent is the major barrier.

1.5 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

To give value addition and for health benefits.

1.6 AIM:

To compare the soybean oil, groundnut oil and melon seed oil to know the oil

with more health benefit and which of them will add more value to industrialist

during the production.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY:

My interest in groundnut and melon seed oil is that melon seed is been

cultivated in Nigeria and it's affordable. A groundnut has a lower shelf life that

if you did not extract oil, the whole groundnut will spoil, that extracting the oil

will add value to the groundnut.

7
 CHAPTER 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 MELON SEED

Watermelon seed oil, rich in linoleic acid (~64.5%), is used for frying and

cooking in some African and Middle Eastern American countries owning to its

unique flavor (Akoh, C.C, and C.V. Nwosu, 2008). Much research has been

published on the oxidative stability of vegetable or fruit oils, but a little has

been reported on the stability of melon seed oil. The modification of melon seed

oil fatty acid composition by incorporation of oleic acid (18:1) has been

explored (Charment, O. Moussata, and C.C. Akoh, 2007). The modified melon

seed oil was produced with the better balance of monounsaturate (18:1) and

essential fatty acids (18:2), and also improved the seed oil oxidative stability

and nutritional value (Charment, O. Moussata, and C.C. Akoh, 2010). Thus, the

seed oil composition of the domestic watermelon was evaluated in the current

study, which had not been previously investigated. These data may help in the

selection of melon seed oil for future commercial production in human diet.

2.2 GROUNDNUT SEED

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is a native to eastern region of South

America. It is grown as an annual crop purposely for its edible oil and protein

rich seeds. The groundnut is an herbaceous plant with many cultivars, common

8
in the United States, grow up to 30-46 cm high. Runner varieties, the most

common in the West African countries are shorter and run along the ground for

30-60 cm (Atasie et al., 2009). The peanut plant produces yellow, orange or

white flowers which produce 'pegs', characteristic floral structures which sink

into the ground to grow the pod. The pods can reach up to 10 cm in length and

can contain between 1 and 5 seeds, depending on the varieties (Krapovickan et

al., 2007). Vegetable oils are widely consumed domestically in Nigeria and

other parts of the world. It is used primarily as a cooking and salad oil. Studies

have shown that groundnut oil.

2.3 SEED PREPARATION METHODS

Oil extraction from seed involves the elimination of external layer of plants to

open up the seed of the plant and then drying the seed up to the desired moisture

content. At room temperature, the dried seeds are cleaned, sieved, and then

stored for 3-4 days. The seeds are also dried in an oven at 65°C to 700°C.

2.4 SEED EXTRACTION

In the first step, the outer layer of the seed is removed to expose the seed. For

further processing, the seeds are cracked open. This process involves two

methods: mallets and stompers. For the mallet, an operator cracks the seed

individually before removing the waste husk and seeds on the surface. For the

stomper, the process does not stop until the large numbers of seed are cracked;

9
those seeds are placed on the ground and then waste husk or seeds are removed.

By the stomper, numerous seeds are cracked at a time, whereas by the mallet,

seeds are cracked individually. It is also observed that, rather than steel or

wooden-headed mallets, rubber-headed mallets are preferred because they

rebound excessively. The efficiency of the stomper is reduced due to variability

in size of seed. In fact, the largest seeds are stuck in each blow. Extraction of

seeds is a labor-intensive and time-consuming process. However, it has been

estimated that 2 to 3kg of seeds per hour are cracked. Both methods have equal

efficiency of seed-cracking rate.

2.5 SEED DRYING

To obtain high oil yield, the seed must contain optimum moisture contents. It is

observed that, in the solvent and mechanical extraction methods, the highest oil

yield from seeds is with 15% seed moisture contents. This is when the seeds are

dried before oil extraction under temperature control using laboratory-scale

Clayson electric oven. The dried samples of seeds are placed in aluminum foil

trays and stored in a refrigerator.

2.6.1 SATURATED FATS CONTENT IN MELON OIL

Eleven fatty acids were identified in the Cucumis melo lipid fraction.

Concerning the saturated fatty acids, most of them were palmitic (14.4%) and

stearic (5.81%). For the unsaturated fatty acids, linoleic (59.2%) and oleic

10
(23.5%) stand. Saturated fatty acids in melon seed oil were undecanoic (C11),

myristic (C14), palmitic (C16) and stearic (C18). Palmitic and stearic acid were

(12, 13, and 13 mg/100 g), (13, 13, and 15 mg/100 g) for EO1, E02 and EO3,

respectively.

2.6.2 SATURATED FATS CONTENT IN GROUNDNUT OIL

It is a vegetable oil that is naturally trans-fat-free, cholesterol free, and low in

saturated fats. Peanut oil is high in unsaturated fats, especially monounsaturated

fat, which is also found in olive oil. It is also a source of the antioxidant vitamin

E and phytosterols, which benefit heart health

2.7 HEALTH BENEFITS OF EDIBLE OIL

The properties of these vegetable oils include their high content of unsaturated

fatty acids and vitamins, which help to the health of the cardiovascular system.

It is important to ensure that our food should contain moderate amount of edible

oil with unsaturated fat. The enrichment of the vegetable oils with various

ingredients may contribute to the development of global health care in the

future.

11
 CHAPTER 3

3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 COLLECTION OF SAMPLES

Due to being commonly consumed by people commercial soybean oil, melon

seed oil, and groundnut seed oil were purchased from a local market in Eke

Oko, Anambra State. All the oil samples were kept at room temperature until

further analysis.

3.2 HEATING PROCESS

The oil sample was first heated up to 180±1°C for 10 minutes and the analysis

was carried out for the effect of heating on melon seed oil, soybean oil, and

groundnut oil quality.

3.3 USE OF REFRACTOMETER FOR REFRACTIVE INDEX

Refractive index is determined using the refractometer. The refractometer is

cleaned and a smear of the sample is made on the prism and then covered. The

refractive index in nD is read from the calibration through the lens.

3.4 ACID VALUE OR FREE FATTY ACIDS (FFA)

Methods

Mix 25ml diethyl ether with 25ml alcohol and 1ml phenolphthalein solution

(1%) and carefully neutralize with 0.1M NaOH. Dissolve 2g of the oil in the

12
mixed neutral solvent and titrate with aqueous 0.1M NaOH shaking constantly

until a pink colour which persists for 15seconds is obtained.

Calculation:

Acid value = titre value (ml) x 5.61

Sample weight

The FFA figure is usually calculated as oleic acid (1ml of 0.1M potassium

hydroxide = 0.0282g oleic acid), in which case the acid value = 2 x FFA

3.5 IODINE VALUE

Method

Pour the oil into a small beaker, add a small rod and weigh out a suitable

quantity of the sample by difference into a dry glass-stoppered bottle of about

250ml capacity. The approximate weight in g of the oil to be taken can be

calculated by dividing 20 by the highest expected iodine value. Add 10ml of

carbon tetrachloride to the oil and dissolve. Add 20ml of Wijis’ solution insert

the stopper (previously moistened with potassium iodine solution) and allow to

stand in the dark for 30minutes. Add 15ml of potassium iodide solution (10%)

and 100ml of water, mix and titrate with 0.1M thiosulphate solution using starch

as indicator just before the end-point (titration = aml). Carry out a blank at the

same time commencing with 10ml of carbon tetrachloride (titration = bml).

Iodine value = (b-a) x 1.269

Sample weight

13
3.6 SAPONIFICATION VALUE

Method

Weigh 2g of the oil into a conical flask and add exactly 25ml of alcoholic

potassium hydroxide solution. Attach a reflux condenser and heat the flask in a

boiling water bath for 1hr shaking frequently. Add 1ml of phenolphthalein (1%)

solution and titrate hot the excess alkali with 0.5M hydrochloric acid (titration =

aml). Carry out a blank at the same time (titration = bml).

Calculation

Saponification value = (b-a) x 28.05

Sample weight

3.7 PEROXIDE VALUE

Method

Weigh out 1g of oil/fat into a clean dry boiling tube and while still liquid add 1g

powdered potassium iodide and 20ml of solvent mixture ( 2 vol glacial acetic

acid + 1 vol chloroform). Place the tube in boiling water so that the liquid boils

within 30 seconds and allow vigorously for not more than 30 seconds. Pour the

14
contents quickly into a flask containing 20ml potassium iodide solution (5%),

wash out the tube twice with 25ml water and titrate with 0.002M sodium

thiosulphate solution using starch. Perform a blank at the same time.

The peroxide value is often reported as the number of ml of 0.002M sodium

thiosulphate per g of sample. If the value so obtained is multiplied by 2, the

figure equals milliequivalents of peroxide oxygen per kg of sample (mEq/kg)

which has greater international recognition.

3.8 MELTING POINT

Method

Make a smear of the oil on the heating plate of the Fisher-John melting

apparatus and cover with the observation lens. Observe the temperatures at

which the oil just began to melt and when the little smear completely melts

through an inserted thermometer.

Ester value = saponification value – acid value

3.9 DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY

The viscosity of the oil samples was carried out with the use of viscometer. The

spindle of the viscometer was set with spindle 3 and rpm speed of 65. The

spindle of the viscometer was allowed to be inserted into the oil sample and the

viscosity of the sample measured.

15
3.10 BETA CAROTENE CONTENT

1g of the oil samples each were measured into a 100ml volumetric flask. 5ml of

cyclo-hexane solvent were added to dissolve the oil and make up to mark. The

solution was transferred into 5ml cuvette and the absorbance was measured at

445nm against cyclo-hexane as blank. The carotene content of the oils was

calculated.

Beta carotene (ppm) = V x 383 x (As-Ab)

100 x weight of oil

Where V = volume of oil sample used

As = absorbance of sample

Ab = absorbance of blank

3.11 MOISTURE CONTENT DETERMINATION

The moisture content of oil samples before and after heating was determined by

the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2004) method. Firstly,

the weight of the previously dried (1 hr at 100°C) crucible with cover was taken

and 5-15 g of sample was placed on it. The samples were dried to constant

weights in an oven at 105°C, cooled in desiccators and weighed. Drying,

cooling and weighing were repeated until the two consecutive weights were the

same. From these weights the percentage of moisture was calculated.

16
3.12 FREE FATTY ACID DETERMINATION

By titrating the alcoholic solution of the oils with an aqueous solution of sodium

hydroxide using phenolphthalein indicator, the free fatty acid concentration was

determined (Aletor et al., 1990). Approximately 10g of the oil was assessed into

the conical flask. 50 ml of alcohol ether mixture in equal volume was added and

it was warmed in a laboratory hotplate stirrer to obtain a homogeneous mixture.

1 mL of phenolphthalein indicator was then added and was titrated with [Link]

NaOH until a fairly pink endpoint was obtained.

FFA as palmitic acid = Titre (mL) of NaOH x N of NaOH x 28.2 Weight of the

sample (g).

3.13 COLOUR DETERMINATION

While the colour is not regarded as an imperative quality feature for the oil, it

has a prodigious impact on consumer acceptance. The colour of oils was

measured the surface colour in terms of L*, a* and b* (Moni et al., 2023) and

using the CIE Hunter Lab system (Color Quest XT, Hunter Associates

Laboratory Inc, USA).

17
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

PHYSIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GROUNDNUT AND MELON

OIL

TABLE 1

PARAMETER TESTED GROUNDNUT OIL MELON OIL

Acid value (mgKOH/g) 0.65 3.88

Refractive index (nD) 1.693 1.465

Saponification value (mgKOH/g) 194.5 185.0

Iodine value (g/100) 90.2 115.8

Viscosity (mPas-1) 851.00 102.70

Density (g/mL) 0.841 0.883

Peroxide value (meq/kg) 2.21 5.10

Boiling point (C) 205 195

Moisture content % 3.45 0.84

18
4.0 DISCUSSION

4.1 SAPONIFICATION VALUE (SV) OF THE GROUNDNUT AND

MELON OIL

Saponification value (SV) provides very useful information and represent the

optimized quality of cooking oil without the adulteration in the refined oils. The

results as shown in the Table 1, depicts lower SV of 185.0 mg KOH/100g in

melon oil and higher SV of 851 mg KOH/100g in groundnut oil. According to

reported value in literature, an optimized SV should be 182/193mgof

KOH/100g of oil (Alfekaik and Al-Hilfi, 2016). Higher SV indicates higher free

fatty acid and adulteration which is not recommended as healthy cooking oil.

4.2 THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE GROUNDNUT AND

MELON OIL

The refractive index was observed to be 1.693nD in groundnut oil and 1.465nD

in melon oil. The refractive index of melon oil is in close agreement with Bello

et al (2011) for T. occidentalis oil. This value of melon oil is similar to soybean

oil (1.466-1.451) and pure virgin olive oil (1.467) Baig et al., 2022. Refractive

index indicates the possible chances of rancidity development in oil. The higher

the refractive index, the higher is the chances of spoilage during oxidation.
19
Sarkar et al., (2015)

4.3 THE ACID VALUE OF THE GROUNDNUT AND MELON OIL

The acid value of 0.65 mg of KOH/g was obtained in groundnut oil while 3.88

mg KOHg in melon oil. These findings are in close range (0.50-3.00mg/KOH/g

of sample) with the acid value of flaxseed oil from Cold press as reported by

Choo et al., (2007). Acid value is taken as an importance indicator of oxidation

of oil. The acid value is the number of mg of potassium hydroxide required to

neutralize the free acid in 1g of the substance.

4.4 THE VISCOSITY OF THE GROUNDNUT AND MELON OIL

The resistance of the fluid (liquid or gas) to a change in shape, or movement of

neighboring portions relative to one another. From the table 1, the result

indicates that groundnut oil contains+ 851.00mPas-1 while 102.70mPas-1 in

melon oil. Viscosity denotes opposite to flow, the reciprocal of the viscosity is

called the fluidity, a measure of the ease of flow.

CHAPTER FIVE

20
 CONCLUSION

Findings from this study showed that, the oil extracted from seeds of groundnut

is a good source of oil due to the oil yield obtained and is capable of meeting

the increasing need for quality and potent oil in industries and domestic

applications based on their physical and chemical properties.

The presented data suggest that melon seeds may constitute useful product with

good nutritional value. The melon seeds contain a high content of crude protein

and oil, e.g. 21% and 22% respectively. The melon kernels had especially high

content: 38% of protein and 52% of oil. The seed oil contains linoleic acid, as a

major fatty acid in 62%. The seeds could be extracted for oil and furthermore

used for edible purposes, and the meal could be used as a meat substitute, and

also for animal and poultry feed or protein production.

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