Module 1

Basic Communication
Principles

General aim

On completion of this module, the student should be familiar with the theoretical

concepts representing the elements of the communication process AND be able to

apply these concepts successfully in practical situations.

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 Module 1.

Basic Communication Principles

Specific Outcomes / Learning Content

1. Discuss the importance and advantages of effective communication.

2. Define and discuss the elements of the communication process.

3. Illustrate the communication process with Jakobson’s interactive graphic

model.

4. List and explain the categories and the influencing factors of communication.

5. Define and discuss the types of interpersonal communication.

6. Define and illustrate “Phatic Communion” in real life situations.

7. Define and explain the purposes and advantages of effective listening skills.

Facilitator Notes: Didactic Guidelines

1. Theoretical principles should be applied to practical real-life

situations.

2. Discussion and evaluations should be done on the basis of case

studies.

3. Theoretical principles should be linked to other modules, such as

interviewing, correspondence, meetings, etc. which are all

applications of the basic communication process.

4. Although the art of effective listening could be formally introduced

and refined in oral work, it should be practised continually and

become part of the student’s way of life.

5. Role play, excursions, film clips and interviews could all contribute

to an understanding and evaluation of the communication process.

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 1. Table of Contents

1. The Importance of Effective Communication ............................................................ 5

1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 5

1.2 The Importance of Communication in the Workplace ................................... 7

1.3 The advantages of effective communication in the workplace ..................... 9

1.4 Good communication encourages innovation ............................................. 11

2. The Communication Process..................................................................................... 12

2.1 Definition of Communication ......................................................................... 12

2.2 Elements of the Communication process ..................................................... 13

3. The Communication Model: Jakobson Interactive Model. ...................................... 17

3.1 The Communication Process ......................................................................... 17

4. The Categories of Communication ........................................................................... 21

4.1 Intrapersonal communication ....................................................................... 21

4.2 Interpersonal communication ....................................................................... 25

4.3 Types of Interpersonal communication ........................................................ 26

4.4 Mass Communication ..................................................................................... 29

4.5 Extra-personal Communication ..................................................................... 31

5. Factors that may influence communication ............................................................ 32

5.1 Five Factors that Influence communication .................................................. 32

6. Interpersonal Communication .................................................................................. 34

6.1 Definition of Verbal Communication ............................................................. 35

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 6.2 The types of verbal communication .............................................................. 36

6.3 Different types of verbal communication in real-life situations.................. 36

6.4 Oral Communication ....................................................................................... 38

6.5 Written Communication ................................................................................. 39

6.6 Definition: Non-verbal communication. ........................................................ 40

6.7 Visual Semiology (Sight as non-verbal communicator) ................................ 41

6.8 Acoustic Semiology (Hearing as non-verbal communicator)....................... 45

6.9 Tacesics (Communication by means of touch) ............................................. 46

6.10 Cultural relativity in non-verbal communication .......................................... 47

6.11 Non-verbal communication in support or in conflict with the verbal

communication........................................................................................................... 49

6.12 Evaluate the credibility of the communication in such situations. ............. 52

7. Phatic Communication............................................................................................... 55

8. Listening Skills ............................................................................................................ 57

8.1 Develop effective listening skills .................................................................... 58

8.2 Identify the purpose of a conversation/ speech/lecture.............................. 58

8.3 The importance of good listening skills ......................................................... 59

8.4 Types of listening............................................................................................. 59

9. Knowledge Check ....................................................................................................... 62

10. References:.............................................................................................................. 63

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 1. The Importance of Effective Communication

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. List reasons why effective communication is important in the world of work.

2. Name the advantages of effective communication and illustrate these by

reference to his/her own experience.

1.1 Introduction

To make sense of something and the environment around us, we need to be able to

communicate. This does not only mean to speak and say what you think, but also -

even more important, is to listen. Our environment communicates to us every

second of the day. To make sense of this, and to be understood, means that we need

communication skills.

Communication skills are one of the top skills that employers need when interviewing

candidates for roles in their companies. Communication skills are generally accepted

to be even more important than managerial skills.

Reflect on this:
• How do you feel when you start speaking, and your group of friends stop

paying attention?

• How does it make you feel if someone interrupts you with a totally different

topic during a conversation?

• What are your thoughts when you walk away from a conversation but can’t

remember a single thing the person just said?

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 Although communication is a natural skill for humans, there

is a big gap between a good and a bad communicator.

So, to start off, good communication firstly means that:

1. You are heard and acknowledged as someone;

2. You have the ability to be influential;
3. You have the power to change something
4. You have the power to acknowledge and empower others
5. You have the ability to contribute and be recognized.

Basically communication is all about conveying a message to an audience (one or

more people), where the message is interpreted and accurately understood.

Fig 1.1 The basic communication channel (Source: [Link])

Communication is important for all of us. We feel happy when people listen to us,

when people share their ideas and experiences with us. We also feel sad and

rejected when we are ignored and not included when communication takes place.

Communication influences us every day of our lives.

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In the workplace, it is equally important to be a good and effective communicator. To

be able to contribute, we need to have good communication skills.

In this chapter we will learn more about the importance of effective communication -

especially in the workplace.

For instance - did you know that listening is a highly important communication skill?

1.2 The Importance of Communication in the Workplace

Imagine the following scenario:

Thabo is a supervisor in the receiving department of a logistics company where they receive

and distribute pharmaceutical products. They receive consignments every day from

pharmaceutical manufacturers. His team’s responsibility is to make sure all products are

intact, not damaged and ready to be sent to hospitals and pharmacies.

One day, he discovered that a pallet with medicines that should be kept refrigerated, was

not properly cared for. The temperature rose above the regulations and that could tarnish

the effectiveness of the medicines. Sadly - they had to report these damages and destroy

the products. If used - it may cost human lives. The company suffered damages and costs

for more than 2 million Rand.

He called his team together. They were trained and supposedly prepared to look out for all

communication that suggested that the products were supposed to be refrigerated.

What happened? How did they miss all the messages on the delivery consignment? What

do they remember from their training?

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From the example above (a true story!) there are clearly various ways how

communication happens. There are also effects or results of good or bad

communication. There is a huge difference between when your friend tells you a

story and when your manager at work tells you to do something. It is still

communication, but the importance and desired result is even more important.

That means the sender of the message has an equal important role to play as the

receiver.

Good communication in the workplace is vital. Improving communication in

the workplace often receive a lot of attention since it is regarded to be a priority

to make the business more profitable.

1.2.1 Why effective communication is important in the workplace

Ten results of good communication in the workplace:

1 Promote good and effective relationships.

2 Ensure accurate information is received.

3 Increase employee engagement and productivity.

4 Increases employee trust and loyalty.

5 Promote better efficiency and business effectiveness.

6 Decreases crisis management and unnecessary costs.

7 Instill pride, team spirit and trust among employees.

8 Getting things done on time, when needed.

9 Less conflict and effective meeting processes

10 Increase client and customer loyalty.

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 Fig 1.2 Communication empowers people (Source: Microsoft)

Organisations that promote good communication improve and maintain productivity,

install a sense of pride, loyalty and provides security to all who work there. It is also

extremely important to remove cultural barriers and promote team building and

cooperation.

Companies that prepare workers to excel with verbal and nonverbal

communications skills find it easier to enter into global marketplaces,

than companies that do not prepare their employees.

1.3 The advantages of effective communication in the workplace

Effective communication improves and builds trust with others. With effective

communication skills, you are able to deliver clear expectations and objectives for

your team. With improved communication, team members will be better able to rely

on each other.

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Advantages of good communication in the workplace:
• Building trust.

• Preventing or resolving problems.

• Providing clarity and direction.

• Creates better relationships.

• Increases engagement.

• Improves productivity.

• Promotes team building.

Confusing instructions and unclear guidelines are bad for everyone. When

communicating with employees, managers have to be clear about what they want

and expect. Whether the communication is through meetings, instructions,

performance reviews or employee handbooks, communication need to be clear. If

workers understand their duties and responsibilities, everything flows more

smoothly.

Fig 1.3 Communication empowers people (Source: Microsoft)

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When companies struggle, and if communication is broken, employees get nervous.

Will they have a paycheck in six months? How long should they wait before jumping

ship? Is the boss open and straightforward with them about how bad things are?

Employees’ faith quickly turns if they do not know the truth and if communication is

not clear.

1.4 Good communication encourages innovation

When employees are encouraged to be open with their ideas and opinions this

can create the perfect environment for innovation to thrive. Being free to provide

feedback, ideas means workers feel comfortable thinking outside the box and voicing

those ideas and strategies to their co-workers and managers.

Fig 1.4 Good communication encourages innovation (Source: Google images)

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 2. The Communication Process.

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. Define the communication process
2. Identify the elements of the communication process

2.1 Definition of Communication

Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas,

thoughts, feelings, opinions is transmitted between two or more persons with the

intent of creating a shared understanding.

Fig 1.5 Interaction Model of Communication (Source: Ryerson University)

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 2.2 Elements of the Communication process

Communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by

the sender who then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who

in turn gives the feedback in the form of some message or signal within the given

time frame.

Thus, there are Seven major elements of the communication process:

Fig 1.6 Elements of Communication (Source: [Link])

1. Sender: (The initiator) The sender or the communicator is the person who

initiates the conversation. The message may be a thought, idea, a picture,

symbol, report or an order and postures and gestures, even a momentary

smile. The sender is therefore the initiator of the message that need to be

transmitted.

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 2. Encoding: (The way we do it) The sender begins with the encoding process

wherein he uses certain words or non-verbal methods such as symbols, signs,

body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a message. The sender’s

knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. influences how

the message is sent. Encoding is an important step in the communication

process as wrong and inappropriate encoding may defeat the true intent of

the communication process.

3. Message: (The information). Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets

the message that he intends to convey. The message can be written, oral,

symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or

any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver. The message is the

heart of communication.

4. Communication Channel: (Verbal, non-verbal, written, etc). The Sender

chooses the medium through which he wants to convey his message to the

recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message effective

and correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium depends on

the interpersonal relationships between the sender and the receiver and also

on the urgency of the message being sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound,

gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication mediums.

5. Receiver: (Target) The receiver is the person for whom the message is

intended or targeted. She tries to comprehend it in the best possible manner

such that the communication objective is attained. The degree to which the

receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the subject

matter, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.

6. Decoding: (Interpretation) Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s

message and tries to understand it in the best possible manner. An effective

communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message in exactly

the same way as it was intended by the sender.

7. Feedback: (Result) The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures

the receiver has received the message and interpreted it correctly as it was

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 intended by the sender. It is the final step of the communication process and

establishes that the receiver has received the message accurately and

responded according to the expectations of the sender. In other words, the

receiver has correctly interpreted the message as it was intended by the

sender. It is instrumental to make communication effective and purposeful.

([Link])

The diagram below illustrates the elements as illustrated by

[Link]

Noise refers to the barriers in communications.

There are chances when the message sent by the sender is not received by the

recipient. Noise can be any distractions or effects that may influence the accurate

message being sent. Examples of noise include environmental noise, physiological-

impairment noise, semantic noise, syntactical noise, organizational noise,

cultural noise, and psychological noise.

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 Fig 1.7 Noise (Source Google images)

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 3. The Communication Model: Jakobson Interactive Model.

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. Illustrate the communication process graphically.
2. Demonstrate the manifestation of the communication process in real-life

situations.

3.1 The Communication Process

The communication process has several components that enable the transmission of

a message. Here are the various parts:

• Sender: This is the person that is delivering a message to a recipient.

• Message: This refers to the information that the sender is relaying to the

receiver.

• Channel of communication: This is the transmission or method of delivering

the message.

• Decoding: This is the interpretation of the message. Decoding is performed by

the receiver.

• Receiver: The receiver is the person who is getting or receiving the message.

• Feedback: In some instances, the receiver might have feedback or a response

for the sender. This starts an interaction.

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 Fig 1.8 The Elements of the
Communication Process (Source: Microsoft)

The communication process in seven steps.

In order to successfully communicate, it is important to understand how the process

works. Here are the seven steps in the communication process:

1. The sender develops an idea to be sent.

2. The sender encodes the message.
3. The sender selects the channel of communication that will be used.
4. The message travels over the channel of communication.
5. The message is received by the receiver.
6. The receiver decodes the message.
7. The receiver provides feedback, if applicable. ([Link])

The accuracy of the decoding determines whether the communication was

successfully sent.

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 Fig 1.9 Decoding determines the success of communication (Source: [Link])

Roman Jakobson defined six communication functions to enable effective messaging.

Each of the six functions has an associated factor.

Fig 1.10 Jakobson’s Communication Model (Source: Moodle images)

The context refers to the situation during which the message is generated. Channel

refers to the medium and coding refers to the interpretation.

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Look at this image. Would you say it is a successful conversation? Why?

Fig 1.11 Communication? (Source: [Link])

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 4. The Categories of Communication

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. Identify intrapersonal and interpersonal communication.

2. Differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal communication.

3. Distinguish between individual interpersonal communication situations.

4. Identify interpersonal communication between and within various groups.

5. Define mass communication and factors that may influence it

6. Distinguish between mass communication and (other forms of) interpersonal

communication.

7. Define extra-personal communication.

8. Provide examples from his/her personal life and the workplace.

9. Identify the factor(s) which could possibly influence a particular communication

situation.

4.1 Intrapersonal communication

4.1.1 Definition: Intrapersonal communication

Intrapersonal communication can be defined as communication with one-self, and

that may include self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall and

memory. (McLean, 2005).

You have been invited to join the IT team in a meeting to discuss a project
you are working on. The previous meeting did not go very well. What comes
to mind? Discussions you had, objections, suggestions? You recall specific
comments that affected your contributions. Your thoughts range from “not
going” to “going with a master plan”.
Until the moment you hit the “Accept meeting request”-button, you are
communicating with yourself.

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From planning to problem solving, internal conflict resolution, and evaluations and

judgments of self and others, we communicate with ourselves through intrapersonal

communication. ([Link]).

Video: [Link]

4.1.2 Intrapersonal communication:

• Is the communication style which an individual communicates within
him/herself.
• Is the inner thought processes to speak to yourself
• Takes place every second of the day as long as we live.

Fig 1.12 Forms of Intrapersonal Communication (Own illustration)

4.1.3 Forms of intrapersonal communication

This is the kind of communication that occurs within us. It involves:

• Expectations on the future (thoughts),

o what we should do or not do;
o how we should respond
o or should have said
o what people think, etc.

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 • Perceptions: (feelings and attitudes - the focus is outwards),
o emotions
o how a specific situation affected me;
o fears and stresses
• Self-awareness: (the way we look at ourselves).
o How you see yourself in relation to other people.
o Reflections
o Confidence or lack thereof;
o Self-esteem

These three aspects are used in your intrapersonal communication as you reflect,

think, analyze or clarify. If you think about something, you consciously or

unconsciously judge in the context of your self-concept, your perception of the

world and the expectations you have. These three aspects form a framework to

bounce your thoughts on as well as your own rules for how to process things.

([Link]).

Because intra-personal communication is centred in the self, you are the only

sender-receiver. The channel is your own brain, which processes what you are

thinking and feeling. There is feedback in the sense that you talk to yourself, or

discard certain ideas and replace them with others.

4.1.4 Advantages of intrapersonal communication

If you are skilled at intrapersonal communication, you can reap the following

benefits:
• Understanding yourself and your emotions

To be aware of your own emotional state you can consider what impact it

has on your personal life and in any interpersonal communication you

engage in. If you are in a positive or negative state, it will affect your

intrapersonal communication. Negative emotions can lead to negative

thoughts and interpretation of events and the acts of others and vice versa

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 for positive emotions. Knowing how your emotional state affects your

thinking and intrapersonal communication enables you to second guess

your conclusions and helps you take timely action.

• Empathy and understanding others

To understand the situation another human being is in, is considered to be

a valued emotional quotient (EQ). You will be able to ask questions to the

other person, and to put yourself in his or her shoes is an act of effective

intrapersonal communication. Being skilled at intrapersonal

communication will likely make you better at understanding and treating

others in a good way.

• Good analytical skills

By visualizing and seeing problems in different directions in your

intrapersonal communication, you can identify options and alternatives on

how to move forward and judge the outcome and likelihood of those

different aspects. This means you are good at thinking. Thinking is a

process of intrapersonal communication.

• Improved decision-making skills

If you have the capacity to think things through and weigh aspects and Commented [i1]:

consequences back and forth it will be easier for you to make good

decisions. You are more likely to understand the consequences of

different decisions as well as if not taking a decision at all.

All the above mentioned skills within the intrapersonal communications

department are likely to help you in interpersonal relationships and

communication. ([Link])

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 4.2 Interpersonal communication

4.2.1 Definition: Interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives

mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and

ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal

communication than the other forms of communication.

Fig 1.13 Intra- and Interpersonal Communication comparison (Own illustration)

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive,

it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal

communication.

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4.2.2 Interpersonal vs. Intrapersonal: What is the difference?

In a nutshell, your interpersonal skills help you collaborate and work with others,

while your intrapersonal skills help you recognize your own strengths and

weaknesses. Both are soft skills that contribute to your personal growth. It adds to

the ability to set and achieve your goals, and your overall success in both your

personal and professional lives.

Fig 1.14 Intrapersonal and Interpersonal differences - using elements of communication

(Source: Google images)

4.3 Types of Interpersonal communication

Communication is important for human beings in their everyday life. We use verbal

and non-verbal communication to speak and interact with others. For interpersonal

communication, the ability to converse in verbal and non-verbal activities are very

important.

In the workplace, communication is of utmost importance and adds a lot of value to

the company, as well as its employees.

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 1. Communication between individuals

This is conversations between friends, colleagues and others. It can be formal

or informal. Informal

conversations are usually

between friends, family or

casually amongst people.

Formal conversations can

be in the workplace

during meetings or

interviews, business

transactions, etc.

Fig 1.15 An employee taking instructions (Image: Unsplash)

2. Communication within small groups

Informal or social groups are usually family, friends meeting and socialising

with each other. There is a common, shared interests that gets them

together and where information is shared. No formal reason why they meet

and no chairperson either.

An example would be group of colleagues who takes on a challenge, i.e

running a marathon or losing weight. They practice together and meet to

discuss progress and achievements.

Formal groups (often at the workplace) fall in groups to participate in a

formal objective as set by the employer - determined by a business objective.

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 This can be either employees that are selected to participate in a project or a

social committee to organise social events. These groups schedule formal

meetings - run by a chairperson to achieve their objectives.

Fig 1.16 Formal Meetings is a form of group communication (Image: Unsplash)

3. Communication within small formal groups at the workplace

It is natural that smaller groups are formed at the workplace where people

work together and share specific interests. Messages are conveyed from one

group to another by one spokesperson. Example: Work conditions are

negotiated with management (another group) by one representative of the

first group.

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 4.4 Mass Communication

What is Mass Communication?

Mass communication occurs when information is sent to a large group of receivers.

The receivers can respond individually by using different channels. These responses

are usually delayed depending on the channel used.

Interpersonal communication is more personal than mass communication, and

feedback occurs often and right away.

Unlike interpersonal communication, mass communication involves sending a

message to a large number of people, meaning that feedback will take longer to get

back to the source. It contains a mass medium, which is the way the message is sent

to others.

Examples of mass media include technology such as

• radios,
• music,
• magazines,
• social media,
• websites, and
• movies.

It is very important that the correct medium is chosen to get a specific message

across. This is where culture comes into play. For example, if a rock singer wanted to

advertise his/her new music, it would not make as much sense to do so through a

magazine.

The Mass Communication Process

Mass communication also shares the same communication elements. Let’s take a

look at how mass communication compares with interpersonal communication.

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 Fig 1.13 Mass vs Interpersonal Communication

Functions of Mass Communication

Mass communication (think social media) does not exist for a single purpose. As it is

designed, more and more uses have developed and the role it plays in our lives has

increased greatly. Wright characterizes seven functions of mass communication that

offer insight into its role in our lives:

• Surveillance
• Social media
• Sensationalization
• Entertainment
• Transmission
• Mobilization
• Validation.

Fig 1.14 Mass Communication (Source: Google images)

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Factors that have an influence on mass communication

Mass communication depends on technology, and therefore have more ‘barriers”

affecting the communication. For example:

• An advertisement on tv or social media does not have the same effect on

all people. Some may respond positively, others negatively and some does

not even bother to respond at all.

• The receivers are unknown to the sender, and do not feel obliged to

respond. This means the message can easily be rejected. (For example: A

random phone call to sell you insurance).

Effective mass communication

Mass communication is usually a one direction flow of information. For mass

communication to be effective, the following should be present:

• The sender needs to know the target audience (receivers). Aspects like age,
gender, habits, beliefs, etc are important.
• Message must be simple and clear and affects the receiver in one way or
another.
• The most appropriate channel should be used, i.e social media, TV, radio, etc.

4.5 Extra-personal Communication

This refers to the communication with animals, plants and other things. Examples of

these are:

• Teaching a parrot to speak new words.

• Stroking and soothing a cat;
• Training and give instructions to your dog.
• Angry words at your slow computer.

It starts with building relationships with animals - usually pets, even plants and

sometimes a car (object).

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 5. Factors that may influence communication

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. List and explain the factors that may influence communication.

5.1 Five Factors that Influence communication

During our daily communication, we often experience that our messages are not

accurately understood. Sometimes this can be due to natural causes such as a loud

noise during the conversation or a breakdown of our communication channel, i.e the

interruption of a phone call.

Fig 1.15 Interruption of communication by phone calls (Source: Google images)

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But in many instances it is also due to other factors. Some of these factors are:
Personality We work with many differing personalities in our work.
Some people are naturally more aggressive than
others, some more shy etc. Differing personalities
often causes breakdowns in communication. It takes
special skills to build relationships with most people, to
ensure communication is accurately transferred and
understood.
Frame of Reference In South Africa we have eleven languages and many
other cultures to accommodate. It is a mistake to
assume everyone will encode the messages in the
same way. We e-learn to respect and value each other
and accept that we need to adapt to each other’s
cultures to communicate effectively.
Reasoning This refers to the ability to order your message in a
logical order. Incoherent messages often get lost in
translation.
Emotions An angry or sad person sends and receives messages
differently than a calm and organised person. As
humans we are emotional and this can affect our
communication.
Meaning (Semantics) Semantics refer to the meaning of words. We often
find ourselves in environments where words may
suddenly have differing meanings. A man sitting in
front of a computer can say “I am caught up in the
web” while a man standing in a small study room
mentioning “the web” can refer to a spider’s web.

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 6. Interpersonal Communication

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. Define the various types of verbal interpersonal communication.
2. Recognise instances of different types of verbal communication in real-life

situations.

3. Differentiate between direct and indirect oral communication.

4. Differentiate between direct and indirect written communication.

5. Recognise the benefits of communicating directly and indirectly.

6. Define non-verbal communication.

7. Differentiate between verbal and non-verbal communication

8. Define the various forms of visual communication.

9. Recognise the various forms of visual communication in real-life situations.

10. Identify the four main territorial zones.

11. Identify and interpret the various graphic representations.

12. Analyse the information conveyed by the various graphic representations.

13. Evaluate effectiveness of the graphic representations.

14. Identify and briefly explain examples of colour as (non-verbal) code in everyday/

workplace contexts.

15. Recognise signs and symbols plus their meaning from various contexts.

16. Define acoustic semiology.

17. Identify the various aspects of paralinguistics.

18. Define the concept of filler sounds.

19. Identify practical situations where music and silence are used to convey various

messages.

20. deduce the content of different messages conveyed by means of either silence

or music in various situations.

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 21. Discuss communication by means of touch (tacesics)

• identify practical situations where various messages are conveyed

by touching the receiver in different ways.

22. Explain Cultural relativity in non- verbal communication.

NOTE: example – how (traditional) African nonverbal communication

differs from that of Westernised societies

23. Non-verbal communication in support of – or in conflict with – verbal

communication.

a. identify situations in which the non-verbal communication

supports the verbal communication concerned.

b. evaluate the effectiveness of the non- verbal communications in

such situations.

c. identify situations in which the non-verbal communication

contradicts the verbal message being conveyed.

d. evaluate the credibility of the communication in such situations.

e. list the various forms of non-verbal communication being

employed, either in support of or in conflict with a particular

verbal message.

6.1 Definition of verbal communication

Verbal communication refers to the production of spoken language to send an

intentional message to a listener. Verbal communication includes sounds, words,

language, and speech. Speaking is an effective way of communicating and help us to

express our emotions in words.

Verbal communication refers to speech as well as written messages.

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 6.2 The types of verbal communication

(See par 4.3 of this module)

Fig 1.16 Interpersonal communication (Source: Google images)

Verbal communication is based on speech. In contrast, non-

verbal communication is all about the visible signals that a

person sends out consciously or unconsciously.

6.3 Different types of verbal communication in real-life situations

Verbal communication skills are especially important in the workplace, where the

goal is to collaborate effectively and efficiently with colleagues and customers.

36 | P a g e
Verbal communication in leadership positions:

Can you imagine a leader without good communication skills? Maybe you have met

one?

People in leadership positions need to have good communication skills from the

outset. Their core task is to motivate the team to do the best possible work, to avoid

conflicts, and to solve problems. This includes:

• Delegating tasks to employees that match their strengths and enhance

their skills

• Showing assertiveness at crucial moments without affronting anyone

• Providing constructive feedback without personally offending the

employee

• Praising and recognizing the work of individual employees

• Paying equal attention to all team members, taking targeted steps to

better integrate less outgoing colleagues into the team

• Identifying potential problems and developing solutions

• Sympathetically listening to employee concerns and problems

• Empathizing with employee situations

• Openly communicating your position so that certain decisions (including

unpopular ones) are easier to understand ([Link])

Verbal communication in teams:

Good communication skills build team spirit and cohesion. When working with

others, the following will help make teamwork as smooth as possible:

• State questions, requests, and tasks clearly to minimize the risk of

misunderstandings.

• Address problems without becoming emotional or personal.

• Ask for a face-to-face conversation before discussing conflicts directly in front

of the whole team and the boss

• Accept criticism from colleagues and consider other opinions

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 • Work on solutions together instead of single-handedly pushing through your
idea.

Fig 1.17 Verbal Communication (Own Illustration)

Examples of verbal conversations in the workplace

• Conversations between employees

• Communication to coordinate work processes

• Verbal Presentations

• Meeting Communication

6.4 Oral Communication

Oral communication is communicating with spoken words. It is a verbal form

of communication where you communicate your thoughts, present ideas and share

information.

Examples of oral communication are conversations with

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 • friends,
• family
• colleagues,
• presentations and
• speeches

Fig 1.18 Direct and Indirect Oral Communication (Own Illustration)

6.5 Written Communication

Written communication can be either direct or indirect.

• Direct – this is when the sender sends to a specific person or small group that

he knows. It can be a personal letter, memo, business letter, fax, agenda,

notice, report, e-mail, etc.

o Benefits:

▪ Can be more detailed and clearer than in an oral conversation

▪ Provides a record that can be consulted again later

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 • Indirect – when the sender does not know the receivers, e.g. a sales letter to

“The Valued Customer”, or advert in the post, etc.

o Benefits:

▪ Physical letter that can be read at home

▪ Can provide detail and be well planned.

6.6 Definition: Non-verbal communication.

Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the

voice, gestures displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance

between the communicators (proxemics).

Nonverbal communication is the transfer of information through the use of body

language.

Fig 1.19 Verbal v non-verbal communication (Source: Google images)

This includes eye contact, facial expressions, gestures and more. For example, smiling

when you meet someone conveys friendliness, acceptance, and openness. Everyone

uses nonverbal communication all the time whether they know it or not.

Nonverbal communication is dependent on seeing and analysing physical

movements as opposed to verbal communication, or the use of language to transfer

information through written text, speaking or sign language. ([Link])

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We use non-verbal communication all the time to support our verbal communication.

Even written communication sends non-verbal messages:

A badly written spelling error ridden letter will immediately
be criticised by its recipient. E.g. an email invitation can be
rejected with dismay.

Non-verbal communication relies on our senses - especially our:

• Sight (visual semiology) - depends on the sight of the receiver of

the message.

• Hearing (acoustic semiology) - depends on the hearing of the

receiver of the message.

• Touch (tacesics) - depends on the sense of touch of the receiver of

the message.

6.7 Visual Semiology (Sight as non-verbal communicator)

Visual semiology refers to the communication that relies on the receiver’s sense of

sight. Any non-verbal communication utilizing the sense of sight is, therefore, known

as visual communication.

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 Fig 1.20 Visual Semiology (Source: [Link])

Visual communication skills require the use of visual aids which are read or viewed

for ideas and information to be communicated. For instance, graphs, charts, maps,

books, posters, packaging design, screen-based media etc. are all types of visual aids.

The body gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact of an individual can also help

in visual communication by conveying a message.

Visual semiology includes the following visible indicators as communicators:

Kinesics This refers to the study in Facial Expressions:
(Bodily which certain body We always focus on people’s faces. I.e. not
Movement) movements and gestures making eye contact, nodding, smiling, eye
serve as a form of non-verbal movement and frowning.
communication. These Gestures:
include facial expressions, Hands and arms movements are telling
hands, arms feet, posture information. Example: A soccer star punching
and even blushing and the air when scoring a goal (achievement, pride)
yawning. or tapping of foot (impatience).
Posture:
The way we carry ourselves. Upright and
straight (pride, security) as opposed to a slouch
(insecurity, lazy). Leaning forward during a
conversation (Interest, curiousity) and leaning
backwards, arms folded (distance, non-
interest).
Proxemics People often create distance Intimate zone:
or close distance when
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 (Use of communicating. It is The close personal space up to half a metre.
Distance) regarded as the use of Mostly reserved for close friends and personal
personal space. family. People may experience an invasion of
their personal space if a stranger or non relative
Hall identified four territorial touches them or stand too close.
zones: Personal Zone:
Distance of half a metre to 1m. Communication
allowed without physical contact. As in a
classroom, church, workplace. The zone most
used.
Social zone:
One to 2 metres. Manger and client over coffee
table - meetings with customers clients and
unknown people.
Public Zone
Distance more than 3 metres. Lecturer, priest in
church, public meetings.
Graphic The ability to see a visual Pie Charts:
Representations representation of facts, Good to compare information. For example, a
occurrences and trends. representation of the ratio of cultures registered
Think of a financial analyst for this course:
working on the stock
exchange. The use of
graphics such as bar-, pie-,
line graphs and pictocharts
makes it easier to
understand.

Bar charts:
Bar graphs offer a simple way to compare
numeric values of any kind, including
inventories, group sizes and financial
predictions.

Line graphs: Usually the performance of a

specific aspect over time.

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 Pictocharts:
A story or facts illustrated with words and
images.

Source graphs (Steenkamp & Wade)

Colour Coding We live in a world of colour.
Colours are often used to
indicate danger (red), green
(nature) and blue (water).

It is also often used in a work

environment to
communicate specific
information.

In the example on the right:

Green: Information
Blue: Information
Yellow: Warning
Red: Danger.
Signs and Signs are communicators
Symbols that we live with every day.
Think in terms of traffic signs
and symbols. It conveys
concrete meanings.

Signs and symbols

communicate to us in our
every day lives.

Video: What is Kinesic communication? [Link]

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 6.8 Acoustic Semiology (Hearing as non-verbal communicator)
Acoustic semiology refers to the study of signs that can be heard. These signs include:

• Paralinguistics
• Sounds
• Music
• Silence

Fig 1.21 Music (Source: Google images)

Paralinguistics When speaking, we use Tone:

words, but the real Emotion is created by speaking loud or soft,
communication (Message) is high or low pitched. Think of the difference
in “HOW” we say it. in meaning when you tell someone “Well
done!” when they have achieved something,
This is where tone (pitch), as opposed to someone who made a
tempo (speed), rhythm and mistake, and you then sarcastically tell them
accent play an important “Well done”.
role. Tempo:
An excited person usually speaks faster than
someone who is calm. Slow speakers are
associated with boredom.
Rythm:
In today’s world of technology, we identify
robotic speech with a specific rhythm. Like
one-two-three etc. The rythm we use sets us
apart. This is also how we recognise
differing regions of the same language.
Music and poetry usually use rhythm to add
to its uniqueness.

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 Accent:
Our accent places us in the region where we
grew up and were educated. In South
Africa, the northern regions have a slightly
different accent than the southern regions
(English speakers), and it differs from culture
to culture. Some regions pronounce vowels
“Flatter” and others more “rounding”.
Sounds Filler sounds are often used Filler sounds to agree:
over the telephone - Sounds like “mm, mm” means you are
especially when listening. actively listening and agreeing to the
message you receive. “Wow’ or other
exclamations add to the conversation.
Music Music can create an effect IN the workplace, soft relaxing music can
create a productive and calming
environment. Harder, rhythmic music can
create an atmosphere of production. When
watching a movie, certain sounds are added
to create suspense and apprehension.
Silence Silence is equally an effective Silence during conversations may mean you
communicator than loud need to reflect and respond. Silence can be
noises. positive, neutral or negative - depending on
the situation. When the feeling is
“uncomfortable” - that may indicate a
negative situation, and vice versa.

6.9 Tacesics (Communication by means of touch)

Touch is an important communication medium for humans, and even animals.

Consider the following gestures:

• Pressing of a shoulder of someone who lost a loved one (sympathy).

• Caressing brush of a cheek from a mom to her young child (love).

• Cat or lioness licking her cubs (care).

• Soccer player patting a teammate on the back (encouragement).

• Taking an elderly person on the elbow (kindness).

• Rough touching from another person (abuse).

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 6.10 Cultural relativity in non-verbal communication

Our culture teaches us how we do things that we value. In South Africa we have

many varying and different cultures.

Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be
understood based on that person's own culture, and not be judged against the
criteria of another.

People in the Far East (China, Japan, etc.), European and Western world (America

Germany, England, etc) and African cultures do things differently. It is a very useful

skill to know how each of these cultures give meaning to non-verbal communication.

This cultural relativity means we need to understand people’s reactions in relation

and in the context of their own cultures.

The following diagram illustrates the non-verbal communication as seen from the

context of three major cultural worlds:

Non-verbal Traditional Eastern Modern Western Traditional African

codes (Asia, e.g. China, (USA, Canada,
India) Nordic countries)

Proxemics • Small personal space, • Needs and expects • Small personal

– personal but protective of it. much more space.

space • Not awkward in a personal space. • May stand close

crowded room. • Respects that of to another
• May stand close to others. person in a
another person in a • Too close is seen as queue.
queue or elevator. impolite and
intrusive.

Kinesics – • Take off your • Don’t cross your Eat with your right

body sunglasses when arms – you will look hand; accept things

movement greeting someone. aggressive or with your right hand

• Never gesture with defensive. or both hands.

your feet.

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 • Point with an open • Not standing up In the presence of a

hand, not with a straight could chief:

finger. indicate that you are • Take off your hat.

lazy or not • Don’t cross your

interested. legs.

• Don’t keep your

hands in your

pockets.

Eye Contact • Brief only – long eye • Direct and longer • Avoiding eye
contact is too intense eye contact shows contact is
or implies a attention and respectful
challenge.
interest

Tacesis • Gentle handshake. • Firm handshake. • Soft handshake

(Touch) • No hugging and no • Politely apologise if

social kiss on the you bump into

cheek. people or brush past

them.

Colour • Dark or neutral suits, • Dark, neutral, plain • Bright designs

coats and ties for or muted colours and bold colours

work outfits. and designs are are acceptable

• Red is for brides. suitable for work clothing.

• Women don’t wear professional work

short skirts or bold outfits.

jewellery.

Instead of thinking, “Fried crickets are disgusting!” one should instead ask,
“Why do some cultures eat fried insects?”.

You may learn that fried crickets or grasshoppers are full of protein and in
Mexico, it is famous. Oaxaca regional cuisine have been eaten for thousands
of years as a healthy food source!

48 | P a g e
 6.11 Non-verbal communication in support or in conflict with the

verbal communication

Body language is one of the most important ways that we communicate with others,

either on its own or to augment a verbal message. Imagine being introduced to a new

person, who enthusiastically extends his hand, makes eye contact, and smiles at you.

Without saying a word, he has conveyed to you that he is friendly or polite and

pleased to meet you.

Supporting non-verbal communication:

Adding verbal communication to the mix, that person could enthusiastically shake

your hand while telling you how happy he is to meet you. The verbal message (such

as, ''pleased to meet you'') matches his enthusiastic body language, which suggests

his message is genuine and can be trusted.

Conflicting non-verbal communication:

Easily recognizable expressions like a broad smile are known as macro expressions,

which are intended to be seen by others and communicate a particular message or

emotion. Conversely, had he told you that he was pleased to meet you, but kept his

arms crossed while looking away, the verbal communication doesn't match the

nonverbal, which should indicate that something isn't quite right.

Non-verbal communication is more powerful than verbal communication. We have

less control over it than over verbal communication. Good communications skills

mean we have the ability to pick up non-verbal signals that either support or

contradict the spoken messages.

Our facial expressions automatically signal our feelings to the world whether we

realize it or not. You may be reaching out with good intentions, but if you are also

frowning, the message may lose a lot of its power. If you are smirking, a serious

49 | P a g e
message won’t fly. Whatever you are saying, your eyes, mouth and brows will all say

in a flash what you are really thinking and feeling.

Fig 1.22 Facial Expressions should match the verbal message (Source: Google images)

Think about what you do when you talk with someone. As you listen to their words,

you automatically scan their face and watch their movements. You also listen to the

tone of their voice, and pick up clues from their appearance. If everything fits

together you may feel comfortable with them.

50 | P a g e
If the facial expressions and words do not match, you may begin to question what

they are saying. Consider the following:

1. Rubbing your hands together during an important meeting.

2. Leaning back while meeting with a friend or close colleague.

3. Crossing your arms during an interesting conversation.

4. Not making eye contact.

5. Making too much eye contact.

6. “Shrinking”.

7. Fidgeting.

8. Making exaggerated gestures with your hands.

9. Failing to mirror others.

10. Turning away.

11. Touching your face too often. (Source: [Link])

Think about these following aspects of positive body language and their effects.

• Uncross your arms: A crossed arms posture can show contempt, act as a barrier

or show disinterest.

• Relax, but not too much: Keeping a straight back but relaxing the shoulders

shows attentiveness and stifles the raised shoulders of feeling tense. Relaxing too

much and slouching might indicate disinterest.

• Maintain eye-contact: This shows interest and is a sign of respect. Blink and look

away momentarily (to prevent staring) but look at the person speaking as much

as possible without it becoming uncomfortable.

• Make relaxed movements: When we are feeling alarmed or confronted, we can

often make fast and jerky movements with our hands and body. If we are relaxed

our body tends to relax. Try to keep your body relaxed even though you might

not be feeling calm.

• Signal non-aggression: Generally ‘squaring’ up to someone can signal

aggression. By standing slightly side on and using open hand gestures you are

51 | P a g e
 signaling non-aggression. Just because you might not be an aggressive person

does not mean that you would not be signaling aggression.

• Get the distance right: Whether sitting or standing it’s important to be close

enough to show a willingness to engage, but not so far that you become out of

touch. A position of around four feet or so from the other person shouldn’t

occupy their personal space and should feel comfortable for both.

• Smile and nod: The occasional smile shows an air of warmth but it should not be

false. It may only need to be for a second, but it should be genuine. An

accompanying nod affirms the smile and can infer agreement.

(Source: [Link])

6.12 Evaluate the credibility of the communication in such

situations.

Communication has a big role to play in conflict management. It has been observed

that poor communication always results in misunderstandings and eventually

conflicts.

Our communication has to be clear and precise to avoid conflicts. First yourself to be

very clear what you intend to convey to the other individual. The thoughts must be

carefully put into sensible and relevant words for the others to understand well.

Never use words which might hurt the sentiments of others and avoid using

derogatory sentences. Don’t use too complicated terminologies as the other person

might not understand it well.

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 Fig 1.23 Stopping conflict (Source: Google images)

Tips for improving the

communication process
Here are some tips to consider to improve your communication skills and the
communication process overall:

• Simplify your message: In order to ensure your message is properly understood,

you should keep your language simple and to the point.

• Know your audience: It's also important to consider the audience that will receive
your message as well as their needs and interests.

• Be a good listener: As a communicator, it's important to actively listen to what

those around you are saying. This will ensure that you're sending the right
message.

53 | P a g e
 • Ask questions: It's also important to ask good questions to keep the
communication flowing. Make sure your questions are insightful and engaging.

• Take the time to respond: When communicating, it's important to consider how
you might reply to a person to ensure you know what you want to say.

• Consider your body language: If you're communicating through a different

medium, it's important to be mindful of your body language. In addition, be aware of
the body language of the person you're communicating with, as well.

• Maintain eye contact: It's also important to make contact with the person or group
you're communicating with. This will show that you're actively listening to who
you're communicating with.

• Clarify your message if needed: If the recipient of your message is unclear about
what you're trying to say, it's important to clarify your message. This will help them
to better understand you.
• [Link]
process

54 | P a g e
 7. Phatic Communication

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. Define ‘phatic communion’.
2. Illustrate the practice of phatic communion in real-life situations.

3. Evaluate the effectiveness of phatic communion practised in specific situations.

7.1 Definition: Phatic communion

Phatic communication (also used: communion) is

popularly known as “small talk”.

It is the language used more for the purpose of establishing an atmosphere or

maintaining social contact than for exchanging meaningful information or ideas. We

often refer to the weather (“Nice day again, isn't it?”) or an enquiry about health at the

beginning of a conversation or when passing someone in the street (“How's it going?

Leg better?”). When writing a letter, the conventions for opening or closing a letter

(“All the best, Yours faithfully”).

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 Fig 1.24 Phatic Communion (Source: TVET N4)

Chit-chat, gossiping, social talk… all these concepts are often related to `non-serious´

communication, talking for socializing or non-purposeful interaction. The fact that

such exchanges are a common part of our lives and appear several times in our

everyday conversations cannot be denied. It serves as an important purpose to

break the ice and to lead to more meaningful conversation.

Small talk is an important feature of communication, not only in everyday context

and for social purposes, but also in environments such as the workplace where

transactional talk is expected to dominate exchanges; for that reason, phatic

communion is an essential element in social interaction and communication.

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 8. Listening Skills

Learning Outcomes:

The learner must be able to:

1. Develop effective listening skills .

2. Identify the purpose of a conversation/ speech/lecture.

3. Recognise the benefits and importance of listening.

4. Differentiate between the different types of listening

The key to all effective communication, is listening. Without this, messages may be

misunderstood and communication may not happen.

Listening is not only hearing, but listening with the intent to understand. The receiver

(decoder) has a huge responsibility to decipher the message directed to him/her

accurately. Like other communication skills, the listening skill can be learned,

practiced and improved. By paying attention to our own communication behaviours,

we can begin to develop and maximize our listening skills effectively.

Fig 1.25 Hearing vs Listening (Source: [Link])

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 8.1 Develop effective listening skills
To develop effective listening skills, you can practice the following:

• Do not interrupt

• Use facial expressions to show empathy

• Make eye contact and face the speaker

• Listen without jumping to conclusions

• Relax but stay attentive

• Ask for explanations if you want

• Create a mental picture of the info shared

• Feedback proofs that you are listening

Try this: If you want to improve your listening skills extensively, summarize the
conversations you are involved in – for a few days. If it feels awkward you can explain
that you are trying to improve your skills. Your listener will definitely not mind as it
will make him/her feel good as well.

8.2 Identify the purpose of a conversation/ speech/lecture.

A conversation/speech/lecture serves one or more of the following purposes:

1. Information: to obtain, surface or convey information or understanding of

facts (know-what), processes (know-how) or contacts (know-who). To learn from

each other.

2. Sense-making: to make sense of something (beyond just obtaining facts),

especially a complex issue.

3. Perspectives or viewpoints: to obtain different points of view or gain

consensus

4. Change: to challenge and shift someone’s viewpoint or intentions (mine or

others’)

5. Ideas: to generate ideas, surface and imagine possibilities

58 | P a g e
 6. Collaboration: to enable the effective production of some shared work-

product

7. Deepening or creation of relationships: to connect with other people, to

build relationships

8. Entertainment or fun: to have fun, to banter, to gossip, to flirt

9. Recognition, attention or reputation: to obtain it, or offer it

10. Appreciation, empathy or reassurance: to obtain it, or offer it

11. Decision making: to make decisions

12. Problem-solving: to solve problems or figure out how best to respond to

them

13. Reveal problems: to reveal hidden issues or unintended consequences of our

actions

14. Search for opportunities: to search for opportunities

(Source: [Link])

8.3 The importance of good listening skills

Listening has the following benefits:

• To gather facts before making decisions

• Notice underlying issues and prevents misunderstandings

• To gain on interpersonal relationship skills

• Avoid conversations you don’t like

• To recognise contributions of other people, and earn respect

8.4 Types of listening

Attentive (or discriminative) listening:

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This is a technique of careful listening for facts and information, and may include

feedback to show comprehension. This type of listening is normally used in solving

conflicts, training, or taking instructions.

Critical/analytical listening:

Analytical Listening is about the ability and the capacity to properly analyse what is

being said. This not only means understanding what the other person is saying and

what they mean to say, but also being able to divide difficult questions into separate

parts in order to get to the core. This type of listening is where we do not simply

accept what has been said, for eg religion, advertisements, and political ideas.

Appreciative listening:

You listen with appreciation when you are listening with enjoyment. Think about the

music you listen to. You usually listen to music because you enjoy it. The same can be

said for appreciative listening when someone is speaking. This may be found from

listening to a motivational speaker, audiobooks, or even to a standup comedian who

is funny.

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 Fig 1.26 Appreciative listening (Source: Google images)

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 9. Knowledge Check

Questions:
1. What is extra-personal communication?
2. True or False: Communication is an inborn skill. People do not need to
practise to communicate effectively.
3. True or False: Listening is a highly important communication skill.
4. Identify THREE reasons why effective communication is important in the
workplace.
5. Name TWO advantages of good communication in the workplace?
6. True or False: Good communication encourages innovation.
7. What are the elements of good communication?
8. Complete the sentence: When we refer to "noise" in the communication
process, it can be seen as…
9. What is intrapersonal communication?
10. Name the factors that influences communication.

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 10. References:
[Link]

[Link]

matters

[Link]

[Link]

professional-settings

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

advantages/
[Link]

succeed/

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

powerpoint-ppt-presentation

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[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

relativism-

[Link]
communication/#:~:text=When%20your%20nonverbal%20cues%20don,to%20a%20situation%
20or%20statement.
[Link]

[Link]

maps/phatic-communion

[Link]

_TEACHERS_THINK_OF_TEACHING_INTERACTION_AT_PUBLIC_SECONDARY_SCHOOLS

[Link]

speaking/[Link]

[Link]

listening/?sh=614d3b9f3891

[Link]

[Link]

communication/

[Link]

[Link]

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