EXPERIMENT NO.

AIM:
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing through it
and determine its resistance. Also, to plot a graph between V and I.

THEORY (PRINCIPLE):
According to Ohm's Law, the physical conditions (like temperature, dimensions, etc.) remaining
unchanged, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends.
Mathematically: V = IR
Where V is Potential Difference (Volts), I is Current (Amperes), and R is Resistance (Ohms). The graph
between V and I is a straight line passing through the origin.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Battery eliminator (0-6 V), Ammeter (0-3 A), Voltmeter (0-3 V), Resistance wire, Rheostat, Plug key,
Connecting wires, Sandpaper.

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper.
2. Connect the positive terminal of the battery to the positive terminal of the Ammeter.
3. Connect the negative terminal of the Ammeter to the resistor, then to the Rheostat and Plug Key.
4. Connect the Voltmeter in parallel across the resistor.
5. Insert the plug key and adjust the rheostat for a small current reading.
6. Record Ammeter (I) and Voltmeter (V) readings.
7. Shift the rheostat slider to take 5 different sets of readings.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

[Link] Voltmeter (V) Ammeter (I) Resistance R=V/I

1 0.50 V 0.25 A 2.0 Ohm

2 1.00 V 0.50 A 2.0 Ohm

3 1.50 V 0.75 A 2.0 Ohm

4 2.00 V 1.00 A 2.0 Ohm

5 2.50 V 1.25 A 2.0 Ohm

CALCULATIONS:
Mean Resistance R = (2.0 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 2.0 + 2.0) / 5 = 2.0 Ohms.
The graph of V vs I is a straight line with Slope = R.

RESULT:
1. The ratio V/I is constant.
2. The V-I graph is a straight line.
3. Ohm's Law is verified. Resistance = 2.0 Ohms.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections must be tight.
2. Voltmeter must be in parallel.
3. Do not keep current flowing for long to avoid heating.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM:
To test for the presence of starch in given food samples (Potato and Rice) using Iodine Solution.

THEORY (PRINCIPLE):
Starch is a polysaccharide found in plants. The test for starch is based on the formation of a Blue-Black
complex when Iodine is added. The iodine molecules get trapped in the starch structure, changing the
light absorption to appear blue-black.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Test tubes, Watch glass, Dropper, Knife, Dilute Iodine Solution, Fresh Potato, Boiled Rice.

PROCEDURE:
1. Cut a thin slice of fresh potato and place it on a watch glass.
2. Take a few grains of boiled rice and mash them slightly.
3. Using a dropper, add 2-3 drops of dilute Iodine solution to both samples.
4. Observe the color change after 10-20 seconds.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sample Original Color Color with Iodine Inference

Potato Slice Cream/White Blue-Black Starch Present

Boiled Rice White Blue-Black Starch Present

Sugar (Control) White No Change Starch Absent

RESULT:
The appearance of a Blue-Black color confirms the presence of starch in Potato and Rice.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use dilute iodine solution.
2. Use fresh food samples.
3. Do not heat the sample after adding iodine.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

AIM:
To compare the foaming capacity (cleaning action) of soap in soft water and hard water.

THEORY (PRINCIPLE):
Soap cleans by forming micelles. In soft water, it lathers easily. In hard water, Calcium and Magnesium
ions react with soap to form an insoluble precipitate called 'Scum'. This reduces the cleaning capacity of
soap.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Two test tubes (A and B), Distilled Water, Hard Water, Soap Solution, Dropper, Scale/Ruler.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take 10 ml of Distilled Water in Tube A and 10 ml of Hard Water in Tube B.
2. Add exactly 10 drops of soap solution to each tube.
3. Shake Tube A vigorously for 30 seconds and place in stand.
4. Shake Tube B vigorously for 30 seconds.
5. Measure foam height and check for scum.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Test Tube Water Type Foam Height Scum Presence

A Soft Water High (e.g. 5cm) No Scum (Clear)

B Hard Water Low (e.g. 0.5cm) White Curdy Scum

RESULT:
Soap produces stable lather in soft water but forms scum in hard water. Cleaning capacity is higher in
soft water.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use equal volumes of water and soap.
2. Shake with equal force and duration.
3. Ensure test tubes are clean.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

AIM:
To determine the pH of given samples (Lemon Juice, Dilute HCl, Dilute NaOH, Tap Water) using pH
paper.

THEORY (PRINCIPLE):
pH indicates hydrogen ion concentration. pH < 7 is acidic, pH = 7 is neutral, pH > 7 is basic. Universal
indicator paper changes color based on pH: Red (Strong Acid), Orange (Weak Acid), Green (Neutral),
Blue/Violet (Basic).

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
pH paper with chart, Test tubes, Glass rod, Lemon Juice, HCl, NaOH, Tap Water.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place pH paper strips on a white tile.
2. Dip a clean glass rod into the sample (e.g., Lemon Juice) and touch the paper.
3. Observe the color change immediately.
4. Match with the standard chart.
5. Wash the rod and repeat for other samples.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sample Color on pH Paper Approx pH Nature

Lemon Juice Orange-Red 2.5 Weak Acid

Dilute HCl Dark Red 1.0 Strong Acid

Dilute NaOH Violet 14.0 Strong Base

Tap Water Green 7.0 Neutral

RESULT:
The pH values were determined. HCl/Lemon Juice are acidic, NaOH is basic, Water is neutral.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Clean glass rod after every test.
2. Do not touch pH paper with wet hands.
3. Match color in good light.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

[Link] Experiment Name Remarks

1 Binary Fission (Amoeba) & Budding (Yeast) Completed

2 Parts of Dicot Seed Embryo Completed

3 Focal Length of Mirrors Completed

4 Properties of Acetic Acid Completed

5 Ohm's Law (V=IR) New

6 Starch Test in Food New

7 Soap in Soft vs Hard Water New

8 pH of Various Samples New