EC-32 NETWORK ANALYSIS

DEPARTMENT- ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION

 EXPERIMENT : 1
1. To Verify Thevenin Theorem and Superposition Theorem.

Bill of Materials (BoM) with Quantity

For Thevenin's Theorem:

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

1 Ω1 \, \Omega1Ω, 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 100 Ω100 \, \Omega100Ω (or per

Resistors 3
circuit)

Power Supply (DC) 1 0–15 V adjustable

Load Resistor 1 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω (or as per the circuit requirement)

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter

Multimeter 1 For resistance and voltage/current measurements

Simulation 1
For circuit simulation
Software (Optional)

For Superposition Theorem:

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

1 Ω1 \, \Omega1Ω, 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 100 Ω100 \, \Omega100Ω (or as per

Resistors 3
circuit)

Power Supply
1 0–15 V adjustable
(DC)

Voltage Sources 2 10 V10 \, V10V, 5 V5 \, V5V (or per circuit)

 Component Quantity Specifications

Current Sources 1 1 A1 \, A1A (or per circuit)

Load Resistor 1 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω (or as per circuit)

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter

Multimeter 1 For resistance and voltage/current measurements

2. Theory
Thevenin's Theorem:

 Thevenin's Theorem simplifies any linear electrical network to a single equivalent voltage source
(VthV_{th}Vth) in series with a resistance (RthR_{th}Rth) connected to the load resistor. This makes analyzing
circuits with loads easier.
 Thevenin voltage (VthV_{th}Vth) is found by measuring the open-circuit voltage across the load terminals.
 Thevenin resistance (RthR_{th}Rth) is found by deactivating all independent sources (voltage sources
become short circuits, and current sources become open circuits) and measuring the resistance seen from
the load terminals.

Superposition Theorem:

 Superposition Theorem states that in a linear circuit with multiple independent sources (voltage or current
sources), the response (voltage or current) at any element is the algebraic sum of the individual responses
caused by each independent source acting alone, with all other sources turned off.
 To apply Superposition:
1. Turn off all but one source.
2. Analyze the circuit with the active source.
3. Repeat for all sources and sum the results.

3. Diagrams
Thevenin's Theorem Diagram:

1. Original Circuit (before Thevenin’s Transformation):

o A complex circuit with voltage sources and resistors.

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+--------+ +----[ Load Resistor ]---+
| | | |
[V1]----[ R1 ]----[ R2 ]---+---[ R3 ]---+---[ Load Resistor ]
| | |
+--------+ |
(original circuit) (Load Terminals)

2. Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

o The equivalent circuit with VthV_{th}Vth in series with RthR_{th}Rth, which is used for easier
analysis.
 plaintext
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+------------[ Load Resistor ]---+
| |
[Vth]----[ Rth ]----------------------+
|
Superposition Theorem Diagram:

1. Original Circuit with Multiple Sources:

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Source 1 Source 2 Source 3
[V1] [V2] [V3]
| | |
---+--- ---+--- ---+---

| | | | | | | [R] | [R] | [R] (Load Resistor) | | | | | | |-----------------|------|-------|-----| | | | GND GND GND

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- Each source is analyzed independently by deactivating the other sources (voltage

sources replaced with short circuits, and current sources with open circuits).

---

### **4. Results**

#### **Results for Thevenin's Theorem:**

1. **Thevenin Equivalent Voltage (\(V_{th}\)):**

- Measured as the open-circuit voltage across the load terminals when the load resistor
is removed.

**Example Calculation:**
- \( V_{th} = 12V \)

2. **Thevenin Equivalent Resistance (\(R_{th}\)):**

- Deactivate all independent sources and measure the resistance between the load
terminals.

**Example Calculation:**
- \( R_{th} = 5 \, \Omega \)

3. **Load Voltage and Current in Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:**

- After constructing the Thevenin equivalent, reconnect the load resistor and measure
the voltage and current.

**Example Calculation:**
- Load voltage = 6V (for a \(6 \, \Omega\) load resistor)
- Load current = 1A (for a \(6 \, \Omega\) load resistor)

---

#### **Results for Superposition Theorem:**

1. **Voltage/Current due to each Source:**

- Measure the voltage or current caused by each source acting alone.

**Example Calculation:**
- Voltage due to Source 1: \( V_1 = 6V \)
- Voltage due to Source 2: \( V_2 = 4V \)

2. **Total Voltage/Current:**
- Sum the individual voltages or currents from each source to get the total response.
**Example Calculation:**
- Total Voltage: \( V_{\text{total}} = V_1 + V_2 = 6V + 4V = 10V \)

---

### **Conclusion:**

- **Thevenin's Theorem** simplifies complex circuits to an easier equivalent circuit

with a voltage source and series resistance, making load analysis straightforward.
- **Superposition Theorem** helps in analyzing circuits with multiple sources by
considering the effect of each source individually and summing their effects.

The practical verification of these theorems provides insights into circuit

simplification techniques used in various engineering applications.

Attach

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Reason

EXPERIMENT : 2

To Verify Reciprocity Theorem and Millman’s Theorem.

Bill of Materials (BoM)

For Reciprocity Theorem:

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

Resistors 2 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 20 Ω20 \, \Omega20Ω (or per circuit)

Power Supply (DC) 1 0–15 V adjustable

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter
 Component Quantity Specifications

Multimeter 1 For resistance and voltage/current measurements

For Millman’s Theorem:

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 20 Ω20 \, \Omega20Ω, 30 Ω30 \, \Omega30Ω (or per

Resistors 3
circuit)

Voltage Sources 3 10 V10 \, V10V, 5 V5 \, V5V, 15 V15 \, V15V (or as per circuit)

Power Supply
1 0–15 V adjustable
(DC)

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter

Multimeter 1 For resistance and voltage/current measurements

2. Theory
Reciprocity Theorem:

 Reciprocity Theorem states that in a linear, bilateral network, the current resulting from a voltage source in
one branch can be measured in any other branch when the positions of the voltage source and the
measurement points are interchanged.
 In simpler terms, the current caused by a voltage source in one part of a circuit is the same as the current
caused when the source and measurement point are swapped.

Millman’s Theorem:

 Millman’s Theorem is used to find the equivalent voltage across a set of parallel branches, each
containing a voltage source and a resistance. It simplifies the analysis of circuits with multiple
sources in parallel.

Veq=V1/R1+V2/R2+⋯+Vn/Rn1/R1+1/R2+⋯+1/RnV_{eq} = \frac{V_1/R_1 + V_2/R_2 + \dots +

V_n/R_n}{1/R_1 + 1/R_2 + \dots + 1/R_n}Veq=1/R1+1/R2+⋯+1/RnV1/R1+V2/R2+⋯+Vn/Rn

 Here, V1,V2,…,VnV_1, V_2, \dots, V_nV1,V2,…,Vn are the voltage sources, and
R1,R2,…,RnR_1, R_2, \dots, R_nR1,R2,…,Rn are their corresponding resistances.
3. Diagrams
Reciprocity Theorem:

1. Original Circuit:

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+---[ R1 ]---[ V1 ]---+---[ R2 ]---+
| | |
[Current] | [Measurement Point]
| |
[ R2 ] (Measuring Current I)
+----------------------+

2. Reciprocal Circuit:

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+---[ R2 ]---[ V1 ]---+---[ R1 ]---+
| | |
[Current] | [Measurement Point]
| |
[ R1 ] (Measuring Current I')
+----------------------+

 The current III in the first configuration is the same as the current I′I'I′ in the reciprocal configuration.

Millman’s Theorem:

1. Circuit with Multiple Voltage Sources in Parallel:

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+----[ R1 ]----+ +----[ R2 ]----+ +----[ R3 ]----+
| [ V1 ] | | [ V2 ] | | [ V3 ] |
+--------------+ +--------------+ +--------------+
| | |
+---------[ R_total ]---------------------------------+
|
[Measurement Point]

 The equivalent voltage VeqV_{eq}Veq across the parallel combination of resistors and voltage sources is
found using Millman’s Theorem.

4. Results
Reciprocity Theorem Results:

 Original Configuration Current: Measure the current III when the voltage source is applied in the
first configuration.

Example:

o I=5 AI = 5 \, AI=5A
 Reciprocal Configuration Current: Measure the current I′I'I′ when the voltage source and
measurement points are interchanged.

Example:
 o I′=5 AI' = 5 \, AI′=5A
 Verification: The measured currents should be identical in both configurations, verifying the
Reciprocity Theorem.

Millman’s Theorem Results:

 Calculate the Equivalent Voltage VeqV_{eq}Veq using Millman’s formula:

Veq=V1/R1+V2/R2+V3/R31/R1+1/R2+1/R3V_{eq} = \frac{V_1/R_1 + V_2/R_2 + V_3/R_3}{1/R_1 + 1/R_2 +

1/R_3}Veq=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3V1/R1+V2/R2+V3/R3

Example Calculation:

o V1=10V,R1=10 ΩV_1 = 10V, R_1 = 10 \, \OmegaV1=10V,R1=10Ω

o V2=5V,R2=20 ΩV_2 = 5V, R_2 = 20 \, \OmegaV2=5V,R2=20Ω
o V3=15V,R3=30 ΩV_3 = 15V, R_3 = 30 \, \OmegaV3=15V,R3=30Ω

Veq=(10/10)+(5/20)+(15/30)(1/10)+(1/20)+(1/30)V_{eq} = \frac{(10/10) + (5/20) + (15/30)}{(1/10) + (1/20) +

(1/30)}Veq=(1/10)+(1/20)+(1/30)(10/10)+(5/20)+(15/30)
Veq=1+0.25+0.50.1+0.05+0.0333=1.750.1833=9.54VV_{eq} = \frac{1 + 0.25 + 0.5}{0.1 + 0.05 + 0.0333} =
\frac{1.75}{0.1833} = 9.54VVeq=0.1+0.05+0.03331+0.25+0.5=0.18331.75=9.54V

 Verification: The calculated equivalent voltage should match the observed voltage across the load
resistor.

Conclusion:

 Reciprocity Theorem is verified by interchanging the voltage source and measurement points, and
confirming the same current.
 Millman’s Theorem simplifies complex circuits with multiple parallel voltage sources, allowing calculation of
the equivalent voltage across the network.

This practical verification helps [Link] 3rd-semester students better understand these important theorems
and their applications in circuit analysis.
 EXPERIMENT : 3
To Verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

Bill of Materials (BoM)

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

Resistors 2 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 100 Ω100 \, \Omega100Ω (or per circuit)

Power Supply (DC) 1 0–15 V adjustable

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter

Multimeter 1 For resistance and voltage/current measurements

2. Theory
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

 The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that maximum power is transferred from the source to the
load when the resistance of the load (RLR_LRL) is equal to the Thevenin resistance (RthR_{th}Rth) of the
source network.
 Mathematically: Pmax=Vth24RthP_{max} = \frac{V_{th}^2}{4 R_{th}}Pmax=4RthVth2 Where:
o PmaxP_{max}Pmax = Maximum power delivered to the load
o VthV_{th}Vth = Thevenin equivalent voltage
o RthR_{th}Rth = Thevenin equivalent resistance
o RLR_LRL = Load resistance (set equal to RthR_{th}Rth for maximum power)

Steps:

1. Find the Thevenin equivalent of the source network (voltage and resistance).
2. Adjust the load resistance to match RthR_{th}Rth.
3. Measure the power delivered to the load.
4. Compare the power at maximum load resistance with other values of load resistance.

3. Diagram

1. Original Circuit:

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+----[ R_th ]----+----[ V_th ]----+
| |
[ Ammeter ] [ Voltmeter ]
 | |
+-----[ Load Resistor (R_L) ]----+

2. Maximum Power Condition:

o Set the load resistance RL=RthR_L = R_{th}RL=Rth for maximum power transfer.

4. Results
Step-by-Step Procedure:

1. Determine Thevenin Equivalent:

o Calculate VthV_{th}Vth and RthR_{th}Rth for the source network using Thevenin’s theorem.
2. Power Measurement:
o Measure the power transferred to the load by using:

P=V2RP = \frac{V^2}{R}P=RV2

where VVV is the voltage across the load resistor RLR_LRL.

o Example Calculation:
 Vth=12VV_{th} = 12VVth=12V, Rth=10 ΩR_{th} = 10 \, \OmegaRth=10Ω
 Set RL=Rth=10 ΩR_L = R_{th} = 10 \, \OmegaRL=Rth=10Ω

Power delivered to load:

Pmax=Vth24Rth=1224×10=3.6 WP_{max} = \frac{V_{th}^2}{4 R_{th}} = \frac{12^2}{4 \times 10} = 3.6

\, \text{W}Pmax=4RthVth2=4×10122=3.6W

3. Verification:
o When RL=RthR_L = R_{th}RL=Rth, the power is maximized at 3.6 W3.6 \, \text{W}3.6W. For any
other value of RLR_LRL, the power will be less than this maximum.

Conclusion:

 The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is verified by adjusting the load resistance to match the Thevenin
resistance of the source, and confirming the maximum power is transferred when RL=RthR_L = R_{th}RL=Rth


EXPERIMENT : 4

To Determine Open Circuit and Short Circuit parameters of a Two Port Network.

Bill of Materials (BoM)

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

 Component Quantity Specifications

Resistors 4 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 100 Ω100 \, \Omega100Ω (or per circuit)

Power Supply (DC) 1 0–15 V adjustable

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter

Multimeter 1 For resistance and voltage/current measurements

2. Theory
Two-Port Network:

A Two-Port Network is a system with two pairs of terminals, usually used to model electrical networks like
filters, amplifiers, etc. The two-port parameters (also called network parameters) are the relationship
between the voltage and current at the input and output ports.

The common parameters used are:

 Z-parameters (Impedance parameters)

 Y-parameters (Admittance parameters)
 H-parameters (Hybrid parameters)
 T-parameters (Transmission parameters)

For this practical, we focus on determining the open-circuit and short-circuit parameters.

Open-Circuit Parameters:

 Open-Circuit Voltage (VocV_{oc}Voc): The voltage at the output terminals when the output current is zero
(i.e., the load is open).
 Open-Circuit Impedance (ZocZ_{oc}Zoc): The ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the open-circuit current.

Short-Circuit Parameters:

 Short-Circuit Current (IscI_{sc}Isc): The current at the output terminals when the load is shorted.
 Short-Circuit Admittance (YscY_{sc}Ysc): The ratio of the short-circuit current to the short-circuit voltage.

3. Diagram
Two-Port Network Configuration:

1. Open Circuit Configuration:

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+----[ V_oc ]----+---[ Load Resistor ]---+
| |
[V_in] |
| |
[ R1 ] [ R2 ]---[ V_out ]
 +-------------------------------+
(Open Circuit: No Current Flow)

o For open circuit, the current through the load is zero.

2. Short Circuit Configuration:

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+----[ V_in ]----+---[ Short Circuit ]---+
| |
[R1] |
| |
[ R2 ]---[ V_out ] |
+------------------------------------+
(Short Circuit: Load Shorted)

o For short circuit, the output terminals are directly connected with a wire (i.e., shorted).

4. Results
1. Open Circuit Measurement:

 Step 1: Connect the two-port network with no load (open-circuit condition).

 Step 2: Measure the Open-Circuit Voltage VocV_{oc}Voc across the output terminals.

Example Calculation:

o Voc=12VV_{oc} = 12VVoc=12V
 Step 3: Measure the Open-Circuit Impedance ZocZ_{oc}Zoc, which is the ratio of
VocV_{oc}Voc to the current through the open-circuit.

Example Calculation:

o Zoc=12V/0.5A=24 ΩZ_{oc} = 12V / 0.5A = 24 \, \OmegaZoc=12V/0.5A=24Ω

2. Short Circuit Measurement:

 Step 1: Short the output terminals and measure the Short-Circuit Current IscI_{sc}Isc.

Example Calculation:

o Isc=4AI_{sc} = 4AIsc=4A
 Step 2: Measure the Short-Circuit Admittance YscY_{sc}Ysc, which is the ratio of IscI_{sc}Isc to
the short-circuit voltage.

Example Calculation:

o Ysc=4A/12V=0.3333 SY_{sc} = 4A / 12V = 0.3333 \, \text{S}Ysc=4A/12V=0.3333S

Conclusion:

 Open-Circuit Parameters:
o Voc=12VV_{oc} = 12VVoc=12V
o Zoc=24 ΩZ_{oc} = 24 \, \OmegaZoc=24Ω
 Short-Circuit Parameters:
o Isc=4AI_{sc} = 4AIsc=4A
o Ysc=0.3333 SY_{sc} = 0.3333 \, \text{S}Ysc=0.3333S
By measuring the open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current, we can find the key parameters for the two-
port network. These measurements can then be used to analyze the behavior of the network in various
applications, such as amplifiers and filters.

EXPERIMENT : 5
To Determine A,B, C, D parameters of a Two Port Network.

Bill of Materials (BoM)

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

Resistors 4 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 100 Ω100 \, \Omega100Ω, (for various combinations)

Power Supply (DC) 1 0–15 V adjustable

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter

Multimeter 1 For resistance, voltage, and current measurements

2. Theory
Two-Port Network:

A Two-Port Network is a circuit with two pairs of terminals, commonly used for modeling electrical
networks like amplifiers, filters, etc. The A, B, C, D parameters are a set of four parameters used to
describe the relationship between the input and output voltages and currents of the network.

The general form for the relationship is:

(V1I1)=(ABCD)(V2I2)\begin{pmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} A & B \\ C & D \end{pmatrix}

\begin{pmatrix} V_2 \\ I_2 \end{pmatrix}(V1I1)=(ACBD)(V2I2)

Where:

 V1V_1V1, I1I_1I1 are the voltage and current at the input terminals.
 V2V_2V2, I2I_2I2 are the voltage and current at the output terminals.
 AAA, BBB, CCC, DDD are the transmission parameters.
Transmission Parameters:

1. A (Voltage Gain Factor): Describes the relationship between the input voltage and output voltage.

A=V1V2(with constant current input)A = \frac{V_1}{V_2} \quad \text{(with constant current input)}A=V2V1
(with constant current input)

2. B (Impedance Parameter): Describes the relationship between the input voltage and output current.

B=V1I2(with constant input voltage)B = \frac{V_1}{I_2} \quad \text{(with constant input voltage)}B=I2V1
(with constant input voltage)

3. C (Admittance Parameter): Describes the relationship between the output voltage and input
current.

C=I1V2(with constant voltage input)C = \frac{I_1}{V_2} \quad \text{(with constant voltage input)}C=V2I1
(with constant voltage input)

4. D (Current Gain Factor): Describes the relationship between the input current and output current.

D=I1I2(with constant voltage input)D = \frac{I_1}{I_2} \quad \text{(with constant voltage input)}D=I2I1
(with constant voltage input)

3. Diagram
Two-Port Network Configuration:

1. Input and Output Relationships:

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+----[ A ]----+ +----[ B ]----+ +----[ V_1 ]----+
| | | | | |
[ I_1 ] [ V_2 ] [ C ] [ I_2 ] [ V_2 ]
| | | | | |
+--------------+ +--------------+ +-----------------+
| |
(A, B, C, D Parameters) |
(For Analysis)

 V1V_1V1 and I1I_1I1 are the input voltage and current, while V2V_2V2 and I2I_2I2 are the output voltage
and current.
 AAA, BBB, CCC, and DDD parameters define the relationships between these quantities.

4. Results
1. Measure AAA, BBB, CCC, and DDD Parameters:
Step 1: Measuring AAA and BBB

 Connect the Two-Port Network.

 Apply a known voltage V2V_2V2 at the output and measure the corresponding input voltage
V1V_1V1 and input current I1I_1I1.
 Use the following relations:
o A=V1V2A = \frac{V_1}{V_2}A=V2V1
o B=V1I2B = \frac{V_1}{I_2}B=I2V1
 Example Calculation:

o V1=10VV_1 = 10VV1=10V, V2=5VV_2 = 5VV2=5V, I2=2AI_2 = 2AI2=2A

o A=10V/5V=2A = 10V / 5V = 2A=10V/5V=2
o B=10V/2A=5 ΩB = 10V / 2A = 5 \, \OmegaB=10V/2A=5Ω

Step 2: Measuring CCC and DDD

 Apply a known current I1I_1I1 at the input and measure the corresponding output voltage
V2V_2V2 and output current I2I_2I2.
 Use the following relations:
o C=I1V2C = \frac{I_1}{V_2}C=V2I1
o D=I1I2D = \frac{I_1}{I_2}D=I2I1

Example Calculation:

o I1=1AI_1 = 1AI1=1A, V2=10VV_2 = 10VV2=10V, I2=0.5AI_2 = 0.5AI2=0.5A

o C=1A/10V=0.1 SC = 1A / 10V = 0.1 \, \text{S}C=1A/10V=0.1S
o D=1A/0.5A=2D = 1A / 0.5A = 2D=1A/0.5A=2

2. Summary of Results:

 A=2A = 2A=2
 B=5 ΩB = 5 \, \OmegaB=5Ω
 C=0.1 SC = 0.1 \, \text{S}C=0.1S
 D=2D = 2D=2

Conclusion:

By measuring the input and output voltages and currents, we can calculate the A, B, C, and D parameters
of the two-port network. These parameters allow for a detailed analysis of the network's behavior, especially
in systems like amplifiers or filters. The results can be used to model the network's performance in various
conditions.

EXPERIMENT : 6
To determine h parameters of a Two Port Network.

Bill of Materials (BoM)

Component Quantity Specifications

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

Resistors 4 10 Ω10 \, \Omega10Ω, 100 Ω100 \, \Omega100Ω, etc.

 Component Quantity Specifications

Power Supply (DC) 1 0–15 V adjustable

Voltmeter 1 DC Voltmeter

Ammeter 1 DC Ammeter

Multimeter 1 For resistance, voltage, and current measurements

2. Theory
Hybrid Parameters (h-parameters):

The h-parameters (Hybrid parameters) describe the relationship between the input and output voltages and
currents of a two-port network. These parameters are particularly useful for modeling amplifiers and
transistors.

The general form of the relationship for a two-port network using h-parameters is:

(V1I1)=(h11h12h21h22)(V2I2)\begin{pmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} h_{11} & h_{12} \\ h_{21}

& h_{22} \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} V_2 \\ I_2 \end{pmatrix}(V1I1)=(h11h21h12h22)(V2I2)

Where:

 V1V_1V1 and I1I_1I1 are the voltage and current at the input.
 V2V_2V2 and I2I_2I2 are the voltage and current at the output.
 h11h_{11}h11 = Input impedance with output shorted.
 h12h_{12}h12 = Reverse voltage gain (open-circuit gain with output voltage set to zero).
 h21h_{21}h21 = Forward current gain (open-circuit gain with input current set to zero).
 h22h_{22}h22 = Output admittance with input open.

Formulas for h-parameters:

1. h11=V1I1h_{11} = \frac{V_1}{I_1}h11=I1V1 (with V2=0V_2 = 0V2=0)

2. h12=V1V2h_{12} = \frac{V_1}{V_2}h12=V2V1 (with I1=0I_1 = 0I1=0)
3. h21=I2I1h_{21} = \frac{I_2}{I_1}h21=I1I2 (with V2=0V_2 = 0V2=0)
4. h22=I2V2h_{22} = \frac{I_2}{V_2}h22=V2I2 (with I1=0I_1 = 0I1=0)

3. Diagram
Two-Port Network Configuration:

1. Circuit Diagram for Two-Port Network:

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+----[ h11 ]----+ +----[ h12 ]----+ +----[ V1 ]----+
| | | | | |
[ I1 ] [ V2 ] [ h21 ] [ I2 ] [ V2 ]
| | | | | |
+----------------+ +----------------+ +--------------+
(h-parameters)
  h11: Input impedance (voltage ratio when output is shorted).
 h12: Reverse voltage gain (voltage ratio when input current is zero).
 h21: Forward current gain (current ratio when output voltage is zero).
 h22: Output admittance (current ratio when input is zero).

4. Results
1. Measure h11, h12, h21, h22 Parameters:
Step 1: Measure h11h_{11}h11 (Input Impedance)

 Connect the Two-Port Network.

 Short the output (set V2=0V_2 = 0V2=0) and apply a known current I1I_1I1 to measure the input
voltage V1V_1V1.
 Use the formula:

h11=V1I1h_{11} = \frac{V_1}{I_1}h11=I1V1

Example Calculation:

o V1=5VV_1 = 5VV1=5V, I1=0.5AI_1 = 0.5AI1=0.5A

o h11=5V/0.5A=10 Ωh_{11} = 5V / 0.5A = 10 \, \Omegah11=5V/0.5A=10Ω

Step 2: Measure h12h_{12}h12 (Reverse Voltage Gain)

 Set I1=0I_1 = 0I1=0 (open the input).

 Apply a known voltage V2V_2V2 to the output and measure V1V_1V1.
 Use the formula:

h12=V1V2h_{12} = \frac{V_1}{V_2}h12=V2V1

Example Calculation:

o V1=4VV_1 = 4VV1=4V, V2=2VV_2 = 2VV2=2V

o h12=4V/2V=2h_{12} = 4V / 2V = 2h12=4V/2V=2

Step 3: Measure h21h_{21}h21 (Forward Current Gain)

 Set V2=0V_2 = 0V2=0 (short the output).

 Apply a known input current I1I_1I1 and measure I2I_2I2.
 Use the formula:

h21=I2I1h_{21} = \frac{I_2}{I_1}h21=I1I2

Example Calculation:

o I1=1AI_1 = 1AI1=1A, I2=0.8AI_2 = 0.8AI2=0.8A

o h21=0.8A/1A=0.8h_{21} = 0.8A / 1A = 0.8h21=0.8A/1A=0.8

Step 4: Measure h22h_{22}h22 (Output Admittance)

 Set I1=0I_1 = 0I1=0 (open the input).

 Apply a known output voltage V2V_2V2 and measure I2I_2I2.
 Use the formula:
 h22=I2V2h_{22} = \frac{I_2}{V_2}h22=V2I2

Example Calculation:

o I2=0.4AI_2 = 0.4AI2=0.4A, V2=10VV_2 = 10VV2=10V

o h22=0.4A/10V=0.04 Sh_{22} = 0.4A / 10V = 0.04 \, \text{S}h22=0.4A/10V=0.04S

2. Summary of Results:

 h11=10 Ωh_{11} = 10 \, \Omegah11=10Ω

 h12=2h_{12} = 2h12=2
 h21=0.8h_{21} = 0.8h21=0.8
 h22=0.04 Sh_{22} = 0.04 \, \text{S}h22=0.04S

Conclusion:

The h-parameters for the two-port network are measured and calculated as:

 h11=10 Ωh_{11} = 10 \, \Omegah11=10Ω

 h12=2h_{12} = 2h12=2
 h21=0.8h_{21} = 0.8h21=0.8
 h22=0.04 Sh_{22} = 0.04 \, \text{S}h22=0.04S

These parameters describe the input-output relationships of the two-port network, and the results are
essential for analyzing and designing amplifiers, filters, and other electronic systems.

EXPERIMENT : 7

To Find Frequency Response of RLC Series Circuit RLC parallel Circuit and determine resonance and 3dB
frequencies.

Bill of Materials (BoM)

Component Quantity Specifications

Resistor 2 R=100 ΩR = 100 \, \OmegaR=100Ω

Inductor 2 L=100 mHL = 100 \, mHL=100mH

Capacitor 2 C=10 μFC = 10 \, \mu FC=10μF

Function Generator 1 Frequency range: 1 Hz – 1 MHz

Oscilloscope 1 2-channel oscilloscope

 Component Quantity Specifications

Multimeter 1 For voltage and resistance measurements

Frequency Counter 1 For frequency measurements

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

2. Theory
RLC Series Circuit:

An RLC series circuit consists of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C) connected in series.
The frequency response of this circuit shows how the impedance changes with frequency.

The resonance frequency (f0f_0f0) occurs when the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance cancel
each other out, and the circuit impedance is purely resistive.

The formula for resonance frequency is:

f0=12πLCf_0 = \frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{LC}}f0=2πLC1

The 3dB frequencies (also called half-power points) occur where the power drops to half of its maximum
value, corresponding to the points where the impedance or voltage is 12\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}21 of its
maximum.

The bandwidth (BW) is:

BW=RLBW = \frac{R}{L}BW=LR

RLC Parallel Circuit:

In an RLC parallel circuit, the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are connected in parallel. The frequency
response shows the impedance of the parallel combination and the behavior around resonance.

The resonance frequency for the parallel RLC circuit is the same as the series circuit:

f0=12πLCf_0 = \frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{LC}}f0=2πLC1

The 3dB frequencies are determined in a similar manner to the series circuit but are based on the parallel
combination’s behavior.

3. Diagram
RLC Series Circuit:
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+----[ R ]----+----[ L ]----+----[ C ]----+
| | | |
[ V_in ] [ V_out ] [ Ground ] |
 | | | |
+-------------+--------------+-------------+
(Series Connection)

 Resonance Frequency: The point where the impedance of the series combination is at a minimum.
 3dB Point: Frequencies where the voltage drops to 12\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}21 of the maximum value.

RLC Parallel Circuit:

plaintext
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+----[ R ]----+
| |
[ V_in ] [ V_out ]
| |
+----[ L ]----+----[ C ]----+
| |
[ Ground ] [ Ground ]

 Resonance Frequency: The point where the impedance of the parallel combination is at a maximum.
 3dB Point: Frequencies where the power drops to half of its maximum value.

4. Results
1. RLC Series Circuit:
Step 1: Calculate Resonance Frequency

Given:

 L=100 mHL = 100 \, mHL=100mH

 C=10 μFC = 10 \, \mu FC=10μF

f0=12πLC=12π(100×10−3)×(10×10−6)≈159.15 Hzf_0 = \frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{LC}} = \frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{(100 \times 10^{-
3}) \times (10 \times 10^{-6})}} \approx 159.15 \, \text{Hz}f0=2πLC1=2π(100×10−3)×(10×10−6)1≈159.15Hz
Step 2: Measure Frequency Response

 Apply a sine wave signal from the function generator.

 Vary the frequency and measure the output voltage.
 Observe the frequency at which the voltage peaks, indicating resonance (f0f_0f0).

Step 3: Determine 3dB Frequencies

 Measure the output voltage at the resonance frequency and find the 12\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}21 point.
 The 3dB frequencies are where the output drops to Vmax2\frac{V_{max}}{\sqrt{2}}2Vmax.

Example Results (for illustration):

 Resonance frequency f0=159.15 Hzf_0 = 159.15 \, \text{Hz}f0=159.15Hz

 Lower 3dB frequency: 140 Hz
 Upper 3dB frequency: 180 Hz
 Bandwidth (BW) = 40 Hz

2. RLC Parallel Circuit:

Step 1: Calculate Resonance Frequency

Using the same components:

  L=100 mHL = 100 \, mHL=100mH
 C=10 μFC = 10 \, \mu FC=10μF

The resonance frequency remains the same as for the series circuit:

f0=159.15 Hzf_0 = 159.15 \, \text{Hz}f0=159.15Hz

Step 2: Measure Frequency Response

 Similar to the series circuit, apply a sine wave signal and measure the output voltage.
 Observe the frequency where the output is maximum (resonance).

Step 3: Determine 3dB Frequencies

Measure where the output voltage drops to Vmax2\frac{V_{max}}{\sqrt{2}}2Vmax.

Example Results (for illustration):

 Resonance frequency f0=159.15 Hzf_0 = 159.15 \, \text{Hz}f0=159.15Hz

 Lower 3dB frequency: 140 Hz
 Upper 3dB frequency: 180 Hz
 Bandwidth (BW) = 40 Hz

Conclusion:

 The resonance frequency for both RLC series and parallel circuits is approximately 159.15 Hz159.15 \,
\text{Hz}159.15Hz.
 The 3dB frequencies occur at 140 Hz and 180 Hz.
 The bandwidth for both circuits is approximately 40 Hz.

These experiments provide a hands-on understanding of frequency response, resonance, and 3dB bandwidth
in RLC circuits, crucial for filter design and signal processing.

EXPERIMENT : 8
To determine charging and discharging times of Capacitors.

Bill of Materials (BoM)

Component Quantity Specifications

Capacitor 1 C=100 μFC = 100 \, \mu FC=100μF

Resistor 1 R=10 kΩR = 10 \, k\OmegaR=10kΩ

Power Supply 1 DC Power Supply, 0−15V0-15V0−15V

Function Generator 1 For signal waveform generation

 Component Quantity Specifications

Oscilloscope 1 For observing voltage across capacitor

Multimeter 1 For voltage and resistance measurements

Breadboard 1 General-purpose breadboard

Connecting Wires 1 set Assorted lengths

2. Theory

The charging and discharging of a capacitor in an RC circuit can be described using the following
mathematical equations. These processes happen when a capacitor is charged or discharged through a
resistor.

Charging of a Capacitor:

When a capacitor is charging through a resistor, the voltage across the capacitor VC(t)V_C(t)VC(t) at any
time ttt is given by:

VC(t)=Vmax(1−e−tRC)V_C(t) = V_{\text{max}} \left( 1 - e^{-\frac{t}{RC}} \right)VC(t)=Vmax(1−e−RCt)

Where:

 VmaxV_{\text{max}}Vmax is the maximum voltage (supply voltage),

 RRR is the resistance,
 CCC is the capacitance,
 ttt is the time elapsed.

The charging time is characterized by the time constant τ=RC\tau = RCτ=RC. It takes approximately
5τ5\tau5τ for the capacitor to charge up to 99.3%99.3\%99.3% of VmaxV_{\text{max}}Vmax.

Discharging of a Capacitor:

When a charged capacitor is discharging through a resistor, the voltage across the capacitor VC(t)V_C(t)VC
(t) at any time ttt is given by:

VC(t)=V0e−tRCV_C(t) = V_0 e^{-\frac{t}{RC}}VC(t)=V0e−RCt

Where:

 V0V_0V0 is the initial voltage across the capacitor,

 RRR is the resistance,
 CCC is the capacitance,
 ttt is the time elapsed.

The time constant τ=RC\tau = RCτ=RC is the time taken for the voltage to drop to approximately
36.8%36.8\%36.8% of its initial value.
3. Diagram
RC Charging Circuit:
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+----[ R ]----+----[ C ]----+
| | |
[ V_in ] [ V_C(t) ] [ Ground ]
| |
+-------------+
(Charging Circuit)

 V_in: Supply voltage.

 V_C(t): Voltage across the capacitor.
 R: Resistor in series with the capacitor.
 C: Capacitor being charged.

RC Discharging Circuit:
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+----[ R ]----+----[ C ]----+
| | |
[ V_0 ] [ V_C(t) ] [ Ground ]
| |
+-------------+
(Discharging Circuit)

 V_0: Initial voltage across the capacitor.

 V_C(t): Voltage across the capacitor during discharging.
 R: Resistor in series with the capacitor.

4. Results
1. Charging of Capacitor:
Step 1: Set Up the Circuit

 Connect the capacitor, resistor, and power supply in series as shown in the diagram.
 Set the supply voltage to VmaxV_{\text{max}}Vmax.

Step 2: Measure Voltage Across Capacitor

 Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage across the capacitor during the charging process.
 Note the time it takes for the capacitor voltage to reach about 63.2%63.2\%63.2% of
VmaxV_{\text{max}}Vmax. This time is approximately the time constant τ=RC\tau = RCτ=RC.

Step 3: Calculate Time Constant

 Using the measured resistance and capacitance, calculate the time constant τ\tauτ.

For example:

 R=10 kΩR = 10 \, k\OmegaR=10kΩ

 C=100 μFC = 100 \, \mu FC=100μF

τ=R×C=(10×103)×(100×10−6)=1 second\tau = R \times C = (10 \times 10^3) \times (100 \times 10^{-6}) = 1 \,
\text{second}τ=R×C=(10×103)×(100×10−6)=1second
Step 4: Observation

 The voltage across the capacitor will rise exponentially, and it will take approximately 5τ5\tau5τ (5 seconds
in this case) for the capacitor to charge close to 99.3%99.3\%99.3% of VmaxV_{\text{max}}Vmax.

2. Discharging of Capacitor:
Step 1: Set Up the Circuit

 After charging the capacitor, disconnect the power supply and connect the capacitor to the resistor to start
the discharging process.

Step 2: Measure Voltage Across Capacitor

 Use the oscilloscope to measure the voltage across the capacitor during discharging.
 The voltage will decay exponentially.

Step 3: Determine Time for Voltage Decay

 The time it takes for the capacitor voltage to drop to 36.8%36.8\%36.8% of its initial value corresponds to
the time constant τ\tauτ.

For example:

 Initial voltage V0=10VV_0 = 10VV0=10V,

 After τ\tauτ seconds, the voltage will drop to 10×e−1≈3.68V10 \times e^{-1} \approx 3.68V10×e−1≈3.68V.

Conclusion:

 The time constant τ=1 second\tau = 1 \, \text{second}τ=1second for the given values of R=10 kΩR = 10 \,
k\OmegaR=10kΩ and C=100 μFC = 100 \, \mu FC=100μF.
 The charging and discharging voltages follow exponential behavior as predicted by the theoretical formulas.
 The voltage across the capacitor charges to 99.3%99.3\%99.3% of the maximum value in about 5τ5\tau5τ
seconds, and discharges to 36.8%36.8\%36.8% of its initial value in τ\tauτ seconds.

This experiment demonstrates the charging and discharging behavior of capacitors and allows the
determination of the time constant of an RC circuit.