TE LAB

OBSERVATION:
MINIMUM 40 VOLTS [BOTH]
S.
Volts Amps Volts Amps T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
No.

1. 39 0.18 44.1 0.14 34.2 32.3 41.3 80.9 62.5 92.1 98.4 42.0 34.6

2. 36 0.16 41 0.13 22.6 34.5 44.4 85.0 66.4 95.6 102.8 44.9 37.4

3. 32 0.14 36 0.12 23.8 35.0 44.5 82.5 65.4 92.0 98.7 45.0 38.2

CALCULATION:
Insulating material : Asbestos sheet [commercial grade]
Specimen diameter = 150 mm = 0.15 m.
Area of specimen = π / 4 x [0.15]2 = 0.018 m2.
Specimen thickness = ∆ L = 12 mm = 0.012 m.
Volts = 32
Amps = 0.14 Main heater

Volts = 36
Amps = 0.12 Ring heater
Heat input q = q [main heater] + q [guard heater]
= [32 x 0.14 x 0.86] + [36 x 0.12 x 0.86]
= 3.85 + 3.71
= 7.56 kcal/hr.
It should be noted that out of this heat input, ideally only a half will pass through each of the
specimens [top and bottom].
Hence q = q / 2 = 7.56 / 2 = 3.78 kcal/hr.
∆T = {[T4 – T3] + [T7 – T8]} / 2
= {[82.5 – 44.5] + [98.7 – 45.0]} / 2
= [38 + 53.7] / 2
= 91.7 / 2 = 45.850C.
Thermal conductivity of specimen
K = q ∆L / A ∆T
= 3.78 x 0.012 / 0.018 x 45.85
= 0.04536 / 0.8253
= 0.05496 kcal/hr m0C.

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Experiment Number: 1
Title of the Experiment: Thermal Conductivity Measurement By Guarded
Plate Method
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the thermal conductivity of a poor conducting material, say Asbestos
sheet.

RELEVANT THEORY

Thermal conductivity is a specific property of conducting material which is defined

below for a homogeneous solid as the quantity of heat conducted across a unit area normal to
the flow direction in unit time and for unit temperature gradient along the flow.
K = q dL / A dT
Where,
q = heat conducted in watts
dL = thickness [m]
A = Area of conduction heat transfer, m2
dT = temperature difference across the length dL [0C]

MEASUREMENT:

Experimental measurement of thermal conductivities of solids can be accomplished

by a variety of methods, all based on the observation of the temperature gradient across a
given area of the material conducting heat at a known rate. Each of these methods has
certain unique limitations, and the choice of one over another is governed by the general
temperature level at which K is measured, by the physical structure of the material in
question and by whether the material is a good or poor conductor.

In measuring the thermal conductivity of poor conductors, the specimens are taken in
the form of sheets in order that the heat flow path is short and the conducting area large. [low
dL, higher A].

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FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity

1. Guarded plate apparatus 1

SPECIFICATIONS:
Material = Asbestos sheet [commercial grade]
Specimen diameter [d] = 150 mm or 0.15 m.
Specimen thickness dL = 12 mm or 0.012 m.
Area of specimen = π / 4 x [0.15]2 m2
Heat input = VI watts [q]

b] Guarded Hot Plate method [Solids]

The apparatus consists of a Guarded Hot Plate, the arrangement along with
thermocouple positions [T3, T4] across the specimen and T5, T6 guarded heater temperature
[only for check] [T1, T2] Top and Bottom pad temperatures.

The panel consists of voltmeter, ammeter, temperature indicator [all digital], dimmer
controls, voltmeter and ammeter selector [common switch, thermocouple selector switch].

c] Operation:

a] Connect the three pin plug top to 230 V, 50 Hz, 5 Amps power supply socket, dimmers
in OFF position.

b] Keep the voltmeter and ammeter switch in 1 position. Turn the dimmer in clockwise
and adjust the power input to main heater to any desired value by looking at voltmeter and
ammeter.
c] Turn the voltmeter and ammeter switch to position marked 2 and check the voltage &
current are same for ring heater.
d] Allow the unit to stabilize [approx 30 minutes].
e] Note down the temperature indicated by the digital temperature indicator by turning the
thermocouple selector switch clockwise step by step [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6].
f] Repeat the experiment for different power inputs to the heater.
g] Tabulate all the readings and calculate for different conditions.
h] After the experiment is over turn all the dimmer knobs anti clockwise, direction to zero.
i] Disconnect the three pin plug top from the mains.

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CAUTION:
The equipment should be operated between 0 and 150 V.

d] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Supply a small quantity of energy to the source ‘H’ [the main heater MH].
2. Now adjust the input to the guard heaters such that the temperature is same
as that of the main heater
3. Allow water through the cooling circuit slowly.
4. Allow 30 – 60 minutes for the temperatures to stabilize.
5. Note down all the parameter
6. Repeat the experiment at different temperature values by adjusting
appropriately the input conditions.

e] Result:
Thus the thermal conductivity of a poor conducting material [Asbestos sheet] is
determined.
K= 0.05496 Kcal / hr m0C.

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Experiment Number: 2
Title of the Experiment: Thermal Conductivity Of Pipe Insulation Using
Lagged Pipe Apparatus
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To plot the radial temperature distribution in the composite cylinder and to determine
the thermal conductivity of the pipe insulation.

THEORY
Consider one dimensional radial heat flow through a hollow cylinder, under steady
state conditions.
q = 2πKL [T1 – T2] / ln [r2/r1]
Where T1, T2 are the inner and outer wall temperature r1 and r2 are the inner and outer
radii of the pipe.
K = Thermal conductivity of the material.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity

1. Lagged Pipe Apparatus 1

b] Description of the Apparatus:

The apparatus consists of a metal pipe with two layers of insulation. An electric
heating coil wound on a silica rod is placed at the center. The ends are thickly insulated to
prevent heat loss so that, heat flow only in a radial direction. Three thermocouples each are
placed at different radii to measure the temperature distribution within the cylinder.
c] Technical Data:
Location of thermocouples 1, 2, 3 at a radius = 25 mm.
Location of thermocouples 4, 5, 6 at a radius = 37.5 mm.
Location of thermocouples 7, 8, 9 at a radius = 50 mm.
Location of thermocouples 10, 11, 12 at a radius = 62.5 mm.
Length of the pipe L = 500 mm.

TABULATION

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Heat Input Temp at Radius Temp at Radius Temp at Radius Temp at Radius
[Link]
[watts] R1 0 C R2 0C R3 0C R4 0C

V A q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

1.
75 0.44 33 111.8 133.8 102.2 37.2 41.9 37.3 35.4 39.9 39.7 31.8 30.2 30.4

MODEL CALCULATION:

At r1 = 25 mm
T1 = (111.8 + 133.8 + 102.2) / 3 = 115.930C.

At r2 = 37.5 mm
T2 = (37.2 + 41.9 + 37.3) / 3 = 38.80C.

At r3 = 50 mm
T3 = (35.4 + 39.9 + 39.7) / 3 = 38.330C.

At r4 = 62.5 mm
T4 = (31.8 + 30.2 + 30.4) / 3 = 30.80C.

q = 2 π KL [T2 – T3] / ln [r3/r2]

q = V x I = 75 x 0.44 = 33.
K = q ln [r3/r2] / 2π L [T2 – T3]

= 33 ln [0.05/0.0375] / 2π x 0.5 [38.8 – 38.33]

K = 0.1948 W/mK.

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d] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Connect the equipment to a 230V, 5 amps, and 50 HZ electrical source.
2. Twin the dimmerstat knob clockwise and fix the heat input to a desired
wattage [V x I]
3. Allow the equipment to stabilize and attain steady state.
4. Turn the thermocouple selector switch knob clockwise and note down
temperature T1 to T12.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.

d] Formula:
q = 2 π KL [T2 – T3] / ln [r3/r2]
0
T2 = Temperature at radius r2 C
T3 = Temperature at radius r3 C 0

r = radius of the pipe ‘m’

K = Thermal Conductivity – W/m K
L = Length of the pipe – ‘m’

e] Result:
Thus the thermal Conductivity of the pipe insulation is determined.
K = 0.1948 W/m K.

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TABULATION
Am- Thermocouple Location in 0C
Volt
S. Meter In [T8] Tmf
Meter Ts 0C
No Reading Put Ta [Ts + Ta] / 2
Reading 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0
. [I] Watts C. C
[Volts]
Amps
1. 78.125 0.64 50 53 56 62 68 66 71 64 62.857 38 50.429

2. 84.337 0.83 70 83 92 101 107 101 110 103 99.571 38 68.736

3. 91.836 0.98 90 98 102 121 128 123 133 113 116.857 39 77.929

CALCULATION:
[1] Experiment heat transfer co-efficient [Average]
Q = hA [∆T] Watts.
` Q = hA [Ts – Ta] Watts.
h = Q / A [Ts – Ta] W/m2 K.
h = 50 / π x d x l [Ts – Ta] = 50 / π x 0.031 x 0.5 [62.857 – 38]
havg = 41.309 W/m2K.
[2] Local heat transfer co-efficient:
hexp[local] = Q / A[Tx – Ta].
h1 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [53 - 38] = 68.454 W/m2 K.
h2 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [56 - 38] = 57.045 W/m2K.
h3 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [62 - 38] = 42.784 W/m2K.
h4 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [68 - 38] = 34.227 W/m2K.
h5 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [66 - 38] = 36.672 W/m2K.
h6 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [71 - 38] = 31.115 W/m2K.
h7 = 50 / 0.5 x 0.031 x π x [64 - 38] = 39.493 W/m2K.
[3] Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient. htheo [Average]
Gr = [g x L3 x β x ∆T] / ν2
β = 1 / Tmf in K = 1 / [50.429 + 273] = 3.092 x 10-3 0K-1.
∆T = [Ts – Ta] = 24.857 0C.
Tf = [Ts + Ta] / 2 = [62.857 + 38] / 2 = 50.429 = 50 0C.
Properties of air at 500C
ρ = 1.093 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.698; L = 0.5 m;
ν = 17.95 x 10 m /s;
-6 2
K = 0.02826 W/m K; g = 9.81 m/sec2.
Gr = [g x Lx3 x β x ∆T] / ν2 = {9.81 x [0.5]3 x 3.092 x10-3 x 24.857} /[17.95 x 10-6]2
Gr = 0.0942 / 3.222 x 10-10 = 2.924 x 108.
GrPr = [2.924 x 108] x 0.698 = 2.040 x 108.
Nu = 0.59 [2.040 x 108]0.25 = 70.511
70.511 = h x 0.5 / 0.02826
htheo = 3.985 W/m2 K.

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Experiment Number: 3
Title of the Experiment: Natural Convection Heat Transfer from a Vertical
Cylinder
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine surface heat transfer co-efficient, local heat transfer co-efficient along
the length of the tube and also to draw the graph between local heat transfer co-efficient and
distance along the length of the tube.

FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity

1. Natural convection-vertical cylinder 1

apparatus

b] Theory
When a hot body is kept in a still air, heat is transferred to the surrounding by natural
convection, the fluid layer in contact with the hot surface gets heated, rises up due to
decrease in its density and the cold fluid rushes into take its place. The process is continuous
and heat transfer takes place due to relative motion of hot and cold fluid. The surface heat
transfer co-efficient of a system transferring heat by natural convection depends upon its
shape, dimension, orientation and also the temperature difference between the surface and the
fluid.

c] Apparatus Description
The apparatus consists of a Brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical fashion.
The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of
undisturbed surrounding. One side of the duct is made up of Perspex sheet for visualization.
An electric heating element is kept in the vertical tube which in turn heats the tube to the
surrounding air by natural convection. The surface temperature of the vertical tube is
measured by seven thermocouple wires. The tube surface is polished to minimize the
radiation losses. The temperature of the tube measured by a temperature indicator.

Specification:
[1] Diameter of the tube [d] = 31 mm.
[2] Length of the tube [l] = 500 mm.
[3] Duct size = 200 mm x 200 mm x 750 mm

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[4] Theoretical Local heat transfer co-efficient. htheo [Local]

Gr [local] = [g x β x L x3 x ∆T] / ν2
[i] Tmf [Local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [53 +38] / 2 = 45.50C.
Properties of air at 45.50C
ρ = 1.109 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.685; Lx = 0.01 m;
ν = 17.505 x 10-6 m2/s K = 0.02795 W/mK; g = 9.81 m2/s;
Gr = [g x β x Lx3 x ∆T] / ν2 β = 1 / 318.5 = 3.140 x 10-3.
= 9.81 x 3.140 x 10-3 x 0.013 x [53 – 38] / [17.505 x 10-6]2
Gr = 1.508 x 103.
Gr Pr = [1.508 x 103] [0.685]
Gr Pr = 1.033 x 103.
104 ≤ Gr Pr ≤ 109 Nu = [0.59] [Gr Pr] 0.25
= [0.59] [1.033 x 103] 0.25 = 3.345
Nu = hL Lx / K
3.345 = hL [0.01] / 0.02795
hL1 = 9.349 W/m2K.
[ii] Tmf [Local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [56 + 38] / 2 = 470C.
Properties of air at 470C
ρ = 1.104 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.689; Lx = 0.05 m;
ν = 17.653 x 10 m /s K = 0.02805 W/mK; β = 1 /320 = 3.125 x 10-3
-6 2

Gr = [g x β x Lx3 x ∆T] / ν2
= 9.81 x 3.125 x 10-3 x 0.053 x [56 - 38] / [17.653 x 10-6]2
Gr = 2.214 x 105.
Gr Pr = [2.214 x 105] x [0.689] = 1.525 x 105
Nu = [0.59] [1.525 x 105]0.25 = 11.66.
Nu = hL Lx / K
11.66 = [hL x 0.05] / 0.02805
hL2 = 6.54 W/m2K.
[iii] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [62 + 38] / 2 = 500C.
Properties of air at 500C
ρ = 1.093 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.698; Lx = 0.1 m;
ν = 17.95 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02826 W/mK; β = 3.0296 x 10-3
Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.096 x 10-3 x 0.13 x [62 - 38]/ [17.95 x 10-6]2 = 2.262 x 106.
Gr Pr = [2.262 x 106] x [0.698] = 1.579 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [1.579 x 106]0.25 = 20.91.
Nu = hL Lx / K
20.91 = [hL x 0.1] / 0.02826
hL3 = 5.909 W/m2K.
[iv] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [68 + 38] / 2 = 530C.
Properties of air at 530C
ρ = 1.083 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.697; Lx = 0.2 m;
ν = 18.26 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02847 W/mK; β = 3.067 x 10-3

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[4] Number of Thermocouples = 7 and are shown as [1] – [7] and as marked on
temperature indicator switch.
[5] Thermocouple number 8 reads the temperature of the air in the duct.
[6] Temperature indicator 0 – 3000C. Multichannel type, calibrated for chromel –
alumel thermo couples.
[7] Ammeter = [0 – 2A]
[8] Voltmeter = [0 – 100/200V]
[9] Dimmer start = 2A/230Volt.
[10] Heater – cartridge type = 400 Watts

d] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Switch on the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the required heat
input.
2. Wait till the fairly steady state is reached, which is confirmed from
temperature readings [T1 to T7].
3. Note down surface temperature at various points.
4. Note the Ambient Temperature [T8].
5. Repeat the experiment at different heat inputs.
Precautions:
[1] Do not exceed 100 Watts.
[2] Operate the change over selector switch gently from position [1] to [8].

Formula Used:
[1] Ts = [T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7] / 7 0C
Where T1, T2, T3, ............ T7 are temperature at locations 1, 2 --7
Mean film temperature [Tmf] = [Ts + Ta] / 2.
Where Ts = Average surface temperature in 0C.
Ta = Ambient Temperature in 0C.
Experiment heat transfer co-efficient [Average]
Q = hA [∆T] Watts.
Where h = Experimental convective heat transfer co-efficient
[Average] W/m2 K.
A = Area of heat transfer πd L m2.
∆T = Ts – Ta in 0C.
Ts = Surface temperature in 0C.
Ta = Ambient temperature in 0C.
Q = Average rate of heat transfer by convection in [Watts].
hexp [average] = Q / As[Ts – Ta] W/m2 K.

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Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.067 x 10-3 x 0.23 x [68 – 38] / [18.26 x 10-6]2 = 21.659 x 106.
Gr Pr = [21.659 x 106] x [0.697] = 15.096 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [15.096 x 106]0.25 = 36.776.
Nu = hL Lx / K
36.776 = [hL4 x 0.2] / 0.2847
hL4 = 5.235 W/m2K.
[v] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [66 + 38] / 2 = 520C.
Properties of air at 520C
ρ = 1.086 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.698; Lx = 0.3 m;
ν = 18.15 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02840 W/mK; β = 3.077 x 10-3
Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.077 x 10-3 x 0.33 x [66 – 38] / [18.15 x 10-6]2 = 69.28 x 106.
Gr Pr = [69.28 x 106] [0.698] = 48.36 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [48.36 x 106]0.25 = 49.201.
Nu = hL Lx / K
49.201 = hL5 x 0.3 / 0.02840
hL5 = 4.658 W/m2K.
[vi] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [71 + 38] / 2 = 54.50C.
Properties of air at 54.50C
ρ = 1.078 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.697; Lx = 0.4 m;
ν = 18.41 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02858 W/mK; β = 3.053 x 10-3

Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.053 x 10-3 x 0.43 x [71 – 38] / [18.41 x 10-6]2 = 186.63 x 106.
Gr Pr = [186.63 x 106] x [0.697] = 130.08 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] [130.08 x 106]0.25 = 63.01.
Nu = hL Lx / K
Nu = [hL x 0.4] / 0.02858
63.01 = [hL x 0.4] / 0.2858
hL6 = 4.502 W/m2K.
[vii] Tmf = [Tx + Ta] / 2 = [64 + 38] / 2 = 510C.
Properties of air at 510C
ρ = 1.090 kg/m3 ; Pr = 0.698; Lx = 0.49 m;
ν = 18.052 x 10 m /s
-6 2
K = 0.02833 W/mK; β = 3.086 x 10-3
Gr = g x β x Lx3 x ∆T / ν2
Gr = 9.81 x 3.086 x 10-3 x 0.493 x [64 – 38] / [18.052 x 10-6]2 = 284.136 x 106.
Gr Pr = [284.136 x 106] x 0.698 = 198.33 x 106.
Nu = [0.59] x [198.33 x 106]0.25 = 70.16
Nu = hL Lx / K
Nu = [hL x 0.49] / 0.02833
70.16 = hL x 0.49 / 0.2833
hL7 = 4.048 W/m2K.

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[2] Local heat transfer co-efficient:

hexp[local] = Q / A[Tx – Ta].
Where Tx = Temperature at locations 1 to 7 in 0K.
The local heat transfer co-efficient h1, h2, h3, ............ h7 can be calculated from the
above equation.

[3] Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient [Average].

Using free convection correlation for vertical cylinder.
Nu = 0.59 [Gr. Pr] 0.25 for 104 ≤ Gr. Pr ≤ 109.
= 0.13 [Gr. Pr]1/3 for 109 ≤ Gr. Pr ≤ 1012.
Nu = Nusselt Number.
Gr = Grashof Number.
Pr = Prandtl Number.

Grash of Number = g x L3 x β x ∆T / ν2
Where g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2.
L = Characteristics dimension in meters, Here L = 0.5 m.
β = Co-efficient of thermal expansion for the fluid
β = 1 / Tf in K.
∆T = Temperature difference in 0K = [Ts – Ta].
ν = Kinematic viscosity of the air at mean film temperature, m2/s.
[from the HMT Data book].
pr = Prandtl Number of air at Tmf [from the HMT Data book].
Nu = hL/K.
Where h = Convective heat transfer co-efficient in w/m2 K.
L = Characteristic dimension in m. L = 0.5 m.
K = Thermal conductivity of air at Tmf [from HMT Data book]

[4] Theoretical Local heat transfer co-efficient. htheo [Local]

Gr [local] = g x Lx3 x β x ∆T / ν2
Where Lx = L1, L2, L3, ......... L7 distance from the bottom of the
tube in ‘m’
Pr = Prandtl Number [Tmf]
Tmf [local] = [Tx + Ta] / 2
Tx = Temperature at point 1 to 7.
ν = Kinematic viscosity at Tmf in m2/s.
∆T = Temperature difference - [Tx – Ta] in 0K.
Nu [Local] = hl Ll / K.
Where hl = Local convective heat transfer co-efficient at point
1 to 7 in w/m2 K.
Ll = Characterstics dimension in m.
K = Thermal conductivity of air at Tmf in w/m2 K.

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Result:
Thus the average surface heat transfer co-efficient and local heat transfer co-efficient
along the length of the tube are determined and also the graph b/w local heat transfer co-
efficient and the distance along the height of the tube is drawn. The results are tabulated.
Experiment local heat transfer co-efficient:
Average
Surface
Heat
2
Input Local heat transfer co-efficient [w/m K] [experiment] Transfer
S. No.
[watts] Co-
efficient
[w/m2K]
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
1. 50 68.45 57.045 42.784 34.227 36.672 31.17 39.493 41.309
Theortical Local heat transfer co-efficient:
Average
Heat
[Theortical]Local heat transfer co-efficient experiment Transfer
Input 2
S. No. [w/m K] Co-
[watts]
efficient
[w/m2K]
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
1. 50 9.349 6.54 5.909 5.235 4.658 4.502 4.048 3.983

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by free or natural convection?
It is fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from
temperature gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural
convection.
2. Define Grashof number [Gr].
It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the
square of viscous force. Gr = Inertia force x Buoyancy force / [Viscous force]2
3. Define Stanton number [St].
It is the ratio of Nusselt number to the product of Reynolds number and
Prandtl number. St = Nu / Re x Pr.
4. What is meant by Newtonion and non-newtonion fluids?
The fluids which obey the Newton’s law of viscosity are called Newtonion
fluids and those which do not obey are called no-newtonion fluids.
5. What is meant by laminar flow ?
Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of
flow, the fluid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth continuous
path. The fluid particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence without mixing
with each other.

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Experiment Number: 4
Title of the Experiment: Forced Convection inside Tube
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the heat transfer coefficient on the given Forced Convection inside tube
Apparatus.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities Required Quantity

1. Forced Convection inside tube Apparatus 1

b] Description
The experimental setup consists of a tube through which air is sent in by a blower.
The test section consists of a long electrical surface heater on the tube which serves as a
constant heat flux source on the flowing medium. The inlet and outlet temperatures of the
flowing air are measured by thermocouples and also the temperatures at several locations
along the surface heater from which on average temperature can be obtained. An orifice
meter in the tube is used to measure the air flow rate with a ‘U tube water manometer.
An ammeter and a voltmeter are provided to measure the power input to the heater.
A power regulator is provided to vary the power input to heater.
A multipoint digital temperature indicator is provided to measure the above
thermocouples input.
A valve is provided to regulate the flow rate of air.

c] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Switch on the main.
2. Switch on the blower.
3. Adjust the regulator to any desired power into input to heater.
4. Adjust the position of the valve to any desired flow rate of air.
5. Wait till steady state temperature is reached.
6. Note manometer reading h1 and h2.
7. Note temperatures along the tube. Note air inlet and outlet temperature.
8. Note voltmeter and ammeter reading.
9. Adjust the position of the valve and vary the flow rate of air and repeat the
experiment.
10. For various valve openings and for various power inputs the readings may
be taken to repeat the experiments.

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TABULATION:
Inlet Outlet Temperature along Manometer
Voltage Current
Temperature Temperature the duct reading
[Link]. [V] [A]
of air [T1] of air [T6] T2 T3 T4 T5 h1 h2
[Volts] [Amps] 0 0 0 [ 0
C] [ 0
C] [ 0
C] [cm] [cm]
[ C] [ C] [ C]

1 50 1 35 38 42 45 46 47 9 19

MODEL CALCULATIONS:
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
PI = V x I = 50 watts
VI = h x A x ∆t
∆t = Average temperature of heater – Average temperature of air
∆t = 45 – 36.5
∆t = 8.50C
Average temperature of heater = T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 / 4 = 42+45+46+47 / 4 = 450C.
Average temperature of air = T1 + T6 / 2 = 35 + 33 / 2 = 36.50C.

A = Area of heat transfer

A=πxdxl Diameter of tube d = 0.04m
Length of the tube l = 0.5m
A = 3.14 x 0.04 x 0.5
A = 0.0634m2.

VI = h x A x ∆t
50 = h X 0.0634 X 8.5
h = 92.782 W/m2C.
THEORTICAL METHOD
Q = Cd x a1 x a2 √2gho / √a12 – a22
ho = [h1 – h2] x [ρw/ρa] m3/sec
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
ρa = 1.16 kg/m3.

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[1] EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:

VI = hA∆t
Where,
∆t = Average temperature of heater – Average temperature of air [0C].
A = πdl
A = Area of heat transfer.
d = diameter of the tube = 0.04m
l = length of the tube = 0.5m.
h = heat transfer co-efficient [W/m2 C]
VI = Power input to heater.
[2] THEORITICAL METHOD:
Q = Cd x a1 x a2 √2gho / √a12 – a22 m3/sec.
ho = head of air causing the flow.
= [h1 – h2] x [ρw/ρa]
ρw = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
ρa = Density of air = 1.16 kg/m3.
h1, h2 = Manometer reading in m.
a1 = Area of the tube.
a2 = Area of the orifice.
Q = Volume of air flowing through the tube.
Cd = 0.6
[3] VELOCITY OF AIR:
V = Q/a m/sec.
[4] REYNOLDS NUMBER:
Re = VD/ υ.
V = Velocity of air
D = Dia. of the pipe.
υ = Kinematic viscosity of air.
[5] Nu = hD/K
K = Thermal conductivity of air.
Nu = 0.023 x Re0.8 x Pr0.4
Re = Reynolds Number.
Pr = Prandtl Number.

d] Result:
Thus the experiment of the forced convection is conducted and heat transfer
coefficient are calculated.
Heat Transfer Co-efficient:
Experimental value = 92.782 W/m2C.
Theoretical value = 31.2395763 W/ m2C.

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h1 = 9
h2 = 19.
ho = [19-9] x [1000/1.16]
= 10 x 862.069 = 86.20689 m.
Cd = 0.6
a1 = π/4 x d12
d1 = Dia of pipe = 40mm = 0.04m
= π/4 x [0.04]2
a1 = 0.00125664 m2.
a2 = π/4 x d22
d2 = Dia of the orifice = 20mm = 0.02m.
= π/4 x [0.02]2
a2 = 0.00031416m2.
Q = 0.6 x 0.00125664 x 0.00031416 x √2 x 9.81x 86.20689 / √ [0.00125664]2 –
[0.00031416]2
Q = 2.3687 x 10-7 x 411.264/1.216 x 10-3
Q = 0.008006376m3/sec.
VELOCITY OF AIR FLOW
V = Q / a1
= 0.008006376/0.00125664
= 6.3713m/sec.
REYNOLD’S NUMBER
Re = VD/ υ.
υ - Kinematic viscosity from HMT Data book
υ = 0.00001696
= 6.3713 x 0.04 / 0.00001696
Re = 15027.
NUSSELT NUMBER
Nu = hD/K
Nu = 0.023 x [15027]0.8 x [0.698]0.33
Nu = 43.75290799.
Nu = hD/K
K - Thermal conductivity from HMT Data book
K = 0.02856.
43.75290799 = h x 0.04 / 0.02856
h = 31.2395763 W/m2C.

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Experiment Number: 5
Title of the Experiment: Heat transfer from pin-fin(natural & forced
convection modes)
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine Heat transfer from pin-fin(natural & forced convection modes)
.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity
1. Pin-fin Apparatus 1

b] Apparatus Description
The heat transfer from a heated surface to the ambient surrounding is given by the
relation, q = h A T. In this relation hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, T is the
temperature difference & A is the area of heat transfer. To increase q, h may be increased or
surface area may by increased. In some cases it is not possible to increase the value of heat
transfer coefficient & the temperature difference T & thus the only alternative is to increase
the surface area of heat transfer. The surface area is increased by attaching extra material in
the form of rod (circular or rectangular) on the surface where we have to increase the heat
transfer rate. "This extra material attached is called the extended surface or fin."The fins may
be attached on a plane surface, and then they are called plane surface fins. If the fins are
attached on the cylindrical surface, they are called circumferential fins. The cross section of
the fin may be circular, rectangular, triangular or parabolic.
c] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Connect the equipment to electric power supply.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch to zero position.
3. Turn the Variac (dimmerstat) clockwise and adjust the power input to the heater to
the desired value and switch on the blower.
4. Set the air–flow rate to any desired value by adjusting the difference in mercury
levels in the manometer and allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the temperatures, T1 to T6 from the thermocouple selector switch.
6. Note down the difference in level of the manometer and repeat the experiment for
different power inputs to the heater.
7. Connect the equipment to electric power supply.
8. Keep the thermocouple selector switch to zero position.
FORMULA:

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Where;
d0 = Diameter of the Orifice; dp = Diameter of the pipe

Where;
m = density of manometric fluid = 13.6 x 10³ kg/m³
a = density of air = 1.17 kg/m³

Velocity at orifice x cross sectional area of orifice

Va = Velocity of air in the duct =
Cross sectional area of duct
V0 x (d0²)/4
Va = =
WxB
Where,
dp = diameter of pipe
d0 = diameter of orifice
W = Width of the duct
B = Breadth of duct
Average surface temperature of fin is given by
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5

Ts = + 273.15 = K
5
T = T6 = Ambient temperature = + 273.15 = K

Tm = Mean temperature = Ts + T

2

0
Properties of air at C
ν= , Pr = ,K=

Va df

Re = ----------- = Re = Reynolds number

ν Pr = Prandtl number
Nu = Nusselt number
The relationship for Nu is

n 1/3
Nu = C Re Pr

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For Re = 0.4 to 4.0 C = 0.989 and n = 0.33

Re = 4 to 40 C = 0.911 and n = 0.385
Re = 40 to 4000 C = 0.683 and n = 0.466
Re = 4000 to 40,000 C = 0.293 and n = 0.618
Re = 40,000 to 400,000 C = 0.27 and n = 0.805
Nu k
h=
df

TABULATION:

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TABULATION:

Sl. Heat Input Pressure drop, ‘h’ Temperatures, 0C

No. mm of mercury,

V A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1 61 0.27 5mm 70 62 58 56 54 40

CALCULATION:

1. β = = = 0.4

Thermal Expansion β = 0.4

2. Velocity of ofifice :

X(1/1-β)

d] Result:

Thus the heat transfer coefficient under forced convection is found out the efficiency of fin.
(i).Theoretical value of temperature of fin= 327 K
(ii).Effectiveness of fin=0.6
(iii).Efficiency of fin=40%

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Experiment Number: 6
Title of the Experiment: Determination of stefan-boltzmann constant
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the value of Stefan boltzman constant for radiation heat transfer.
FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE
a] Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity
1. Stefan-Boltzmann constant Apparatus 1

b] Apparatus Description
The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-
conducting plate. A test disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc is
completely enclosed by the hemisphere. The outer surface of the hemisphere is enclosed in a
vertical water jacket used to heat the hemisphere to a suitable constant temperature. Three
Cr-Al thermocouples are attached at four strategic places on the surface of the hemisphere to
obtain the temperatures. The disc is mounted on an ebonite rod which is fitted in a hole
drilled at the center of the base plate. Another Cr-Al thermocouple is fixed to the disc to
record its temperature. Fill the water in the SS water container with immersion heater kept on
top of the panel.
c] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.
2. Heat the water in the ss containers to its boiling point .
3. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing copper
bemisphere units it is full .allow sufficient time to attain thermal equilibrium which
is indicated by the four thermocouple provided on the hemisphere.
4. Insert the test disc fixed on the ebonite rod sleeve completwly inside and lock it.
Start the stop clock simultaneously .
5. Note down the temperature of the test disc at an inter val of about 15 sec for about
15 to 20 minutes.
6. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.
7. Heat the water in the ss containers to its boiling point .
8. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing copper
bemisphere units it is full .allow sufficient time to attain thermal equilibrium which
is indicated by the four thermocouple provided on the hemisphere.

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FORMULA:
Eb = σT4
Where, σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/ (m² K4)
1. Temperature of disc v/s time to obtain the slope (dT/dt) of the line, which passes through/nearer to all
points.
dT/dt=
2. Average temperature of the hemisphere

Tavg = (T1 + T2 + T3 ) + 273.15 = K

3
3. Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber º K (ambient)=
4. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp (dT /dt)
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Where, Ad = area of the disc = πd² m2
d = 20 mm 4
Cp = specific heat of copper = 0.38 kJ/kg–K

Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
m Cp (dT /dt) = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown
m Cp (dT /dt)
σ = =
4 4
Ad (T avg – T d)

TABULATION:
Thermocouple Temperature of the copper
hemisphere

35

35

35

36

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CALCULATION:
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
m Cp (dT /dt) = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown
m Cp (dT /dt)
σ = = 4.67 x 10-8 W/ (m² K4)
4 4
Ad (T avg – T d)

d] Result:
Thus the Stefan Boltzman constant for radiation heat transfer is found out and draw the graph.
Stefan Boltzman constant (σ) =4.67 x 10-8 W/

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Experiment Number: 7
Title of the Experiment: Determination of Emissivity of a Grey Surface

Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the emissivity of the test plate at any desired temperature.

FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

a] Facilities required to do the experiment:
Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity
1. Emissivity Measurement Apparatus 1

b] Apparatus Description
The experimental setup consists of two circular Al plates identical in size and is
provided with heating coils at the bottom. The plates are mounted on an asbestos cement
sheet and are kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection
surroundings.
The heat input to the heaters is varied by separate dimmerstats and is measured by a
wattmeter with the help of a double pole double throw switch. The temperatures of the plates
are measured by separate thermocouples which are connected diametric opposite points to
get the average temperature of the places. Other thermocouples are kept in the enclosure to
read the ambient temperature.
Plate 1 is blackened by a thick layer of lamp black to form the idealized black surface
where as the plates 2 is the test plate whose emissivity is to be determined.
c] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Switch on the power supply.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3. Adjust the position of the regulator to provide desired input to heater.
4. Allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the temperature indicated by temperature indicator.
6. Tabulate the readings and calculate.
7. After the experiment is over turn both the energy regulators 1 and 2 to zero position.
8. For various power input repeat the experiment.
FORMULA:
Emissivity εp = εb[Tb4 – Ta4] / [Tp4 – Ta4]
Where εb = Emissivity block body Temperature [εb = 1]
Tb = Block Body Temperature in K.
Tp = Polished Body Temperature in K.
Ta = Chamber Temperature in K.

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TABULATION:
Black Body Polished Body Chamber
[Link]. Voltage Current Temperature Temperature Temperature
[0C] [0C] [0C]

1 100 0.4 80 90 40

CALCULATION:
[1] Black body Temperature [Tb] = 800 + 273 = 353 K.
[2] Polished body Temperature [Tp] = 900 + 273 = 363 K.
[3] Chamber Temperature [Ta] = 400 + 273 = 313 K.

EMISSIVITY:
εp = εb [Tb4 – Ta4] / [Tp4 – Ta4] [εb = 1]
= 1 x [353 – 313 ] / [363 – 313 ]
4 4 4 4

= [1.55 x 1010 – 9.59 x 109] / [1.736 x 1010 – 9.59 x109]

εp = 0.7626.

d] Result:
Thus the Emissivity of the test plate is determined.
Emissivity εp = 0.7626.

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PARALLEL FLOW SIDE

HOT WATER SIDE COLD WATER SIDE

Flow rate Thi Tho Flow rate Tci Tco

[kg/s] [0C] [0C] [kg/s] [0C] [0C]
400ml/10sec. 56 45 400ml/12sec 34 39

COUNTER FLOW SIDE

HOT WATER SIDE COLD WATER SIDE

Flow rate Thi Tho Flow rate Tci Tco

0 0 0
[kg/s] [ C] [ C] [kg/s] [ C] [0C]
800ml/10sec. 82 57 800ml/15sec 35 51
CALCULATION:
PARALLEL FLOW:
LMTD = [Thi – Tci] - [Tho – Tco] / ln [Thi – Tci/Tho – Tco]
Tci = Entry temperature of cold fluid [0C].
Tco = Exit temperature of cold fluid [0C].
Thi = Entry temperature of hot fluid [0C].
Tho = Exit temperature of hot fluid [0C].
= [329 – 307] – [318 – 312] / ln [(329 – 307) / (318 – 312)]
= 12.31 K.
Mass flow rate of hot water mh = 400/10 x 10-6 x 1000 = 400 x 10-4 Kg/s.
Mass flow rate of cold water mc = 400 / 12 x 10-6 x 1000 = 333.3 x 10-4 Kg/s.
Qh = mh x Cph [Thi – Tho]
= 400 x 10-4 x 4.187 x [329 – 318]
Qh = 1.842 KJ/sec.
Qc = mc x cpc [Tco –Tci]
= 333.3 x 10-4 x 4.187 [312 – 307]
Qc = 0.698 KJ/sec.
Qact = [Qh + Qc] / 2 = [1.842 + 0.698] / 2
Qact = 1.27 KJ/sec.
Overall heat transfer co-efficient
A=πxDxL
= π x 0.013 x 1.5
= 0.06123 m2.
U = Qact/A x LMTD
= 1.27 / 0.06123 x 12.31
= 1.685 W/m2 K.
U = Overall heat transfer co-efficient.

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Experiment Number: 8
Title of the Experiment: Effectiveness Of Parallel / Counter Flow Heat
Exchanger
Date of the Experiment:

OBJECTIVE [AIM] OF THE EXPERIMENT

To determine the overall heat transfer co-efficient on the given double pipe parallel
flow and counter flow heat exchanger.

FACILITIES REQUIRED AND PROCEDURE

a] Facilities required to do the experiment:

Sl. No. Facilities required Quantity

1. Parallel/Counter flow heat exchanger 1

apparatus.

b] Theory:
A heat exchanger is defined as equipment which transfers the heat from a hot fluid to
a cold fluid.
Types of Heat Exchanger
There are several types of heat exchangers which may be classified on the basis of
I. Nature of heat exchange process
II. Relative direction of fluid motion
III. Design and constructional features
IV. Physical state of fluids.
I. Nature of heat exchange process
On the basis of the nature of heat exchange process, heat exchangers are classified as
a] Direct contact heat exchangers or Open heat exchangers
b] Indirect contact heat exchangers.
a] Direct contact heat exchangers or Open heat exchangers
In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by direct mixing of
hot and cold fluids. This heat transfer is usually accompanied by mass transfer.
Examples: Cooling towers, direct contact feed heaters.
b. Indirect contact heat exchangers
In this type of heat exchangers, the transfer of heat between two fluids could be
carried out by transmission through a wall which separates the two fluids.
It may be classified as
[i] Regenerators
[ii] Recuperators [or] Surface heat exchangers.

41
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EFFICTIVENESS:
ε = [1 – exp (-UA/Cmin {1+ Cmin/Cmax))] / 1 + [Cmin/Cmax]
Ch = Cpn x mh = 4.187 x 400 x 10-4 = 0.167 = Cmax
` Cc = Cpc x mc = 4.187 x 333.3 x 10-4 = 0.140 = Cmin
= [1 – exp (-(1.685) x (0.6123))] / 0.140 x [1 + 0.663]] / 1 + [0.839]
Effictiveness = ε = 0.52.

COUNTER FLOW:
LMTD = [Thi – Tci] - [Tho – Tco] / in [Thi – Tci/Tho – Tco]
= [355 – 324] – [330 – 308]/ in [355-324/330-308]
= 26.24 K.
Qh = mch Cph [ Thi – Tho]
= 0.08 x 4.187 [355-330]
Qh = 8.374 KJ/sec.
Qc = Mc Cpc [Tco – Tci]
= 0.053 x 4.187 [324 – 308]
Qc = 3.551 KJ/sec.
Qact = 8.374 + 3.551 / 2
= 5.962 KJ/sec.
Overall heat transfer co-efficient
U = Qaet/A x LMTD
U = Overall heat transfer co-efficient [W/m2 K]
A = πDL = 3.14 x 0.013 x 1.5
= 0.06213.
U = 5.962 / 0.06123 x 26.24
= 3.543 W/m2K

EFFICTIVENESS
ε = 1 – exp [-UA/Cmin [1+ Cmin/Cmax]] / 1 + [Cmin/Cmax]
ε = [1 – exp [-3.543 x 0.06123/0.222] [1 + 0.663]] / 0.663 + 1
Cc = McCpc = 0.053 x 4.187
= 0.222 KJ/sec.
Ch = MhCph = 0.68 x 4.187
= 0.333 KJ/sec.
U = Overall heat transfer co-efficient [W/m2K]
A = Area = M2
ε = 0.62%

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[i] Regenerators
In this type of heat exchangers, hot and cold fluids flow alternately through the same
space.
Examples: IC engines, gas turbines.
[ii] Recuperators [or] Surface heat exchangers
This is the most common type of heat exchanger in which the hot and cold fluid do
not come into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube wall or a surface.
Examples: Automobile radiators, Air pre heaters, Economisers etc.
Advantages
1. Easy construction
2. More economical
3. More surface area for heat transfer.
Disadvantages
1. Less heat transfer co-efficient
2. Less generating capacity.
II. Relative direction of fluid motion
This type of heat exchangers are classified as follows
a] Parallel flow heat exchanger
b] Counter flow heat exchanger
c] Cross flow heat exchanger.
a] Parallel flow heat exchanger
In this type, hot and cold fluids move in the same direction.
b] Counter flow heat exchanger
In this type, hot and cold fluids move in parallel but opposite directions.
c] Cross flow heat exchanger
In this type, the hot and cold fluids move at right angles to each other.
III Design and constructional features
On the basis of design and constructional features, the heat exchangers are classified
as follows.
a] Concentric tubes
b] Shell and tube
c] Multiple shell and tube passes
d] Compact heat exchangers.
a] Concentric tubes
In this type, two concentric pipes, each carrying one of the fluids are used as a heat
exchanger. The direction of flow may be parallel or counter.
b] Shell and tube
In this type of heat exchanger, one or the fluids move through a bundle of tubes
enclosed by a shell. The other fluid is forced through the shell and it moves over the outside
surface of the tubes.
c] Multiple shell and tube passes
In order to increase the over all heat transfer, multiple shell and tube passes are used.
In this type, the two fluids traverse the exchanger more than one time. This type of
exchanger is preferred due to its low cost of manufacture, and easy to repair.

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d] Compact heat exchangers

There are many special purpose heat exchangers called compact heat exchangers.
They are generally employed when convective heat transfer co-efficient associated with one
of the fluids is much smaller than that associated with the other fluid.

IV Physical state of fluids

Based on the physical state of fluids inside the exchanger, heat exchangers are
classified as
a] Condensers
b] Evaporators.
a] Condensers
In a condenser, the condensing fluid remains at constant temperature throughout the
exchanger while the temperature of the colder fluid gradually increased from inlet to outlet.

In other words, the hot fluid loses latent heat which is accepted by the cold fluid.
b] Evaporators
In a evaporator, the cold fluid remains at constant temperature while the temperature
of hot fluid gradually decreases from inlet to outlet.

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION
Apparatus consists of the constrict tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid that is hot
water is obtained from an electric geyser and it flows through the outer tube. The cold fluid
that is cold water can be admitted at one of the ends enabling the heat exchanger to run as
parallel flow apparatus [or] a counter flow apparatus. This can be done by operating the
different valves can be provided.
Temperature of the fluid can be measured using thermometer. Flow rate can be
measured using stopwatch and measuring clock. The outer tube is provided with adequate
asbestos rope insulation to minimize the heat loss to the surroundings.
FORMULA USED:
Heat Transfer rate ‘q’ is calculated
Qh = Heat transfer rate from hot water.
Qh = mh x Cph [Thi – Tho]
Where
mh = Mass flow rate of hot water [Kg/s]
Cph = Specific heat of hot water [KJ/KgK]
Thi = Hot water inlet temperature [0C]
Tho = Hot water outlet temperature [0C]
Qc = Heat Transfer rate to the cold water
Qc = mc x Cpc [Tco- Tci]
Where
mc = Mass flow rate of cold water [Kg/s]
Cpc = Specific heat of cold water [KJ/KgK]
Tco = Cod water outlet temperature [0C]
Tci = Cold water inlet temperature [0C]

44
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Q = [Qh + Qc] / 2
Specific heat of cold water and heat water = 4.187 KJ/KgK.

LMTD = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference.

FOR PARALLEL FLOW:

LMTD = [∆T]m = [∆T1 – ∆To] / ln[∆T1/∆To]

= [Thi – Tci] - [Tho – Tco] / ln [Thi – Tc i ] / [Tho – Tco]

FOR COUNTER FLOW:

[∆T]m = [Thi – Tco] – [Tho – Tci] / ln [Thi – Tco] / [Tho – Tci]
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER CO-EFFICIENT:
Q = UA [∆T]M
Where
Q = Heat transfer rate W
U = Overall Heat transfer co-efficient W/m2 K
[∆T]M = LMTD
A = Area = πdl
d = 0.013 m
l = 1.5 m
U = q / A x [∆T]M W/m2 K
U = Overall heat transfer co-efficient W/m2 K
Q = Heat transfer rate W
A = Area m2.
EFFICITIVENESS
ε = 1 – exp [-UA/Cmin [1+ Cmin/Cmax]] / 1 + [Cmin/Cmax]
Ch = Cph x mh; Cc = Cpc x mc
U = Overall heat transfer co-efficient [W/m2 K]
A = Area [m2].
A = πDL = D = 0.013 m
L = 1.5 m
c] Procedure for doing the experiment:
Step No. Details of the Step
1. Connect the water supply at the back of the unit. The inlet water flows
through the geyser and outer pipe of the heat exchanger and flows through
the inner pipe of the heat exchanger and flows out.
2. Switch on the Geyser allow the temperature to reach steady state.
3. The constant flow rate is maintained for both hot and cold fluid.
4. Note the inlet and outlet temperature [cold and hot water].
5. The flow rate is measured.
6. The experiment is repeated for different flow.

45
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d] Result:
Thus the heat transfer experiment was conducted in a double pipe parallel flow and
counter flow heat exchanger.
PARALLEL FLOW: COUNTER FLOW
LMTD = 12.31 K LMTD = 26.24 K
Heat Transfer Q = 1.27 KJ/sec. Heat Transfer Q = 5.962 KJ/sec.
Overall heat transfer Overall heat transfer
2
co-efficient U = 1.685 W/m K co-efficient U = 3.543 W/m2 K
Effictiveness ε = 0.52 = 52% Effictiveness ε = 0.62 = 62%
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is heat exchanger?
A heat exchanger is defined as an equipment which transfers the heat from a
hot fluid to a cold fluid.
2. What is meant by Direct heat exchanger [or] open heat exchanger?
In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by direct
mixing of hot and cold fluids.
3. What is meant by Indirect contact heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchangers, the transfer of heat between two fluids could
be carried out by transmission through a wall which separates the two fluids.
4. What is meant by parallel flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in the same direction.
5. What is meant by counter flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in parallel but
opposite directions.
6. What is meant by cross flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move at right angles to each
other.
7. What is meant by Shell and tube heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids moves through a bundle of
tubes enclosed by a shell. The other fluid is forced through the shell and it moves
over the outside surface of the tubes.
8. What is meant by LMTD?
We know that the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids in
the heat exchanger varies from point to point. In addition various modes of heat
transfer are involved. Therefore based on concept of appropriate mean temperature
difference, also called logarithmic mean temperature difference, the total heat transfer
rate in the heat exchanger is expressed as
Q = U A [∆T]m Where, U=Overall heat transfer co-efficient [W/m2 K], A=Area, m2
[∆T]m = Logarithmic mean temperature difference.
9. What is meant by Effectiveness?
The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer
to the maximum possible heat transfer.
Effectiveness ε = Actual heat transfer / Maximum possible heat transfer = Q / Qmax

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by free electrons for most of the pure metals the thermal conductivity decreases with
increase in the temperature.

Apparatus:
The experimental set up consists of the metal bar, one end of which is heated by an
electric heater while the other end of the bar projects inside the cooling water jacket. The
middle portion of the bar is surrounded by a cylindrical shell filled with the asbestos
insulating powder. The temperature of the bar is measured at eight different sections. While
the radial temperature distribution is measured by separate thermocouples at two different
sections in the insulating shell.

The heater is provided with a dimmerstat for controlling the heat input. Water under
constant heat condition is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise
are noted.

Specification:
1. Length of the metal bar [total] : 410 mm.
2. Size of the metal bar [diameter] : 25 mm.
3. Test length of the bar : 200 mm.
4. No. of thermocouple mounted on the bar :9
5. No. of thermocouples in the insulation shell :2
6. Heater coil [Bald type] : Nichrome
7. Water jacket diameter : 80 mm.
8. Temperature indicator, 13 channel : 200 Degree
9. Dimmerstat for heater coil : 2A/230V.
10. Voltmeter 0 to 300 Volts.
11. Ammeter 0 to 2 Amps.
12. Measuring flash for water flow rate.
13. Stop clock.
Theory:
The heater will heat the bar at its end and heat will be conducted through the bar to
other end.

After attaining the steady state Heat flowing out of bar.

Heat flowing out of bar = Heat gained by water
Qw = mw x Cpw x [Tout – Tin] = mwCpw[∆Tw] = mw[Cpw[Tout – Tin]

Where, mw = Mass flow rate of the cooling water in Kg/hr.

Cp = Specific Heat of water [Given 1]
T = [Tout – Tin] for water

Thermal Conductivity of Bar

1. Heat Conducted through the Bar [Q]
Q = Qw + {2πKL[To – T1]} / {Log e [ro/ri]}

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Where, Qw = Heat conducted through water

K = Thermal conductivity of Asbestos powder is 0.3 Kcal/hr – m –
degree
ro & ri = Radial distance of thermocouple in insulating shell.
2. Thermal conductivity of Bar [K]
Q = K [dt/dx] x A
Where, dt = Change in temperature [T1 – T9]
dx = Length across temperature [0.2]
A = Area of the bar [π/4 x d2]
π/4 x [0.025]2 = 4.9 x 10-4 m2

b] Procedure for doing the experiment:

Step No. Details of the Step
1. Start the electric supply.
2. Adjust the temperature in the temperature indicator by means of rotating
the knob for compensation of temperature equal to room temperature.
[Normally this is per adjusted]
3. Give input to the heater by slowly rotating the dimmer stat and adjust it to
voltage equal to 80 V, 120 V etc.
4. Start the cooling water supply through the jacket and adjust it about 350cc
per minute.
5. Go on checking the temperature at some specified time interval say 5
minute and continue this till a satisfactory steady state condition is reached.
6. Note the temperature reading 1 to 13.
7. Note the mass flow rate of water in Kg/minute and temperature rise in it.

Observations:
Mass flow rate of water [m] : Kg/min
Water inlet temperature [T12] : Degree Centigrade
Water outlet temperature [T13] : Degree Centigrade
Rod Temperature [T1 to T9] : Degree Centigrade
Radial distance of Thermocouples [ro] : 40 mm.
Insulating shell [ri] : 25 mm.
Specific heat of water [Cp] : 1 Kcal/Kg0K = 4.186 KJ/Kg K
Thermal conductivity of Asbestos powder [K] : 0.3 Kcal/hr-m-0C
0.3 x 4.18 KJ/Kg K
Length of bar [L] : 200 mm.
Demeter of bar [d] : 50 mm
Area of the bar [A] : 4.9 x 10-4 m2.

Plot the temperature distribution along the length of the bar using observed values.

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CALCULATIONS:
1. Heat flowing out of bar. Q bar = Qw
Qw = m x Cp x [∆Tw] [Kcal/hr]
Where, m = Mass flow rate of the cooling water in Kg/hr.
Cp = Specific Heat of water [Given 1]
∆Tw = [Tout – Tin] for water
2. Heat conducted through the bar [Q]
Q = Qw + {2πKL[T10 – T11]} / {Log e [ro/ri]} [Kcal / Hr]
Where, Qw = Heat conductivity of bar [K]
K = Thermal conductivity of Asbestos powder is 0.3 Kcal/hr-m-degree
ro& ri = Radial distance of thermocouple in insulating shell.
3. Thermal conductivity of Bar [K]
Q = K [dt/dx] x A [Kcal/Hr-m-0C]
Where, dt = Change in temperature [T1 – T9]
dx = Length Across temperature [0.2]
A = Area of the bar [n/4 x d2].
n/4 x [0.025]2 = 4.9 x 10-4 m2

c] Result:
Thus Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod is determined.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define heat transfer.
Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from one region to
another due to temperature difference.
2. What are the modes of heat transfer?
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation.

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3. What is conduction?
Heat conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from a region of high temperature to
a region of low temperature within a medium [solid, liquid or gases] or different
medium in direct physical contact.
4. State Fourier’s law of conduction.
The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the
direction of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in that direction.
Q α – A dT / dx
Q = -kA dT /dx
Where, A – Area in m2.
dT / dx – Temperature gradient, K/m
k – Thermal conductivity, W/mK.
5. Define Thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.

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