System Advisor Model (SAM)

User Guide

This user guide is a copy of SAM's Help system. To see the Help system,
click Help, Contents in SAM, or press the F1 key (command-? in Mac OS)
from any page in SAM.

Version 2011.6.30
Manual Release Date 6/29/2011
2

© 2011 National Renewable Energy Laboratory

The System Advisor Model ("Model") is provided by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ("NREL"), which is
operated by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC ("Alliance") for the U.S. Department Of Energy ("DOE") and
may be used for any purpose whatsoever.

The names DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE shall not be used in any representation, advertising, publicity or other manner
whatsoever to endorse or promote any entity that adopts or uses the Model. DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE shall not
provide any support, consulting, training or assistance of any kind with regard to the use of the Model or any
updates, revisions or new versions of the Model.

YOU AGREE TO INDEMNIFY DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE, AND ITS AFFILIATES, OFFICERS, AGENTS, AND
EMPLOYEES AGAINST ANY CLAIM OR DEMAND, INCLUDING REASONABLE ATTORNEYS' FEES, RELATED TO
YOUR USE, RELIANCE, OR ADOPTION OF THE MODEL FOR ANY PURPOSE WHATSOEVER. THE MODEL IS
PROVIDED BY DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING BUT
NOT LIMITED TO THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE ARE EXPRESSLY DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL DOE/NREL/ALLIANCE BE LIABLE FOR ANY
SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO CLAIMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LOSS OF DATA OR PROFITS, WHICH MAY RESULT FROM ANY
ACTION IN CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS CLAIM THAT ARISES OUT OF OR IN
CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THE MODEL.

Microsoft and Excel are registered trademarks of the Microsoft Corporation.

While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this document, the publisher and the author assume
no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of information contained in this
document or from the use of programs and source code that may accompany it. In no event shall the publisher and
the author be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damage caused or alleged to have been caused
directly or indirectly by this document.

Produced: June 2011

Solar Advisor Model 2011.6.30 June 2011

 Contents 3

Table of Contents
1 Introduction 8
1.1 About SAM
...........................................................................................................................8
1.2 User Support
...........................................................................................................................10
1.3 Keep SAM
...........................................................................................................................11
Up to Date

2 Getting Started 12
2.1 Start a Project
...........................................................................................................................12
2.2 Welcome
...........................................................................................................................16
Page
2.3 Main Window
...........................................................................................................................17
2.4 Input Pages
...........................................................................................................................18
2.5 Run Simulations
...........................................................................................................................20
2.6 Results Page
...........................................................................................................................21
2.7 Export Data
...........................................................................................................................23
and Graphs
2.8 Manage ...........................................................................................................................26
Cases
2.9 Menus ...........................................................................................................................27
2.10 Notes ...........................................................................................................................31
2.11 File Formats
...........................................................................................................................32

3 Systems 33
3.1 Overview
...........................................................................................................................33
3.2 Climate ...........................................................................................................................38
3.3 Photovoltaic
...........................................................................................................................50
Systems
Getting
............................................................................................................................50
Started with PV
Array ............................................................................................................................54
PVWatts
............................................................................................................................69
Solar Array
Shading
............................................................................................................................71
Module
............................................................................................................................82
Inverter
............................................................................................................................98
3.4 Generic...........................................................................................................................103
System
Generic
............................................................................................................................103
System Overview
Generic
............................................................................................................................103
Plant
3.5 Dish Stirling
...........................................................................................................................105
System
............................................................................................................................105
Library
Solar............................................................................................................................106
Field
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4 SAM Help

Collector
............................................................................................................................109
Receiver
............................................................................................................................110
Stirling
............................................................................................................................113
Engine
Parasitics
............................................................................................................................115
Reference
............................................................................................................................116
Inputs
3.6 Parabolic
...........................................................................................................................117
Trough Empirical
Solar............................................................................................................................119
Field
SCA ............................................................................................................................128
/ HCE
Power
............................................................................................................................135
Block
Thermal
............................................................................................................................140
Storage
Parasitics
............................................................................................................................148
3.7 Parabolic
...........................................................................................................................150
Trough Physical
Solar............................................................................................................................152
Field
Collectors
............................................................................................................................170
(SCAs)
Receivers
............................................................................................................................173
(HCEs)
Power
............................................................................................................................177
Cycle
Thermal
............................................................................................................................181
Storage
Parasitics
............................................................................................................................190
3.8 Generic...........................................................................................................................192
Solar System
Solar............................................................................................................................192
Field
Power
............................................................................................................................192
Block
Thermal
............................................................................................................................192
Storage
3.9 Power ...........................................................................................................................193
Tower
Heliostat
............................................................................................................................194
Field
Optimization
............................................................................................................................199
Wizard
Tower
............................................................................................................................204
and Receiver
Power
............................................................................................................................208
Cycle
Thermal
............................................................................................................................212
Storage
Parasitics
............................................................................................................................219
3.10 Solar Water
...........................................................................................................................221
Heating
SWH............................................................................................................................221
System
3.11 Geothermal
...........................................................................................................................226
Power
Resource
............................................................................................................................226
Plant............................................................................................................................228
and Equipment
3.12 Geothermal
...........................................................................................................................229
Co-production
Resource
............................................................................................................................229
and Power Generation
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 Contents 5

3.13 Small Scale

...........................................................................................................................232
Wind
Small
............................................................................................................................232
Scale Wind Overview
Wind............................................................................................................................233
Climate
Small
............................................................................................................................244
Scale Wind System
3.14 Utility Scale
...........................................................................................................................246
Wind
Utility............................................................................................................................246
Scale Wind Overview
Wind............................................................................................................................247
Resource
Wind............................................................................................................................251
Farm Specifications

4 Costs and Financing 253

4.1 Financing
...........................................................................................................................253
Overview
4.2 System...........................................................................................................................257
Summary
4.3 Utility Rate
...........................................................................................................................258
4.4 Financing
...........................................................................................................................273
4.5 Tax Credit
...........................................................................................................................287
Incentives
4.6 Payment
...........................................................................................................................290
Incentives
4.7 Annual...........................................................................................................................294
Performance
4.8 System...........................................................................................................................296
Costs
PV System
............................................................................................................................296
Costs
Trough
............................................................................................................................300
System Costs
Tower
............................................................................................................................307
System Costs
Dish ............................................................................................................................312
System Costs
Generic
............................................................................................................................317
Solar System Costs
Generic
............................................................................................................................320
System Costs
SWH............................................................................................................................324
System Costs
Small
............................................................................................................................329
Scale Wind Capital Costs
Wind............................................................................................................................331
Farm Costs
Geothermal
............................................................................................................................334
System Costs
Co-Production
............................................................................................................................334
Costs
4.9 Energy...........................................................................................................................335
Payment Dispatch
4.10 Electric...........................................................................................................................337
Load

5 Results 342
5.1 Metrics...........................................................................................................................342
Table
Annual
............................................................................................................................344
Energy
Annual
............................................................................................................................344
Water Usage

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6 SAM Help

Capacity
............................................................................................................................345
Factor
Costs............................................................................................................................345
Debt ............................................................................................................................345
Fraction
First ............................................................................................................................346
year kWhac/kWdc
First ............................................................................................................................346
Year PPA Price
Gross............................................................................................................................348
to Net Conv Factor
Internal
............................................................................................................................348
Rate of Return
Levelized
............................................................................................................................349
Cost of Energy (LCOE)
Minimum
............................................................................................................................355
DSCR
Net Present
............................................................................................................................356
Value
Payback
............................................................................................................................357
Period
PPA ............................................................................................................................357
Escalation
System
............................................................................................................................358
Performance Factor
Total............................................................................................................................358
Land Area
Year ............................................................................................................................358
1 Revenues
5.2 Graphs...........................................................................................................................359
and Charts
5.3 Base Case
...........................................................................................................................362
Cash Flow
Residential
............................................................................................................................363
and Commercial
IPP and
............................................................................................................................370
Commercial PPA
New ............................................................................................................................374
Utility Structures (Draft)
5.4 Tabular...........................................................................................................................377
Data Browser
5.5 Sliders...........................................................................................................................379
5.6 Case Summary
...........................................................................................................................380
5.7 Hourly ...........................................................................................................................382
Results
Hourly
............................................................................................................................382
Pricing Data
PV Component
............................................................................................................................384
Hourly Data
PVWatts
............................................................................................................................386
Hourly Data
Physical
............................................................................................................................387
Trough Hourly Data
Empirical
............................................................................................................................389
Trough Hourly Data
5.8 Simulation
...........................................................................................................................391
Results File
PV Component
............................................................................................................................391
Simulation
Physical
............................................................................................................................393
Trough Simulation
Empirical
............................................................................................................................398
Trough Simulation

6 Time Series Data Viewer (DView) 402

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 Contents 7

7 Advanced Topics 404

7.1 Parametric
...........................................................................................................................404
Analysis
7.2 Sensitivity
...........................................................................................................................410
Analysis
7.3 Optimization
...........................................................................................................................414
7.4 Statistical
...........................................................................................................................417
7.5 Multiple...........................................................................................................................422
Systems
7.6 Excel Exchange
...........................................................................................................................424
7.7 Simulator
...........................................................................................................................426
Options
7.8 User Variables
...........................................................................................................................427
7.9 SamUL...........................................................................................................................427
Data ............................................................................................................................431
Variables
Flow............................................................................................................................434
Control
Arrays
............................................................................................................................438
of Data
Function
............................................................................................................................441
Calls
Input,............................................................................................................................444
Output, and System Access
Interfacing
............................................................................................................................446
with SAM Analyses
Case............................................................................................................................449
Study
Library
............................................................................................................................454
Reference
7.10 Generating
...........................................................................................................................467
Code
7.11 Libraries
...........................................................................................................................469

8 References 477

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8 SAM Help

1 Introduction

1.1 About SAM

SAM is a performance and economic model designed to facilitate decision making for people involved in the
renewable energy industry, ranging from project managers and engineers to incentive program designers,
technology developers, and researchers. SAM makes performance predictions for grid-connected solar,
solar water heating, wind, and geothermal power systems and makes economic calculations for both
projects that buy and sell power at retail rates, and power projects that sell power through a power purchase
agreement.
The model calculates the cost of generating electricity (or the value of energy saved by a solar water heating
system) based on information you provide about a system's physical configuration, its location, and the
cost of installing and operating the system. SAM's financial model accounts for different financing
structures, taxes, and incentives.
SAM consists of a performance model and financial model. The performance model calculates a system's
energy output on an hourly basis (sub-hourly simulations are available for some technologies). The financial
model calculates annual project cash flows over a period of years for a range of financing structures for
residential, commercial, and utility projects.
The user interface provides access the input assumptions and displays results in tables and graphs, which
range from a table of basic metrics such as levelized cost of energy and total annual output, to tables of
detailed hourly simulation results, and a cash flow table showing project income, expenses, financing
costs, incentive payments and other details on a year-by-year basis over the analysis period.
All graphs and tables in SAM can easily be exported to word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation
software. The Excel-exchange feature also makes it possible to use Excel to calcualte values that SAM
can automatically use to populate input variables.
Advanced modeling options allow for parametric studies, optimization, sensitivity and other statistical
analyses, optimization, and statistical analyses to investigate impacts of variations and uncertainty in
performance, cost, and financial parameters on model results.
SAM models system performance using the TRNSYS software developed at the University of Wisconsin
combined with customized components. TRNSYS is a validated, time-series simulation program that can
simulate the performance of photovoltaic, concentrating solar power, water heating systems, and other
renewable energy systems using hourly resource data. TRNSYS is integrated into SAM so there is no need
to install TRNSYS software or be familiar with its use to run SAM.
The Department of Energy's Solar Energy Technologies Program (SETP) initially developed SAM for
analysis to support the implementation of the SETP Systems Driven Approach. The model also has
applications for the solar industry for planning research and development programs, and developing project
cost and performance estimates. SAM is being used as part of the solicitation and evaluation process for
SETP funding programs.
SAM also includes a simple model of fuel-based electric generation that can be used to model baseline
systems for comparison with the solar technologies.
For help getting started using SAM, see Start a Project.

June 2011
 About SAM 9

Model Structure
SAM consists of a user interface, calculation engine, and programming interface. The user interface is the
part of SAM that you see, and provides access to input variables and simulation controls, and displays
tables and graphs of results. SAM's calculation engine performs a time-step-by-time-step simulation of a
power system's performance, and a set of annual financial calculations to generate a project cash flow and
financial metrics. The programming interface allows external programs to interact with SAM.

The user interface performs three basic functions:

1. Provide access to input variables, which are organized into input pages. The input variables describe
the physical characteristics of a system, and the cost and financial assumptions for a project.
2. Allow you to control how SAM runs simulations. You can run a basic simulation, or more advanced
simulations for optimization and sensitivity studies.
3. Provide access to output variables in tables and graphs on the Results page, and in files that you can
access in a spreadsheet program or graphical data viewer.
SAM's scripting language SamUL allows you to automate certain tasks. If you have some experience
writing computer programs, you can easily learn to write SamUL scripts to set the values of input variables
by reading them from a text file or based on calculations in the script, run simulations, and write values of
results to a text file. You can also use SamUL to automatically run a series of simulations using different
weather files.
Excel Exchange allows you to use Microsoft Excel to calculate values of input variables. With Excel
Exchange, each time you run simulations, SAM opens a spreadsheet and, depending on how you've
configured Excel Exchange, writes values from SAM input pages to the spreadsheet, and reads values from
the spreadsheet to use in simulations. This makes it possible to use spreadsheet formulas to calculate
values of SAM input variables.

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10 SAM Help

Calculation Engine
Each renewable energy technology in SAM has a corresponding performance model that performs
calculations specific to the technology. Similarly, each financing option in SAM is also associated with a
particular financial model with its own set of inputs and outputs. The financial models are as independent
as possible from the performance models to allow for consistency in financial calculations across the
different technologies.
A performance simulation consists of a series of many calculations to emulate the performance of the
system over a one year period in time steps of one hour for most simulations, and shorter time steps for
some technologies.
A typical simulation run consists of the following steps:
1. After starting SAM, you select a combination of technology and financing options for a case in the user
interface.
2. Behind the scenes, SAM chooses the proper set of simulation and financial models.
3. You specify values of input variables in the user interface. Each variable has a default value, so it not
necessary to specify a value for every variable.
4. When you click the Run button, SAM runs the simulation and financial models. For advanced analyses,
you can configure simulations for optimization or sensitivity analyses before running simulations.
5. SAM displays graphs and tables of results in the user interface's Results page.

1.2 User Support

For information about any page in the software, do one of the following:

Press the F1 key (Command-? on a Mac).

Click the help button at the top right corner of each input page.

Click Help Contents from the Help menu.

In secondary windows, click the Help button for information about the
window.
For additional help, try:

Click User Guide on the Help menu to open a user guide in PDF format.

For general information about the model, including a discussion of project

costs, references to related publications and a list of frequently asked
questions, and other information visit the SAM website: [Link]
gov/analysis/sam/.

June 2011
 User Support 11

To participate in the SAM discussion board, join Google Groups using your
email address (a Gmail account is not required) at [Link]
com/group/sam-user-group.
If you have questions comments about the software, please send an email
to the support team at [Link]@[Link]. You can also use
the User Support command on the Help menu to contact the support
team.

1.3 Keep SAM Up to Date

The SAM team releases new versions of SAM periodically. To find out if your version of SAM is the latest
version, check the SAM website. SAM's welcome page also displays news from the SAM team, including
announcements of new versions.
SAM displays the version number in the title bar of the Main window:

You can also find the SAM version number along with version numbers of other components of the software
by clicking About on the Help menu:

Checking for Updates

Updates may be available before a new release is available to address minor issues with the software.

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12 SAM Help

To check for updates:

On the Help menu, click Check for updates to this version.

2 Getting Started

2.1 Start a Project

The following procedure describes the basic steps to run a simulation of a project based on photovoltaic or
parabolic trough technology using default input assumptions to help you get started using SAM.

See also:
Financing Overview
Getting Started with PV

A. Create a project
Type a name for your project and click Create.
For details, see Options for Starting a Project.

B. Choose a technology
For descriptions of the technology options, see Technologies.

June 2011
 Start a Project 13

For photovoltaic systems, choose Component-based Models if you want to choose a specific module and
inverter from a list.
Choose PVWatts System Model if you want to model the entire system using a single derate factor.

For parabolic trough systems, choose Physical Trough System under Concentrating Solar Power. If
you are modeling a system with a configuration similar to the SEGS plants choose Empirical Trough
System.

For other technologies, choose the appropriate option.

C. Choose a financing option

For a description of the financing options, see Financing Options.
For projects that buy and sell electricity at retail rates, choose either Residential or Commercial.

For power projects that sell power at a price negotiated through a power purchase agreement, choose either
Commercial PPA or one of the options under Utility Market.

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14 SAM Help

To model the performance of a system without the financial model, choose No Financials. Note that the
Power Tower model requires that you choose a financial model because the performance model includes an
optimization algorithm that requires information about equipment costs.

June 2011
 Start a Project 15

D. Review inputs
After creating your file, open each input page and review the default assumptions.
See Input Pages for details.

E. Run simulations
To run simulations, click the Run button.

See Run Simulations for details.

F. Review results
When simulations are complete, SAM displays a summary of results in the Metric table.

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16 SAM Help
You can display graphs and tables of detailed results data on the Results page.

2.2 Welcome Page

When you start SAM, it displays a Welcome window with three options for starting a project.
Create a new file to start a project. Type the project name and click Create to display the Technology
and Market window where you choose a technology and financing option before creating a new zsam
file for your project.
Open a sample file. The sample files illustrate how to model some common types of projects and how
to use some of SAM's more advanced modeling techniques.
Open a recent file. The Recent Files list contains project files that were saved during previous SAM
sessions.

June 2011
 Welcome Page 17

Note. When you install SAM, it creates the SAM Projects folder in your default documents folder and
uses this as the default location for storing project files. You can change the default project file location
by clicking Preferences in the File Menu.

2.3 Main Window

The main window gives you access to the input pages for each of the cases in the project:

The case tabs display different cases in the project. A project may consist of a single case, or may
contain more than one case. Click a tab to display the case. Click the 'x' on a tab to delete the case.
The navigation menu displays a list of input pages available for the technology and market of the current
case. Click an item in the navigation menu to display an input page. The active input page is indicated
on the menu in blue. When the menu is too long to fit in the window, use the vertical scroll bar to move
through the menu, or resize the Main window to make the entire menu visible. Each item on the
navigation menu also displays key data the input pages. For example, the system costs item in the
navigation menu shows the system's total installed cost.

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18 SAM Help

2.4 Input Pages

SAM's input pages provide access to the input variables and options that define the assumptions of your
analysis. When you start a project, whether from a sample file, by creating a new project, or opening an
existing project, SAM populates all of the input variables with default values. This means that you can get
started with your analysis even before you have final values for all of the input variables.

Note. To see a list of all input variables and their values for a case, on the Results menu, click Case
Summary, Send To Excel. SAM creates a workbook with a worksheet listing the input variables.

Colors of Input Variables

The text and data box colors on the input pages indicate the kind of information they contain:

Note. The appearance of text and text boxes depends on whether you are running SAM on Windows or
Mac OS. The screenshots below are for Windows.

White data boxes display input variables that you can modify by typing values in the box:

Blue data boxes are for reference values that SAM either displays from other input pages, or calculates
from other input variables. Data in blue cannot be modified. Press the F1 key on your keyboard
(Command-? on a Mac) to see the Help topic with descriptions of the equations SAM uses to calculate
these values:

June 2011
 Input Pages 19

Gray data boxes show values for your reference. For example, these input variables on the Climate
page show annual averages calculated from data stored in the weather file. You cannot modify data in
gray:

Blue underlined text indicates links to websites with useful information related to the input page:

Informational text describing the input variables appears in orange font:

Library buttons populate input variables with values from a library of stored parameters. Modifying a
value on an input page does not change the value stored in the library. See Working with Libraries for to
learn more about libraries:

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20 SAM Help

2.5 Run Simulations

After reviewing and modifying inputs on the input pages, click the Run all Simulations button to run
simulations:

SAM runs simulations based on the values of input variables that appear on the input pages and reports
those values as "base case" results.
In addition to the base case, SAM runs simulations for any additional simulations you may have set up on
the Configure Simulations pages, such as parametric or sensitivity analyses.
You can also run simulations from the Case menu (See Menus for a description of menu commands):

Run All Simulations

Runs all of the simulations configured in the current case. Equivalent to clicking the Run button. This
option does not save hourly results.
Run Base Case Only
Runs a single simulation based on the input values shown on the input pages, ignoring any parametric,
sensitivity, optimization or other configurations requiring multiple simulation runs, and does not save
hourly results.

June 2011
 Results Page 21

2.6 Results Page

When you run simulations based on inputs you specify on the Systems pages in SAM, the performance
model creates a file of hourly data called the simulation results file. There are several options in SAM for
viewing data from this file:
The Metrics table displays key metrics that summarize the performance model results, such as total
annual electrical output, capacity factor, etc.
Graphs and charts display monthly electrical output and an annual energy flow graph.
The Tabular Data Browser allows you to build a custom table of hourly, monthly, and annual results on
the Results page.
The Case Summary workbook includes a worksheets of hourly, monthly, and annual data.
The Time Series Data Viewer (DView) displays time series and statistical graphs of hourly data from the
simulation output file.
SAM's financial model uses the sum of the performance model's 8,760 hourly output values in kWh as an
input representing the system's total annual electrical output in kWh. The financial model then calculates
the project's cash flow based on the inputs you specify on the Costs and Financing pages. SAM displays
financial model results in the following places:
The Metrics table displays key metrics including the LCOE, PPA price, IRR, payback period, etc.
The Base Case Cash Flow table shows details of the project's cash flow.
The Tabular Data Browser allows you to build a custom table of cost and cash flow data along with
metrics. shows data from the cash flowAfter running simulations, SAM displays the Results page,
which provides access to many graphs and tables of output data.

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22 SAM Help

Simulation Warning Messages

Under some conditions, SAM displays simulation warnings. When there are simulation warnings, the
simulation warning button appears at the top right corner of the Results page. Click the Show Simulation
Warnings button to view warning messages:

June 2011
 Export Data and Graphs 23

2.7 Export Data and Graphs

SAM provides a several options for exporting images of graphs and results data to other applications for
further analysis or inclusion in reports and other documents.

Results Page View Graphs and Charts

When the Results page is in the View Graphs and Charts mode, you can export the data in the graphs
using one of the following methods:
Click Copy Graph Data to copy data from the graph to your computer's clipboard. You can then paste
the data into a spreadsheet or other program.

Right-click the graph to copy either data from the graph or an image of the graph to the clipboard, or
export it to a file:

On the Results menu, click Graph Data to view a list of options for exporting graph data:

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24 SAM Help

Results Page Cash Flow and Tabular Data Browser

The base case cash flow table and tabular data browser provide three options for exporting data shown in
the tables:

Copy to clipboard
Copies the table to your clipboard. You can paste the entire table into a word processing document,
spreadsheet, presentation or other software.
Save as CSV
Saves the table in a comma-delimited text file that you can open in a spreadsheet program or text
editor.
Send to Excel (Windows only)
Saves the table in an Excel file.

Case Summary and Hourly Results

The case summary contains data for the current case. To open the case summary, either click the Export
and view data button to display the options in the Export Data window:

June 2011
 Export Data and Graphs 25

Or, click an option on the Results menu to display a the same list of export options in menus.

Note for Mac users. The Send to Excel and View Hourly Time Series (DView) options are not available
on Mac computers. DView does not run on Mac OS, and SAM cannot control Microsoft Excel on Mac
OS. For details on options for viewing data on a Mac, see Data Viewer (DView).

Graph Data
Exports data from all graphs currently visible on the Results page.
Cashflow
Exports data from the cash flow table. The exported data is the same as the data shown in the base
case cash flow table on the Results page.
Case Summary
Exports hourly performance data with monthly and annual averages and the cash flow table for the
current case.
The Send to Excel option (Windows only) exports the data to separate worksheets in an Excel
workbook, and includes a list of input variables.
The Save as CSV and To Clipboard options exports some of the case summary data as comma-
separated values in a single file.
See Case Summary for details.
Save as CSV
Exports data to a comma-separated text file.
To Clipboard
Exports data to your computer's clipboard. Use the Paste command to copy the data to a spreadsheet

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26 SAM Help
or other file.
Send to Excel
For Windows computers with Microsoft Excel installed only. Exports data to an Excel workbook and
opens the file in Excel.
View Hourly Times Series (DView)
For Windows computers only. Opens the hourly results file in DView, which displays graphs of hourly
data. See Data Viewer (DView) for details.

2.8 Manage Cases

A case is a complete set of input data and results. A project file contains at least one case. SAM uses
tabs to display each case in the project, analogous to the way Excel displays worksheets in a workbook.
SAM indicates the active case name in bold type:

Note. The number of cases that a project file can contain depends on the storage and computing
resources available on your computer. SAM displays a warning if you try to add more than six cases to
your project. Your computer may be able to handle projects with more than six cases, but for the model
to run efficiently, it is best to keep the number of cases to less than seven.

Why Use Cases?

By creating more than one case in a file, you can easily compare the assumptions and results of different
analysis scenarios. For example, you could use cases to compare the cost and performance of a
residential photovoltaic system in several locations by defining a separate case for each location, or you
could compare a utility-scale photovoltaic and concentrating solar power systems.

Creating and Deleting Cases

To add, remove, and rename cases, used the four commands on the Case menu:

Create Case
Adds a new case to the project file. SAM displays the Technology and Market window for you to
choose options for the case.

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 Manage Cases 27

Rename Case
Change the label identifying the case that appears on the case tab.
Duplicate Case
Creates a copy of the active case, with a duplicate set of input parameters and results.
Delete Case
Deletes the active case. You can also delete a case by clicking the 'x' on the case's tab.

For projects with more cases than can be displayed on tabs, the scroll and list controls allow you to access
all of the cases in the project.

2.9 Menus
SAM's menus provide access to commands for managing projects, running simulations, exporting results,
and getting more information about the model.

Contents
File menu commands allow you to manage files, access component libraries, clear
the simulation cache (advanced feature) and close SAM
Case menu commands apply to the current case, which indicated by the active
case tab in the main window.
Results menu commands allow you to export results for the current case
Developer commands for managing SamUL scripts.
Help for accessing help and version information.

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28 SAM Help

File
New
Create a new file using default input values. SAM creates a zsam file with a single case and no results.

Open
Open an existing zsam file.

Open Sample File

Open a sample file that contains a complete set of inputs and results. The submenu lists the available
sample files. SAM creates a zsam file with inputs and results for one or more cases.

Open SCIF File

Open a SCIF file created in Version 3.0 or 2.5 of the model. Contact SAM Support at [Link].
support@[Link] for help with files from old versions of SAM.
Import one or more cases from another zsam file.

Save
Save the project as a zsam file in its current location.

Save As
Save the project as a zsam file in a different location or with a new name.

Close
Close the zsam file without exiting SAM.

Clear Cached Simulations

Clears stored results and other data from computer memory. Use this command if the program
becomes sluggish after running a very large number of simulations, or if you are setting up very complex
simulations and want to clear the cache before running them.

Libraries
Open the library editor to view or modify component libraries. See Libraries for details.

Preferences
Open the Preferences window.

Recent Files
Open a zsam file from the recent files list.

Quit
Close the zsam file and exit SAM.

Case
Create Case
Create a new case in the project. SAM opens the Technology and Market window where you choose
options for the case. The new case will open with default input values and no results.

Rename Case
Change the name of the current case.

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Duplicate Case
Create a copy of the current case.

Delete Case
Delete the current case. You can also delete a case by clicking the 'x' in the case's tab.

Run All Simulations

Runs all of the simulations configured in the current case. Equivalent to clicking the Run button.

Run Base Case Only

Runs a single simulation based on the input values shown on the input pages, ignoring any parametric,
sensitivity, optimization or other configurations requiring multiple simulation runs, and does not save
hourly results.

Reset to Tech/Market Default Inputs

Replaces all values on input pages with default values.

Clear Case Results

Clears results from the current case. SAM removes any graphs and sliders you may have created for
the case.

Advanced
The advanced options create lines of code in Excel VBA, ANSI C, or for MATLAB that you can use in
your own programs to call SAM. See Generating Code for details.

Results
The Results menu commands allow you to export results for the current case to:
The clipboard for pasting into documents.
Comma-delimited text files.
Excel files (PC computers running Windows only).
The built-in DView data viewer for graphing hourly data (PC computers running Windows only).

Note. If the current case includes simulations that involve multiple input values, such as for parametric
and sensitivity analyses, SAM only exports results for input values shown on the input pages, not for
ranges of values defined in simulation configurations.

Graph Data
Exports data from the graphs currently displayed on the Results page.
Cashflow
Exports cash flow data for the current case.
Case Summary
Exports all performance and cash flow data for the current case. If you choose the Send to Excel
option, SAM creates a workbooks that includes a worksheet listing all of the input variables with their
values.
View Hourly Time Series (DView)
Opens the DView data viewer and displays graphs of hourly data. See Time Series Data Viewer (DView)

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for details.

Simulations
Parametrics
Displays the parametric analysis page allowing you to assign multiple values to input variables for
parametric studies and optimization. See Parametric Analysis for details.

Sensitivity
Displays the sensitivity analysis page allowing you to specify a range of values to input variables for
sensitivity analyses. See Sensitivity Analysis for details.

Optimization
Displays the optimization page allowing you to specify an objective function and find the optimal value of
input variables. See Optimization for details.

Statistical
Displays the statistical analysis page allowing you to explore uncertainty in input variables. See
Statistical Analysis for details.

Multiple Systems
Displays the multiple systems page where you can build a system as a set of subsystems. See
Multiple Systems for details.

Excel Exchange
Displays the excel exchange page where you can set up a data exchange between SAM and Excel
when you want to use Excel to calculate values of SAM input variables. See Excel Exchange for
details.

Simulator Options
Displays the simulator options page where you can specify the simulation time step and to configure
SAM to run custom TRNSYS decks. See Simulator Optionsfor details

Developer
New SAMUL Script
Opens the script editor to create a program in SAM User Language (SamUL) to automate SAM
modeling tasks. See SamUL for details.

Help
Help Contents
Opens SAM's help system.

User Guide
Opens the user guide, which is a version of the help system in PDF format.

SamUL Guide
Opens the instructions in PDF format for using the SAM User Language, a scripting language that
allows you to automate SAM modeling tasks.

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 Menus 31

Release Notes
Displays SAM's version history.

Web Site
Opens the SAM website in your computer's default browser. (Requires an internet connection.)

User Group
Opens the SAM discussion board on the Google Groups website in your computer's default browser.
(Requires an internet connection.)

User Support
Opens your computer's default email program to compose an email that you can send to the SAM
support team at [Link]@[Link]. (Requires an internet connection.)

Financial Spreadsheets
Displays a list of Excel workbooks that mimic SAM's financial model using Excel formulas that you can
use to learn more about how the financial model works.

Download New Versions of SAM

Opens the SAM website's download page. See Keep SAM Up to Date for details.

Check for updates to this version

Checks for updates to the SAM, component libraries, and help system, and allows you to update your
software when updates are available. (Requires an internet connection.)

About
Displays the legal disclaimer and information about the version of your copy of the software.

2.10 Notes
The Notes feature allows you to store text associated with each input page and with the Results page.

To create notes:
1. From any input page or the Results page, click the Show Notes button at the top right of the
window.

2. Type your text in the notes window.

3. Click the Notes window's close button to hide the window and save your notes.
For input page notes, SAM displays a Notes icon in the navigation menu indicating that there are
notes associated with the input page.

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For Results page notes, SAM opens the notes whenever you navigate to the page and after running
simulations.

To delete notes:
1. Open the Notes window containing the notes you want to delete.
2. Select all text in the Notes window and press the Delete key.
3. Close the Notes window. SAM will remove the appropriate Notes icon from the navigation menu.

2.11 File Formats

SAM uses the following types of files to store and transfer data. The file formats are listed below by file
extension in alphabetical order.
Contact [Link]@[Link] for more information.
BAS is a text file containing VBA code for use with Excel.
BMP is a graphics file format used to export graph images.
C is a text file containing ANSI C code for use in a C program.
CSV is a text file containing a table comma-delimited columns that the model uses to export results
data from graphs and tables. Weather files in TMY3 format also use the CSV extension.
DVIEW is a file format used by SAM's time series data viewer, DView.
EPW is a weather file format that SAM can read directly.
M is a text file containing MATLAB code.
OUT is a text file format generated by SAM's simulation engine (TRNSYS) to store hourly performance
data.
SAMLIB is a text file used to store data for a SAM library.
SCIF (SAM compressed inputs file) is an obsolete compressed file format used in SAM versions 2.5
through 3.0. The current version of SAM can open SCIF files created by older versions of the model.
SUL is a text file containing SamUL script for automating SAM analyses.
TM2 and TM3 are weather file formats that SAM can read directly.
XLS are Excel files used to export data from SAM and to exchange data between the model and Excel.
Note that Excel files must be in Excel 2003-2007 XLS format, and not in the newer XLSX format.
ZSAM files store project data, which includes inputs and results for one or more cases.

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3 Systems

3.1 Overview
Each renewable energy technology in SAM has a corresponding performance model that performs
calculations specific to the technology. Most of the models perform hourly simulations to calculate the total
annual electric output of the system, which is then used by the financial model to calculate project the
project cash flow and financial metrics.

Notes.

The solar water heating model calculates the thermal output of the system, assuming that it displaces
electricity that would normally heat water in a conventional water heating system.

Because of the nature of the technology, the geothermal model calculates system performance over a
period of years rather than hours.

SAM can perform sub-hourly simulations for advanced analyses, but relies on interpolation to determine
the solar resource based on hourly weather data.

Photovoltaic Systems: Component-based Models

SAM models grid-connected photovoltaic systems that consist of a photovoltaic array and inverter. The
array can be made up of flat-plate or concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules with one-axis, two-axis, or
no tracking. The current version of the software includes simple models of loads and storage for grid-
connected systems with electric storage batteries.
The Component-based Models option represents the performance of a photovoltaic system using separate
models to represent the performance of the module and inverter. This is in contrast with the PVWatts
System Model, which represents the entire system using a single model.
The SAM Performance Models option allows you to choose between the Sandia, CEC, and single-point
efficiency models for photovoltaic modules, and between the Sandia and single-point efficiency models for
inverters.

Modules
Each of the four available module performance models uses a different algorithm to predict module
performance:
The Sandia PV Array Performance Model calculates hourly efficiency values based on data measured
from modules and arrays in realistic outdoor operating conditions. The Sandia model tends to
produce more accurate predictions of module performance than the CEC model. However, because of
the time and effort required to make the field measurements, the Sandia module database is less up-
to-date than the CEC database.
The California Energy Commission (CEC) Performance Model predicts module performance based on
a database of module characteristics determined from module ratings. Like the Sandia model, the
CEC model calculates hourly efficiency values, and allows you to select from a list of a commercially-

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available modules. The CEC module database tends to be more up-to-date than the Sandia database.
For some types of modules, the CEC model predictions may be less accurate than the Sandia
model.
The Simple Efficiency Module model is a simple representation of module performance that requires
you to provide the module area, a set of conversion efficiency values, and temperature correction
parameters. The simple efficiency model is the least accurate of the three models for predicting the
performance of specific modules. It is useful for preliminary performance predictions before you have
selected a specific module, and allows you to specify a module efficiency and temperature
performance parameters, which is useful for analyses involving sensitivity or parametric analysis.
For concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules, use the Concentrating PV Module model unless you
are modeling a CPV module available in the Sandia model, in which case, you can choose the
module from the database in the Sandia model. The concentrating PV module model is similar to the
simple efficiency model, except that it uses only the direct normal component of the incident solar
radiation instead of the total radiation for performance predictions.

Inverters
The Sandia Performance Model for Grid-Connected PV Inverters is an empirically-based performance
model that uses parameters from a database of commercially available inverters maintained by Sandia
National Laboratory. The parameters are based on manufacturer specifications and laboratory
measurements for a range of inverter types.
The Sandia model consists of a set of equations that SAM uses to calculate the inverter's hourly AC
output based on the DC input (equivalent to the derated output of the photovoltaic array) and a set of
empirically-determined coefficients that describe the inverter's performance characteristics. The
equations involve a set of coefficients that have been empirically determined based on data from
manufacturer specification sheets and either field measurements from inverters installed in operating
systems, or laboratory measurements using the California Energy Commission (CEC) test protocol.
Because SAM does not track voltage levels in the system, it assumes that for each hour of the
simulation, the inverter operates at the photovoltaic array's maximum power point voltage, given the
solar resource data in the weather file for that hour.
The inverter single-point efficiency model calculates the inverter's AC output by multiplying the DC input
(equivalent to the array's derated DC output) by a fixed DC-to-AC conversion efficiency that you specify
on the Inverter page. Unlike the Sandia inverter model, the single-point efficiency model assumes that
the inverter's efficiency does not vary under different operating conditions.

Photovoltaic Systems: PVWatts System Model

The PVWatts System Model represents the entire photovoltaic system using a single model. This is in
contrast with the Component-based Models option, which uses separate models to represent the
performance of the module and inverter.

Parabolic Trough
A parabolic trough system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that collects direct normal
solar radiation and converts it to thermal energy that runs a power block to generate electricity. The
components of a parabolic trough system are the solar field, power block, and in some cases, thermal
energy storage and fossil backup systems. The solar field collects heat from the sun and consists of
parabolic, trough-shaped solar collectors that focus direct normal solar radiation onto tubular receivers.
Each collector assembly consists of mirrors and a structure that supports the mirrors and receivers, allows
it to track the sun on one axis, and can withstand wind-induced forces. Each receiver consists of a metal

June 2011
 Overview 35

tube with a solar radiation absorbing surface in a vacuum inside a coated glass tube. A heat transfer fluid
(HTF) transports heat from the solar field to the power block (also called power cycle) and other
components of the system. The power block is based on conventional power cycle technology, using a
turbine to convert thermal energy from the solar field to electric energy. The optional fossil-fuel backup
system delivers supplemental heat to the HTF during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive
the power block at its rated capacity.

Physical Trough Model

The physical trough system model is a new parabolic trough model for SAM introduced in March 2010.
The model approaches the task of characterizing the performance of the many of the system
components from first principles of heat transfer and thermodynamics, rather than from empirical
measurements as in the empirical trough system model. The physical model uses mathematical
models that represent component geometry and energy transfer properties, which gives you the
flexibility to specify characteristics of system components such as the absorber emissivity or envelope
glass thickness. The empirical model, on the other hand, uses a set of curve-fit equations derived from
regression analysis of data measured from real systems, so you are limited to modeling systems
composed of components for which there is measured data. While the physical model is more flexible
than the empirical model, it adds more uncertainty to performance predictions than the empirical model.
In a physical model, uncertainty in the geometry and property assumptions for each system component
results in an aggregated uncertainty at the system level that tends to be higher than the uncertainty in
an empirical model. We've included both models in SAM so that you can use both in your analyses.
The following are some key features of the physical model:
Includes transient effects related to the thermal capacity of the heat transfer fluid in the solar field
piping, headers, and balance of plant.
Allows for flexible specification of solar field components, including multiple receiver and collector
types within a single loop.
Relatively short simulation times to allow for parametric and statistical analyses that require multiple
simulation runs.
As with the other SAM models for other technologies, the physical trough model makes use of existing
models when possible:
Collector model adapted from NREL's Excelergy model.
Receiver heat loss model by Forristall (2003).
Field piping pressure drop model by Kelley and Kearney (2006).
Power cycle performance model by Wagner (2008) for the power tower (also known as a central
receiver) CSP system model in SAM.

Empirical Trough Model

The empirical parabolic trough model uses a set of equations based on empirical analysis of data
collected from installed systems (the SEGS projects in the southwestern United States) to represent
the performance of parabolic trough components. The model is based on Excelergy, a model initially
developed for inernal use at at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Power Tower
A power tower system (also called a central receiver system) is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP)
system that consists of a heliostat field, tower and receiver, power block, and optional storage system. The
field of flat, sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats focus direct normal solar radiation onto a receiver at the

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top of the tower, where a heat-transfer fluid is heated and pumped to the power block. The power block
generates steam that drives a conventional steam turbine and generator to convert the thermal energy to
electricity.
SAM's power tower performance model uses TRNSYS components developed at the University of
Wisconsin and described in Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central
Receiver System Power Plants, Wagner (2008) [Link] (32
MB). For a description of the type of system the power tower model can represent, see About SAM.
The solar field optimization algorithm is based on the DELSOL3 model developed at Sandia National
Laboratory, and described in A User's Manual for DELSOL3: A Computer Code for Calculating the Optical
Performance and Optimal System Design for Solar Thermal Central Receiver Plants, Kistler (1986),
(SAND86-8018) [Link] (10 MB).

Dish Stirling
A dish-Stirling system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that consists of a parabolic
dish-shaped collector, receiver and Stirling engine. The collector focuses direct normal solar radiation on the
receiver, which transfers heat to the engine's working fluid. The engine in turn drives an electric generator. A
dish-Stirling power plant can consist of a single dish or a field of dishes.
SAM's dish-Stirling performance model uses the TRNSYS implementation of the energy prediction model
described in the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) [Link]
gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB). For a description of the type of system the dish-Stirling
model can represent, see About SAM.

Generic Solar
The generic solar model allows you to model a system that consists of a solar field, power block with a
conventional steam turbine, and optional thermal energy storage system. The model represents the solar
field using a set of optical efficiency values for different sun angles and can be used for any solar technology
that uses solar energy to generate steam for electric power generation.

Generic System
The generic system model is a basic representation of a conventional fossil-fuel power plant. The Generic
technology option makes it possible to compare analyses of renewable energy project to a base case
conventional fossil fuel plant using consistent financial assumptions.
The generic system model allows you to characterize the plant's performance either using one of two
options:
Specify a nameplate capacity and capacity factor value: Assumes that the plant generates power at a
constant rate over the year.
Specify an hourly our sub-hourly generation profile: Assumes that the plant generates power according
to the generation profile you specify.

Solar Water Heating

SAM's Solar Water Heating model was developed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and models
residential or commercial solar water heating systems.
Simple Glycol and Tank Sytem
The simple model represents a two-tank glycol system with an auxiliary electric heater and storage

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 Overview 37

tank for residential or commercial applications. The model allows you to vary the location, hot water
load profiles, and characteristics of the collector, heat exchanger, and solar tanks.
Detailed System
The detailed model includes options for direct, drainback, and glycol systems, and can model either an
electric or gas auxiliary water heater. The financing models are not available for the detailed system
model -- it does not calculate levelized cost of energy and other economic or financial metrics.

Wind
SAM's two wind models allow you to model the performance of small wind turbines for residential or
commercial applications, or of large wind turbines for a utility-scale wind farm project.

Small Scale Wind

The small-scale wind model can model one or a few small wind turbines for residential or commercial
applications.

Utility Scale Wind

The utility-scale wind model can model a single large wind turbine, or a wind farm of large wind turbines
that sells power to the grid.

Geothermal
Geothermal Power
The geothermal power plant model calculates the output of a power plant that uses heat from below the
surface of the ground to drive a steam electric power generation plant. SAM analyzes the plant's
performance over its lifetime, assuming that changes in the resource and electrical output occur
monthly over a period of years, rather than over hours over a period of one year as in the solar and other
technologies modeled by SAM.
SAM can be used to answer the following kinds of questions:
What is the levelized cost of a geothermal power plant, given a known configuration and resource?
How does changing the design of the plant affect its output and levelized cost of energy?
What plant size is required to meet an electric capacity requirement?
Given a known number of wells, what would the plant's electric capacity be?
SAM models the following types of systems:
Hydrothermal resources, where the underground heat reservoir is sufficiently permeable and contains
sufficient groundwater to make the resource useful without any enhancements.
Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) that pump water or steam underground to collect heat stored
in rock. These systems involve drilling or fracturing the rock to improve heat transfer. Over time
(typically years), as heat is collected from the rock, its the temperature decreases, and more drilling
is required. SAM's recapitalization cost accounts for the cost of these improvements to reach new
resources.
Both flash and binary conversion plants.

Geothermal Co-Production
The co-production model is for relatively small commercial-scale projects that generate electricity from
a geothermal resource available at the site of an oil or gas well.

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3.2 Climate
To view the Climate page, click Climate in the main window's navigation menu.
The Climate page allows you to choose a weather file in TMY3, TMY2 or EPW format, download satellite-
derived weather data from the Internet, create your own weather file in TMY3 format, and review your
weather data.

Note. This topic describes the Climate page for solar power systems. For small scale wind systems
see the Wind Resource page. For geothermal systems, see the geothermal Resource page.

Contents
Overview of the Climate Page describes the options for choosing weather data and
the variables displayed on the Climate page.
Input Variable Reference describes the variables and buttons on the Climate page.
Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths explains how to add your own
weather files to the Location list.
Copying Weather Data to a Project explains how to embed weather data in your
project file for sharing with other people.
Creating a Weather File from Your Own Data describes SAM's TMY3 weather file
creator to use your own weather data in SAM.
Using Location Lookup explains how to automatically download satellite-derived
data for any location in the United States using a street address, zip code, or
latitude and longitude.
Downloading Weather Files from the Internet explains how to download TMY3,
EPW, and satellite-derived data from the internet.

Overview
The Climate page allows you to choose the weather file that SAM uses for simulations in the current case.
The Climate page displays a summary of the weather data, and also allows you to view the actual data in
the time series data viewer (DView). The weather files are text files, so you can also examine the data using
a text editor, a spreadsheet program, or other software.

Weather Data Guidelines

For U.S. locations, use the Best weather data for the U.S. web link on the Climate page to download
a TMY3 file. If the TMY3 database does not include a file for a location at or very near your project site,
try to find TMY3 files for locations near the site. You can run simulations for the different locations and
compare them to get a sense of what the resource might be at the project site. See Downloading
Weather Files from the Internet for instructions.
SAM comes with the complete set of the 239 TMY2 weather files. To use a TMY2 file, simply choose it
from the Location list. See instructions below.

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If no TMY3 or TMY2 data is available for your project site, you can download typical year data from
NREL's Solar Prospector website using SAM's Location Lookup feature. The Solar Prospector website
provides access to satellite-derived weather data for the entire U.S. at a 10-km geographic resolution in
files using the TMY2 format. See Using Location Lookup for details.
For locations outside of the U.S., EPW files are available for over 1000 locations in 100 countries. See
Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for instructions.
If you have weather data from a resource measurement program or from meteorological weather station,
you can use SAM's TMY3 creator to create a TMY3 formatted file with the data. See Creating a
Weather File from Your Own Data for details.
Some companies sell weather data and weather data processing software. For example, see Weather
Analytics TMY Anywhere [Link] or [Link]
pages/en/[Link].

To choose a weather data file from the Location list:

1. Download the weather file from the Internet. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for
details
2. Place the file in your weather file folder. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for
details.
Or, you can use one of the TMY2 files included with SAM. See below for a description of file
formats and guidelines for specifying weather data.
3. In the Location list, click the weather file's name.

If you cannot find a file for your project site on the Internet, or have data from another source that is
not in one of the file formats SAM recognizes, See Specifying Weather Data below for a list of
options.

Note. You can compare results for a system using more than one weather file in a single case by using
SAM's parametric simulation option.

File Formats
A SAM weather file is a file that contains hourly data describing the solar resource, wind speed,
temperature, and other weather characteristics at a particular location in one of three text formats:
TMY3 comma-delimited text file format (.csv), [Link]
tmy3/
TMY2 non-delimited text file format (.tm2), [Link]
EPW comma-delimited text file format (.epw), [Link]
weatherdata_format_def.html
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's typical year data represents average weather data over a
range of years: 1961-1990 for TMY2 data, and 1991-2005 for TMY3 data. Each typical year file may contain
data from different years within the range, for example a TMY3 file might contain 1995 data for the month of
February, 2001 data for March, 1998 data for April, etc. The NREL typical year data is based on analysis of
weather data measured at each location and is appropriate for economic and performance predictions of a

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project over a long analysis period. The EPW data was developed for the U.S. Department of Energy's
EnergyPlus building simulation model, and is a source of non-U.S. weather data for SAM. The EPW data
on the EnergyPlus website is also typical year data.
TMY3 files are available for 1020 U.S. locations, and are based on more recent data and better modeling
techniques than the TMY2 data. However, the TMY3 data was developed using data from a shorter time
period than the TMY2 data, so may be less representative of the resource over the long term. (Although the
TMY2 data includes effects from the Mt Pinatubo volcanic eruption, which may distort solar energy output
predictions based on the data.) If both TMY2 and TMY3 files are available for your project site, you may
want to run SAM with both sets of data to compare results.
SAM will read a weather file containing data from any source, as long as it is correctly formatted. You can
create your own weather file with data collected from a resource measurement program, or from
meteorological stations. SAM may not be able to read weather files that contain formatting errors or
erroneous data elements. In some cases, you can use a text editor to compare a problematic file with one
in the same format that works correctly in SAM to find problems with the file. Refer to the documentation
available in the websites listed above for each file format for details.

Single Year Weather Data

Single year data represents the weather at a location for a specific year. Single year data is appropriate for
analysis of a project's economics and performance in a particular year, and for analyses involving time-
dependent electricity pricing or electric loads for a given year. Single-year weather data can be developed
from on-site measurements or from satellite-derived measurements. Single-year data for U.S. locations is
available from NREL's Solar Prospector website, follow the link on the Climate page under Web Links. The
Solar Prospector data is satellite-derived data formatted using the TMY2 file format, so SAM can read the
data directly. NREL also publishes the specific-year data used to develop the TMY2 and TMY3 data sets on
the websites listed above, but that data must be formatted to work with SAM, either using external software
or SAM's TMY3 Creator feature.

Time Convention
The time convention of the weather data determines the time convention of SAM's simulations. For
example, TMY2 and TMY3 data both use local standard time, and the radiation data values represent the
total energy received during the 60 minutes preceding the indicated hour. The global horizontal radiation
shown for hour 1 represents the total radiation incident on a horizontal surface between midnight and 1:00
am of the first hour of the year. Both data sets assume that there are 8,760 hours in one year and do not
account for leap years. SAM assumes that the solar angle at the middle of the hour (at 30 minutes past the
hour) applies to the entire hour.

Weather Data Elements

SAM uses the following data from the weather file:
Atmospheric pressure: CSP, wind
Dew point temperature: CSP
Diffuse horizontal radiation: PV
Direct normal radiation: PV, CSP
Dry bulb temperature: All technologies
Global horizontal radiation: PV, CSP
Hour of the day: All technologies

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 Climate 41

Latitude: All technologies

Longitude: All technologies
Percent relative humidity: CSP, wind
Site elevation: All technologies
Wet bulb temperature: CSP
Wind direction: Wind
Wind velocity: All technologies

Note. For the component-based PV model, you can specify the solar radiation elements from the
weather file that SAM uses on the Array page. By default, SAM uses the global horizontal and direct
normal radiation values and ignores the diffuse horizontal radiation from the weather file.

Input Variable Reference

Choose Climate/Location
Location
The name of the weather file. A filename preceded by "SAM/" is a standard weather data file included
with SAM and stored in the \exelib\climate_files folder. A filename preceded by "USER/" is a file in a
folder that you have added to the weather file search path list.
Add/Remove
Add or remove a folder on your computer from the list of folders SAM searches for files with the TMY2,
TMY3, or EPW file extension. SAM will list all weather files in folders that you add to the search list in
the location list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details.
Refresh List
Refreshes the list of files in the location list. SAM automatically refreshes the list each time you visit
the Climate page. If you add a weather file to one of the folders in the search list, you may need to
refresh the list for the file to be visible in the location list.
Copy to project
Embeds the data from a weather file to the project (.zsam) file. This useful when you share your project
file with another person and do not want to send the weather file separately. Embedding weather data in
a project increases the size of the project file. When you copy data to a project, SAM indicates the
data with "USER/" in the location list. See Copying Weather Data to a Project for details.
Remove from project
Remove embedded weather data. The button is only active when the active location in the location list is
preceded by "USER/."
Create TMY3 file
Use the TMY3 Creator to convert your own weather data into the TMY3 format. See Creating a TMY3
file From Your Own Data for details.
Location Lookup
Type an address or coordinates for a U.S. location to download specific-year satellite-derived data from
the Solar Prospector website. See Using Location Lookup for details.

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Location Information
The location information variables display data from the weather file header that describes the location. An
empty variable indicates that the information does not exist in the weather file's header. The location
information variables cannot be edited.
City
The name of the city.
When you use Location Look up to download weather data, SAM displays "satellitedata" in the City
field because the database does not provide a city name with the weather data.
State
The state abbreviation.
When you use Location Look up to download weather data, SAM displays "??" in the State field
because the database does not provide a state name with the weather data.
Timezone
The location's time zone, relative to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). A negative number indicates the
number of time zones west of GMT. A positive number indicates the number of time zones east of
GMT.
Elevation (m)
The location's elevation above sea level in meters.
Latitude (degrees)
The location's latitude in degrees. A positive number indicates a location north of the equator.
Longitude (degrees)
The location's longitude in degrees. A negative number indicates the number of degrees west of the
Prime Meridian.

Weather Data Information (Annual)

SAM calculates and displays the annual totals and averages of four of the hourly data columns from the
weather file in the weather data information variables. Weather data information variables cannot be edited.
Direct Normal (kWh/m2)
The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the direct normal radiation data in the weather file, expressed in
kWh per square meter. Direct normal radiation is solar energy that reaches the ground in a straight line
from the sun.
To convert this number to kWh per square meter per day, divide it by 365 days/yr.
Global Horizontal (kWh/m2)
The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the global horizontal radiation data in the weather file, expressed
in kWh per square meter. The global horizontal radiation is the total amount of direct and diffuse solar
radiation incident on a horizontal surface over the period of one year.
To convert this number to kWh per square meter per day, divide it by 365 days/yr.
Dry-bulb Temp (°C)
The annual average of the ambient temperature data in the weather file in degrees Celsius.

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Wind Speed (m/s)

The annual average wind speed in meters per second.
For NREL TMY2 and TMY3 data, and EPW from the EnergyPlus website, wind speed data is at 10
meters above the ground.
View hourly data
Displays graphs of data from the weather file in SAM's built-in data viewer, DView. See Viewing Graphs
of Time Series Data (DView) for details.

Web Links
Links to websites with weather files on the internet. Each link opens one of three website in your computer's
default web browser:
Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) takes you to NREL's National
Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB) page for the Typical Meteorological Year 3 data.
Best weather data for international locations (in EPW format) takes you to the EnergyPlus
weather file page.
U.S. satellite-derived weather data (10 km grid cells in TMY2 format) takes you to NREL's Solar
Power Prospector website.

Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths

SAM allows you to use weather files that you download from the Internet or generate from another source.
Weather files must meet the following requirements:
Be stored in a folder on your computer that you have specified in SAM as containing weather files.
Be in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format.

To specify a folder as containing weather files:

1. On the Climate page, click Add/Remove.
2. In the Library Settings window, click Add.
3. Navigate to the folder on your computer that contains the weather file.
You can add as many file search paths as you wish.
4. Click Close to return to the Climate page.
SAM displays the search paths you added in the Location list.
To remove a search path from the list, click Add/Remove to open the Library Settings window,
select the search path and then click Remove. Note that removing a search path does not delete
any weather files.
The default path for the complete set of TMY2 weather files included with SAM is \exelib\climate_files in the
SAM installation folder. SAM can read weather files stored in any folder on your computer. Because the
default location can be difficult to find, if you plan to use weather files other than the default TMY2 files, we
recommend that you create an easy-to-find folder to store your weather files. You can then add the location
to the weather file search path using the instructions below, and SAM will automatically find all weather files
that you add to the folder.

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Copying Weather Data to a Project

When you want to share a SAM project with another person, and the project uses one or more weather files
that the other person does not have, you can include a copy of the data from the weather files in the SAM
file. Including weather data in a SAM file increases the size of the file, but also makes it more portable. For
example, the size of the photovoltaic sample file with no weather files is 35 kB, with one weather file 274
kB, and with two weather files is 503 kB.

To copy data from a weather file to the project file:

1. On the Climate page, choose the weather file from the Location list.
2. Click Copy to project.

SAM adds the file to the location list with the "USER/" prefix, indicating that the data is included in
the SAM project file. To remove a file from the list, select it, and click Remove from project.

Creating a TMY3 File from Your Own Data

If you have hourly weather data that is not in one of the three formats (TMY3, TMY2, EPW) that SAM can
read, you can use the Create TMY3 File feature to create your own weather file in the TMY3 format. TMY3
files are comma-separated text files and use the csv extension, e.g., my_weather_file.csv.

Note. Unless you have a complete set of weather data for your location that you can use with
confidence, using your own data introduces uncertainty into your analysis, and may result in inaccurate
results or simulation errors.

To use the feature, you must have the following:

A "base" TMY3 file, which is an existing file in TMY3 format that SAM modifies by replacing only the
columns that SAM needs for simulations with your data. If you have a complete data set that includes
all of the columns shown in the table below, then you can use any TMY3 file as a base file. If you do not
have data for all of the categories listed in the table below, you may want to use a base file with data for
the same or a nearby location with similar weather characteristics. For a link to the TMY3 website and
documentation, see the link on the Climate page under Web Links.
Hourly data (8,760 rows) for each of the data columns shown in the table below. If you do not have data
for one or more of the columns, you can choose to not replace data for those columns, and instead use
data from the base file. This will result in a data set that SAM can read but with mismatched elements
that may cause inaccurate results or errors in the simulation.

To create a TMY3 weather file:

1. If you do not have a TMY3 file to use as the base file, download a TMY3 file to use at the base file
from the NREL TMY3 website. You can do so by clicking the appropriate link on the Climate page
under Web Links.
2. Open the file or files containing your weather data in a spreadsheet program or any software that
allows you to copy columns of 8,760 rows to your computer's clipboard.
3. On the Climate page, click Create TMY3 file.
4. In the TMY3 Creator window, click Open base TMY3 file, and navigate to the folder containing the
base file.
5. Type values in the header fields as appropriate. See below descriptions of the fields.

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6. In your weather data file, copy the column of global horizontal radiation data. Be sure to copy all
8,760 rows of data, but do not include the row header. The column should contain 8,760 rows of
numbers.
7. In the TMY3 Creator window, click the GHI (W/m2) column heading. SAM should highlight the
entire column in dark gray.
8. Click Paste.
9. Repeat the copy and paste procedure for each column until you have pasted all of your data into
the table.
10. Click Save as TMY3 file (at the bottom of the window).
Save the file in a folder that you have included in the weather file search list, or to a folder that you
plan to add to the list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details.
11. Click Close to return to the Climate page or Wind Climate page.
12. Click Refresh list. SAM may take a moment or two to refresh the location list.
13. In the Location list, select the new TMY3 file. You should find it toward the end of the list.
14. Click View Hourly Data to open the DView data viewer and visually inspect the data. See Viewing
Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.

After creating and loading your weather file, run some test simulations and examine the hourly results in the
tabular data browser or DView to see if there are any problems with the data.

Header Data
Site Identifier Code
A number identifying the location. This element is not required.
Station Name
A text description identifying the location. This element is not required.
Station State
A two-letter text abbreviation for the location's state. This element is not required.
Site Time Zone (GMT)
The location's time zone offset from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) with no daylight savings adjustment.
A positive value indicates a time zone east of the Prime Meridian. Decimals indicate fractions of hours.
A negative value indicates a time zone west of the prime meridian. For example, Chicago is -6; India is
5.5.
Site Latitude (DD)
Location's latitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 90 indicates a latitude north of
the equator. A negative value between 0 and -90 indicates a latitude south of the equator. For example,
Durban (South Africa) is -29.97; New York City is 40.71.
Site Longitude (DD)
Location's longitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 180 indicates a longitude
east of the Prime Meridian. A negative value between zero and -180 indicates a longitude west of the
Prime Meridian. For example, Durban (South Africa) is 30.95; New York City is -74.01.
Site Elevation (m)
Location's height above sea level in meters.

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Hourly Data
GHI (W/m2)
Global horizontal irradiance: Total amount of direct and diffuse solar radiation received on a horizontal
surface for the hour in Watt-hours per square meter.
DNI (W/m)
Direct normal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour within a limited field of view
centered on the sun in Watt-hours per square meter.
DHI (W/m2)
Diffuse horizontal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour from the sky, excluding the
solar disk on a horizontal surface in Watt-hours per square meter.
Dry-bulb (C)
Average dry bulb temperature for the hour in degrees Celsius..
Dew-point (C)
Average dew point temperature for the hour in degrees Celsius.
RHum (%)
Average relative humidity for the hour.
Pressure (mbar)
Station pressure or measured atmospheric pressure in millibars corrected for temperature and humidity
for the hour.
Wspd (m/s)
Average speed of the wind for the hour in meters per second.
Albedo (unitless)
Ratio of reflected solar radiation to global horizontal radiation. Use -99 for null.

Using Location Lookup

SAM's Location Lookup feature allows you to type an address, zip code, or latitude and longitude to
download a typical year data weather file for any location in the United States. Location Lookup uses the
Google Maps API Geocoding Service service to identify the geographic coordinates of a location, and
downloads data from NREL's Solar Power Prospector database. To use the Location Lookup feature, your
computer must be connected to the Internet.

June 2011
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Notes.

When you download weather data with Location Lookup, SAM displays "satellitedata" for the city and
"??" for the state because the Solar Prospector database does not include city and state names.

Location Lookup downloads typical year data, representing the typical solar resource over the period
1998-2005. To download specific-year data within that range, visit the Solar Power Prospector site at
[Link]

For information about downloading TMY3 and EPW files from the internet, see Downloading Weather
Files from the Internet.

To download data from Solar Power Prospector:

1. On the Climate page, click Location Lookup.
2. Type a street address zip code, or latitude and longitude. Any of the following will return results for
the same location:
1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden CO
80401
39 44 N 105 09 W
39.75 -105.15
SAM searches the Solar Power Prospector database for a weather file and download it to the weather file
folder specified on the Preferences page.

To change the default weather file folder for downloaded files:

1. On the File menu, Click Preferences.
2. Under Folder for automatically downloaded weather files, type a path name or click to
navigate to the folder.
Note that the folder for automatically downloaded weather files is different from the weather file
search path.
3. On the Climate page click Add/Remove.
4. In the Library Settings window, click Add to add the folder to the weather file search path list.
5. Click Close to return to the Climate page.

Sources of Weather Data on the Internet

The three links on the Climate page under Web Links to open websites where you can download and find
more information about weather data in TMY3, TMY2, and EPW formats.

Note. If you cannot find weather data for your location on one of those websites, you may want to try
using data from either of the following companies, who provide data and software for a fee: Weather
Analytics (TMY Anywhere) at [Link] or Meteonorm at [Link]
[Link].

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NSRDB Typical Meteorological Year 3 (TMY3) data: Best data for U.S. Locations
The NSRDB maintains two sets of TMY data. The TMY2 data represent data from 1961 to 1990. The
complete TMY2 data is included with SAM: To use TMY2 data, you simply select a location from the list on
the Climate page.
The updated TMY3 data set is based on data from 1991 to 2005. To use TMY3 data in SAM, you must
download the data from the NSRDB website. For information about the TMY3 data, see:
[Link]

To download a TMY3 file:

1. Click the Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) link to open the
NSRDB TMY3 database page.
2. On the NSRDB website, click the In alphabetical order by state and city link.
3. Scroll to the state and city at or nearest your location.
4. Click the identification code link for the location to download the TMY3 file.
5. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see
Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions.
6. In SAM, on the Climate page, click Refresh.
The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.

EnergyPlus Weather (EPW) files: Data for locations outside the United States
You can download weather data in EPW format for locations around the world at no cost from the
EnergyPlus weather data website at the following website:
[Link]
For information about the EPW weather files, see the following websites:
For a description of the file format: [Link]
weatherdata_format.cfm
For a description of data sources: [Link]
weatherdata_sources.cfm

To download an EPW file:

1. Click Best weather for international locations (in EPW format) and navigate to the region and
location you want to model.
2. Download the EPW file for the location you are modeling.
If there is not an EPW file for the location, download the ZIP file and extract the EPW file.
3. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see
Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions.
4. In SAM, on the Climate page, click Refresh.
The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.
For some regions, you can download an EPW file directly for a location. For example, for Bangladesh, you
can download the data for Dhaka by right-clicking the blue square next to the word EPW for Dhaka. Be sure
to save the file with the .epw extension.

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For other regions, you must first download a zip file containing the EPW file and then extract the EPW file.
For example, for Malaysia, you can download the data for Kuala Lumpur by right-clicking the red square
next to the word ZIP for Kuala Lumpur. After downloading the zip file, you can extract the EPW file.

Satellite-derived (NREL Solar Prospector) Weather Data: Data for locations in the
continental United States
The NREL Solar Prospector website provides access to satellite-derived files in TMY2 format for specific
years between 1998 and 2005, and in typical year data for locations in the U.S. at a geographical resolution
of 10 km.
For information about the Solar Power Prospector website, see:
[Link]
For a description of the data used for the Solar Prospector website, see:
[Link]
20Modeling/Papers%20on%20Resource%20Assessment%20and%20Satellites/A%20New%
20Operational%20Satellite%20irradiance%[Link]
Although the files you download from the Solar Power Prospector website are in TMY2 format, you can
download files containing either specific year data or typical year data from the website.
The easiest way to use typical year data from Solar Power Prospector in SAM is to use Location Lookup.
To download single year data, you can use the Solar Prospector map at [Link]

To download data from the NREL Solar Prospector Website:

1. Visit the Solar Prospector website at [Link]
2. Use the map to find your location.
3. Click Download in the toolbar above the map.
4. Choose a year for specific year data, or "TDY" for typical year data.
5. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see
Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions.
6. In SAM, on the Climate page, click Refresh.
The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.

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3.3 Photovoltaic Systems

3.3.1 Getting Started with PV

SAM models grid-connected photovoltaic systems that consist of a photovoltaic array and inverter. The
array can be made up of flat-plate or concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules with one-axis, two-axis, or
no tracking.
The procedure below describes the basic steps to get started modeling a project based on photovoltaic
technology. For general getting started topics, see Getting Started.
For more detailed information about the photovoltaic model input pages, see the following topics:
PV System Costs
Array
PVWatts Solar Array
Shading
Module
Inverter
For photovoltaic systems with residential or commercial financing, SAM also makes the Electric Load
page available. You only need to specify load data if you model a project with a utility rate structure
that includes different buy and sell rates for energy charges, demand charges, or tiered rates.
For systems with Utility Market financing, SAM makes the Energy Payment Dispatch page available.
You only need to use this page for for projects that specify a power purchase price using a set of
payment allocation factors.
The User Variables page is for analyses involving Excel Exchange or custom TRNSYS decks.

A. Choose a photovoltaic model

When you create a new file or case, SAM offers two options for modeling PV systems: Component-based
Models models and PVWatts System Model.

Component-based Models
The Component-based Models option represents the performance of a photovoltaic system using
separate models to represent the performance of the module and inverter. You specify the module and

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 Photovoltaic Systems 51

inverter characteristics, array layout, derating factors, and optional shading, temperature correction, and
backtracking parameters. Component-based Models calculates and reports detailed results, including
the array's DC output, system's AC output, cell temperature, and the hourly efficiency of the array and
inverters.
Use the Component-based models to model crystalline or thin-film modules, and for arrays with open
rack, flush, gap, or building-integrated mounting.
The SAM Performance Models option allows you to choose between the Sandia, CEC, and single-point
efficiency models for photovoltaic modules, and between the Sandia and single-point efficiency models
for inverters.
PVWatts System Model
The PVWatts System Model represents the entire photovoltaic system using a single derate factor and
accounts for the effects of temperature on the system's performance. The PVWatts model is
appropriate for modeling rack-mounted systems with crystalline silicon modules. The PVWatts model
calculates and reports the array DC output, system AC output (based on a fixed derate factor), and cell
temperature.
The following table summarizes the two options:
Component-based PVWatts System
Models Model
Array output (DC) • •
Inverter output (AC) •
Temperature effects • •
Array shading • •
Row-to-row shading •
Backtracking •
Mounting options •
Tracking options • •

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B. Choose a financing option

Note. SAM does not impose a size limit based on the financing option you choose. You can use any
financing option with any size of system.

For a project on the customer side of a utility meter that buys and sells power at retail rates, choose either
Residential or Commercial financing:
Commercial allows you to model depreciation as a tax deduction (MACRS or custom).
Residential allows you to choose between a standard loan in which interest payments are not tax
deductible, and mortgage, in which interest payments are tax deductible.
For a power generation project that sells electricity at a negotiated price, choose either Commercial PPA or
one of the Utility Market options:
Commercial PPA calculates a power purchase price (PPA price) based on a target internal rate of
return (IRR) that you specify. You can either specify a debt fraction and annual PPA price escalation
rate, or allow SAM to find optimal values.
The Utility Market Options allow you to either specify a target IRR (SAM calculates a PPA price), or
specify a PPA price (SAM calculates the IRR). The Independent Power Producer option is similar to
Commercial PPA, but allows you to add constraints for minimium debt-service coverage ratio (DSCR)
and positive cash flow. The other Utility Market options allow you to model projects with a single owner,

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 Photovoltaic Systems 53

or with two parties with different structures for sharing project costs and revenues.

Note. The Commercial PPA and Utility Indepdendent Power Producer financing options are legacy
options to allow you to model projects consistently with older versions of SAM. The parnership flip, sale
leaseback, and single owner options are more representative of actual financing structures for renewable
energy projects.

See Financing Options for details.

C. On the Climate page, choose a weather file to represent the solar resource at
the project location.
SAM offers four weather data options. You can:
Choose a location from the list at or near your project site. SAM will simulate the system using a file
from NREL's TMY2 database.
Use Location Lookup to download data for your site from the online database. SAM will simulate the
system using a file from NREL's database of satellite-derived solar resource data.
Download a file from NREL's TMY3 database.
Create a weather file in TMY3 format with your own data
For preliminary analyses in the United States either use a TMY2 file if there is a file in the database with
similar weather to the project site, or use Location Lookup to find satellite-derived data for the site location.
For more robust analysis, download TMY3 data, or use your own data. You may also want to analyze your
project using weather data from different sources to develop an understanding of how uncertainty in the
weather data affects the metrics of interest for your project.
See Climate for details.

D. For Component-based models:

1. On the Array page, specify the system's size and tracking options.
Enter the system's DC nameplate capacity for Desired Array Size. After you choose modules and
inverters, SAM will display the number of modules and inverters required for the system size you
specified under Actual Layout.
2. Under Tracking and Orientation, choose a tracking option and specify the array tilt angle.
3. On the Inverter page, choose an inverter.
4. On the Module page, choose a model option and module.

For the PVWatts System model

1. On the PVWatts Solar Array page, enter the system's DC nameplate capacity for Nameplate
Capacity.
2. Choose a tracking option and specify the tilt angle.

E. On the PV System Costs page, specify the project costs.

The capital costs (direct and indirect) are construction and installation costs that SAM applies to year zero
of the cash flow.
The operation and maintenance costs apply in years one and later of the cash flow.
See PV System Costs for details.

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F. Run a simulation and review results.

See Results Page for details.

3.3.2 Array
The Array page displays variables and options that specify the number of modules and inverters in the
system, derate factors, array tracking and orientation, and allows you to choose from several radiation
model options. SAM uses the array properties to calculate the array's DC output and the system's AC
output.
To view the Array page, click Array on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Array page to
be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics - SAM
Performance Models.

Contents
Overview explains how to specify the photovoltaic array.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Array
page.
Specifying the Array Size describes how to choose values for the Modules per
String, Strings in Parallel and Number of Inverters variables to avoid mismatching
the array and inverter.
About Array Sizing Error Messages describes the pre- and post-simulation error
checking and warning messages.
Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation describes the four tracking options and
array angles.
About Derate Factors describes how SAM uses the derate factors in calculations,
and provides guidelines for choosing appropriate values.

Overview
The Array page is where you build the photovoltaic system from the module and inverter you specify on the
Module page and Inverter page. SAM provides two options for sizing the array: You can specify the
system's rated DC capacity and let SAM calculate an appropriate number of modules and inverters for you,
or you can specify the values yourself. See Specifying the Array Size for details.

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 Photovoltaic Systems 55

Note. Before specifying parameters on the Array page, you should specify the module characteristics
on the Module page, and the inverter characteristics on the Inverter page.

The Tracking and Orientation options are where you specify whether modules in the array move to track the
motion of the sun across the sky, and at what angle from the horizontal modules are mounted in the array.
See Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation for details.
The Land Area variables are for reference only and do not affect results. You can ignore the Packing Factor
variable unless you are interested in knowing how much land your array requires. See Input Variable
Reference for a description of the two Land Area variables.
The Radiation Model and Tilt Radiation Type options allow you to choose how SAM calculates the solar
radiation incident on the array from the data in the weather file. For most analyses, you can use the default
values of Total and Beam and Perez Model 1990. For a description of the different options, see Input
Variable Reference.
SAM uses the derate factors to adjust the DC electric input to the inverter model, and the inverter model's
AC electric output to account for losses in the system that the module and inverter models do not account
for. For example, the module and inverter models do not account for losses in the DC and AC wiring that
connects modules in the array, and that connects the inverter output to the grid and any external power
conditioning equipment. See About Derate Factors for details.

Input Variable Reference

Layout
Array Sizing
The array sizing variables determine the number of modules in the array. SAM uses the module
numbers under Actual Layout, which may be different from values that you type.
Mode
The two layout modes allow you to choose from either specifying an array size in DC kilowatts so that
SAM calculates the number modules and inverters in the system, or specifying those values yourself.
See Specifying the Array Size for details.
Desired Array Size
When the mode is Specify desired array size, type the array DC rated capacity in kilowatts. The
array's DC rating should be based on the same reference conditions used to specify the module power
rating on the Module page.
The desired array size variable is inactive when the mode is Specify number of modules and
inverters. In that case, you must type values for the number of modules per string, strings in parallel,
and inverters.
Modules per String
Modules per string is the number of modules connected in series in a single string. SAM assumes that
all strings in the array have the same number of modules connected in series.
The number of modules per string determines the array's open circuit voltage (Voc). For most analyses,
you should ensure that the array Voc is less than the inverter's maximum input voltage, shown as
MPPT_hi on the Inverter page. If the inverter does not have a value for MPPT_hi, you can find the value
on inverter manufacturer's specification sheet, which you may be able to find on the manufacturer or

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equipment supplier website. See Specifying the Array Size for more information.

Note. If you are using a module from the Sandia database on the Module page with the word "array" in
its name, the module represents an array, so the Modules per String variable represents the number of
arrays in the system rather than number of modules.

The modules per string variable is inactive when the layout mode is Specify desired array size. In that
case, SAM uses the value shown in the Actual Layout column. If you want to change the value,
change the mode to Specify numbers of modules and inverters and type a value for the number of
modules in each string.
Strings in Parallel
Strings in parallel is the number of strings of modules connected in parallel to form the array. A string of
modules is a number of modules connected in series. Once you specify the number of modules per
string to determine the array's open circuit voltage, the number of strings in parallel determines the
array's rated DC power. SAM displays a warning message if the array's rated DC power is either greater
than the total inverter capacity, or less than about 75% of the system's total inverter capacity. You can
run simulations with values that fall outside of these guidelines; the warning message is intended to
help you ensure that the array and inverter sizes are matched. See Specifying the Array Size for more
information.
The strings in parallel variable is inactive when the layout mode is Specify desired array size. In that
case, SAM uses the value shown in the Actual Layout column. If you want to change the value,
change the mode to Specify numbers of modules and inverters and type a value for the number of
parallel strings in the array.
Number of Inverters
Number of inverters is the total number of inverters in the system and determines the total inverter
capacity.
The number of inverters variable is inactive when the layout mode is Specify desired array size. In
that case, SAM uses the value shown in the Actual Layout column. If you want to change the value,
change the mode to Specify numbers of modules and inverters and type a value for the number of
inverters in the system.

Note. If you are modeling a system with microinverters, see Modeling Microinverters for instructions.

Actual Layout
These calculated values are the values that SAM uses for simulations.
The variables listed below the Array Sizing group are calculated values or values from other pages that SAM
displays for reference.
Total Modules
The number of modules in the array:
Total Modules = Modules per String × Strings in Parallel
The numbers of modules and strings are the values listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing.
Total Area, m2
The array's total area in square meters, not including space between modules:
Total Area = Module Area × Total Modules

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The module area is shown on the Module page. The number of modules is the value listed under Actual
Layout under Array sizing.
Nameplate Capacity (at reference conditions), Wdc
The maximum DC power output of the array at the reference conditions shown on the Module page:
Nameplate Capacity = Module Maximum Power × Total Modules
The module's maximum power rating is from the Module page. The number of modules is the value
listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing.
Voc (String, at 1000 W/m2 Tc=25'C), Vdc
The open circuit DC voltage of each string of modules:
Voc = Module Open Circuit Voltage × Modules per String
The module open circuit voltage and reference conditions are from the Module page. The number of
modules per string is the value listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing.
For the Sandia and CEC model, the open circuit voltage is assumed to be for 1,000 W/m2 incident
radiation and 25 ºC cell temperature. For the simple efficiency model, SAM displays a zero because
the model does not include voltage ratings.
Vmp (String, at reference conditions), Vdc
The maximum power point DC voltage of each string of modules:
Vmp = Module Max Power Voltage × Modules per String
The module's maximum power point voltage is at reference conditions as specified on the Module page.
The number of modules per string is the value listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing.
SAM displays a maximum power point voltage of zero for the simple efficiency module performance
model because the model does not include voltage ratings.
Vdco (dc-inverter), Vdc
The inverter's rated input DC voltage displayed from the Inverter page. SAM assumes that inverters are
connected in parallel so that the rated voltages of the inverter bank are the same as those of a single
inverter.
SAM displays an inverter voltage of zero for the single-point efficiency inverter performance model
because the model does not include voltage ratings.
Total Inverter Capacity, kWac
The total inverter capacity in AC kilowatts:
Total Inverter Capacity = Inverter Power ACo × Number of Inverters
The inverter's nominal AC power rating is from the Inverter page. The number of inverters is the value
listed under Actual Layout under Array sizing.

Tracking and Orientation

The tracking and orientation options determine whether the system is modeled with a tracking system that
allows modules in the array to follow the sun's movement across the sky. See Choosing a Tracking Option
for details.

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Notes.

The tracking and orientation options apply to all modules in the array. To model a system that consists
of sub-arrays with different tracking and orientations, use the Multiple Systems option. This option does
not allow you to model sub-arrays connected to a single inverter.

The current version of SAM does not allow you to limit the tracking angle. SAM assumes that trackers
can follow the full movement of the sun from sunrise to sunset.

Fixed
The array is fixed at the tilt and azimuth angles defined by the values of Tilt and Azimuth and does not
follow the sun's movement.
1 Axis
The array is fixed at the angle from the horizontal defined by the value of Tilt and rotates about the tilted
axis from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the
sky. Azimuth determines the array's orientation with respect to a line perpendicular to the equator.
2 Axis
The array rotates from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun
across the sky, and north-south to track the sun's seasonal movement throughout the year.
Azimuth Axis
The array rotates in a horizontal plane to track the daily movement of the sun.
Force Tilt = Latitude
Assigns the array tilt value with the latitude value stored in the weather file and displayed on the Climate
page. Note that SAM does not display the tilt value on the Array page, but does use the correct value
during simulations.
Tilt (degrees)
Applies only to fixed arrays and arrays with one-axis tracking. The array's tilt angle in degrees from
horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal, and 90 degrees is vertical. As a rule of thumb, system
designers often use the location's latitude (shown on the Climate page) as the optimal array tilt angle.
The actual tilt angle will vary based on project requirements.
Azimuth (degrees)
Applies only to fixed arrays with no tracking. The array's east-west orientation in degrees. An azimuth
value of zero is facing the equator in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Positive 90 degrees
is facing due west and negative 90 degrees is facing due east in both hemispheres. As a rule of thumb,
system designers often use an array azimuth of zero, or facing the equator.
Max/Min Rotation
The maximum and minimum allowable rotation angle for one-axis tracking. The default value of 360
degrees allows the tracker to follow the full movement of the sun from horizon to horizon.
Max/Min Tilt
The maximum and minimum allowable tilt angle for two-axis tracking. The default value of 360 degrees
allows the tracker to follow the full movement of the sun from horizon to zenith.

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Max/Min Azimuth
The maximum and minimum allowable azimuth angle for two-axis tracking. The default value of 360
degrees allows the tracker to follow the full movement of the sun.

System Derates
SAM uses the derate factors to adjust the array's hourly DC output value before passing it to the inverter
model, and to adjust the inverter model's AC electric output to calculate the system's AC output. The derate
factors account for losses in the system that the module and inverter models do not account for, such as
losses in the DC wiring that connects modules in the array, and AC wiring that connects the inverter to the
grid and any external power conditioning equipment.
SAM only uses the total pre-inverter derate factor and the total post-inverter derate factor in calculations.
The derate factor categories (mismatch, diodes and connections, AC wiring, etc) are to help you keep track
of factors influencing the total derate factor. Each total derate factor is the product of the DC or AC derate
categories, as appropriate. See About Derate Factors for details.
You can see the effect of the derate factors in the hourly results (and in the monthly and annual averages) in
the tabular data browser on the Results page: The derated DC output is the product of the gross DC output
and the pre-inverter derate factor, and the derated AC output is the product of the gross AC output and the
post-inverter derate factor.

Note. SAM applies additional factors to the derated AC output to calculate the system's net annual
output based on the values you specify on the Annual Performance page.

Total Pre-Inverter Derate

The total pre-inverter derate factor is the product of the six DC derate factors. In the hourly simulation,
SAM calculates the DC power at the inverter's input for each hour by multiplying the array's DC output
by the total pre-inverter derate factor. A derate factor of 100% is equivalent to no derating. A derate
factor of 75% would reduce the calculated array DC output by 25%.
Total Post-Inverter Derate
The total pre-inverter derate factor is the product of the two AC derate factors. In the hourly simulation,
SAM calculates the derated AC power at the inverter's output for each hour by multiplying the inverter's
AC output by the total post-inverter derate factor. A derate factor of 100% is equivalent to no derating. A
derate factor of 75% would reduce the calculated inverter AC output by 25%.
Total Derate Factor
The product of the pre- and post-inverter derate factors. This value is useful for comparing to hand-
calculated performance estimates, but SAM does not use the value in calculations.

Radiation Model

Note. The radiation model and tilt radiation type options are for advanced users. Use the default Total
and Beam and Perez Model 1990 options unless you have a reason to change them.

The radiation model options determine how SAM uses the global horizontal radiation, direct normal
radiation, and diffuse horizontal radiation data in the weather file in radiation calculations.
Beam and Diffuse
SAM reads the direct normal radiation (beam) and diffuse horizontal radiation data, and to ignore the

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global horizontal radiation data from the weather file. SAM calculates the global incident radiation.
Total and Beam
This is the default option, and is best for most analyses. SAM reads the global horizontal radiation
(total) and direct normal radiation (beam) data, and to ignore the diffuse horizontal radiation from the
weather file. SAM calculates the diffuse incident radiation.
Total and Diffuse
SAM reads the global horizontal radiation (total) and diffuse horizontal radiation, and ignores the direct
normal radiation from the weather file. SAM calculates the direct incident radiation.

Tilt Radiation Type

Note. The radiation model and tilt radiation type options are for advanced users. Use the default Total
and Beam and Perez Model options unless you have a reason to change them.

SAM allows you to choose the method it uses to convert global horizontal solar radiation data to global
solar radiation incident on the array. Each method uses information about the global horizontal solar
radiation and either the direct normal or diffuse solar radiation, and about the sun's position and orientation
of the array. The four methods differ in how they estimate the diffuse radiation incident on the array.
The isotropic sky model tends to under-predict the global radiation on a tilted surface, and is included as an
option for analysis wanting to compare SAM results with those from other models using this approach. The
remaining three methods provide comparable estimates of the incident global radiation.
For references describing the different radiation models, see References, Weather Data.
Isotropic Sky Model
Assumes that diffuse radiation is uniformly distributed across the sky, called isotropic diffuse radiation.
Hay and Davies Model
Accounts for the increased intensity of diffuse radiation in the area around the sun, called circumsolar
diffuse radiation, in addition to isotropic diffuse radiation.
Reindl Model
Accounts for the effect of horizon brightening, in addition to circumsolar diffuse radiation.
Perez Model 1988 and 1990
The Perez 1990 method is the default value and is best for most analysis.
Accounts for horizon brightening, circumsolar and isotropic diffuse radiation using a more complex
computational method than the Reindl and Hay and Davies methods. The 1990 method is an updated
version of the 1988 method.

Land Area

Note. The land area variables are for reference only and do not affect results. You can ignore the
packing factor variable unless you are interested in knowing how much land your array requires. SAM
does not use the land area variable to account for land costs. You must specify any land costs explicitly
on the PV System Costs page.

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Packing Factor
The packing factor is a multiplier that makes it possible to estimate the land area required by a project
based on the array's total area. SAM multiplies the array area (Total Area) by the packing factor to
calculate the total land area. Note that the array area is simply the module area multiplied by the
number of modules in the array: Use the packing factor to account for spacing between modules in the
array, and for the module tilt angle.
Total Land Area
The total land area is an estimate of the land area required by the PV system: Total Land Area =
Module Area from Module page × Total Modules on the Array page × Packing Factor.

Ground Reflectance
Ground Reflectance
The ground reflectance value for hours when the weather data indicate that there is no snow on the
ground. A value of zero means that the ground is completely non-reflective, and a value of 1 means that
it is completely reflective. A typical value for grassy ground is 0.2.
Ground Reflectance with Snow
The ground reflectance value for hours when the weather data indicate that there is snow on the ground.
A value of zero means that the ground is completely non-reflective, and a value of 1 means that it is
completely reflective. A typical value for snowy ground is 0.6.

Backtracking
The backtracking options allow you to specify parameters for an array consisting of multiple rows of
modules wth one-, two-, or azimuth-axis trackers programmed to adjust the tracker angle to minimize self-
shading. See Backtracking Overview for a general description.

Note. SAM's backtracking and self-shading models are independent. If you run simulations with both
models, SAM will calculate self-shading losses even with backtracking.

Subarrays per Row

Number of subarrays in one row of the total array layout. An array is normally made up of many rows,
and each row may have multiple sections. The number of sections in each row is represented by this
number. For a two-axis tracking situation, this number specifies the number of 2 axis tracking units in
the vertical (North-South) direction.
Number of Rows
The number of rows in the total array layout. A row is considered to run North-South, so the number of
rows represents an East-West dimension. For a one axis tracking system, this is the number of
module rows that track together. For a two axis tracking system, this is the number of tracking units in
the horizontal (East-West) direction.
Subarray Spacing
The physical distance between the centers of the subarrays in the vertical (North-South) direction in
meters. SAM only allows for fixed spacing on a grid-type layout.
Row Spacing
The physical distance between the row centers in the horizontal (East-West) direction, in meters. SAM
only allows for fixed spacing on a grid-type layout.

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Row Offset
The subarrays in each row can be horizontally offset by this amount, specified in meters. An offset of
zero will result in a rectangular grid of subarrays.
Offset Type
The row offset (above) can be applied to each row (resulting in a parallelogram-like subarray layout, or to
every other row, resulting in a staggered layout.
Row Orientation
The overall array rotation (from a birds-eye view), specified in degrees.
Subarray Length
The vertical (North-South) dimension of a subarray. This dimension is parallel to the primary axis of
rotation, hence N-S for a one axis tracking system.
Subarray Width
The horizontal (East-West) dimension of a subarray. This dimension is perpendicular to the primary
axis of rotation, hence E-W for a one axis tracking system.

Specifying the Array Size

The three array sizing variables, Modules per String, Strings in Parallel, and Number of Inverters
determine the system's rated capacity in kilowatts. SAM considers the array's rated capacity in DC
kilowatts to be the system's rated capacity for capacity-related calculations.
SAM uses the following sizing rules when possible (see below for details):
Voc < Vdcmax: The array's maximum rated open circuit DC voltage (Voc) is less than the inverter's
maximum rated DC voltage (Vdcmax).
MPPT_low < Vmp < MPPT_hi: The array's rated maximum power point DC voltage (Vmp) is less than
the inverter's maximum operating DC voltage (MPPT_hi), but greater than the inverter's minimum
operating DC voltage (MPPT_low).
Total Inverter Capacity ~ Array Power: The inverter and array capacities are matched to avoid situations
where either the array generates more power than the inverter can handle, or the inverter is oversized.
SAM provides two modes for specifying the array size:
Specify desired array size: SAM's array sizing calculator allows you to specify the array's DC
capacity in kilowatts, and SAM automatically calculates the number of modules per string and strings
in parallel in the array, and the number of inverters. The Modules per String, Strings in Parallel, and
Number of Inverters variables are inactive. Use this option unless you have a reason to specify the
numbers of modules and inverters by hand.
Specify numbers of modules and inverters: You specify the values of Modules per String, Strings
in Parallel, and Number of Inverters by hand. The Desired Array Size variable is inactive.

Specify a desired array capacity (array sizing calculator):

1. Choose an inverter for the system on the Inverter page.
2. Choose a module on the Module page.
3. On the Array page, for Mode, choose Specify desired array size for Mode.
4. Type a DC capacity value in kilowatts for the array in Desired Array Size. SAM disables the three
array sizing variables because it will calculate those values automatically.

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5. Press the Enter key.

SAM calculates values for Modules per String, Strings in Parallel, and Number of Inverters,
and displays them in the Actual Layout column.
6. Verify that Array Power is acceptably close to the desired array capacity value you specified.
SAM will never choose array sizing values that result in an array capacity greater than the desired
array capacity value. In some cases, if the array power value is significantly less than the desired
value, you may want to change the values by hand to specify an array capacity slightly greater than
the desired value. See below for instructions on specifying the array size by hand.
7. Specify the tracking and orientation and system derate factors as appropriate. See Specifying
Array Tracking and Orientation for details.
8. When you run simulations, SAM will check the system sizing variables and display a message if
there appear to problems. See About Array Sizing Error Messages for details.

Notes for Array Sizing Calculator.

For some of the inverters in the Sandia inverter database, the Vdcmax, MPPT_low, and MPPT_hi values
are not included in the database, and SAM displays zeros for those variables on the Inverter page. For
those inverters, there is insufficient information for SAM to determine whether the array rated voltages
are within the acceptable ranges for the inverter. To properly size the array, you must refer to the inverter
manufacturer specifications outside of SAM, and manually size the array by choosing the Specify
numbers of modules and inverters mode.

Similarly, the single-point efficiency inverter model, simple efficiency module model, and concentrating
photovoltaic model, do not include information about rated voltage levels, so there is insufficient
information for SAM to determine whether the array rated voltages are within the acceptable ranges for
the inverter. SAM assigns 1 to Module per String, and chooses a number of inverters and strings in
parallel that results in matching array and inverter capacities. This approach is suitable for basic
analyses that do not involve the shading model.

Specify numbers of modules and inverters by hand:

1. Choose an inverter for the system on the Inverter page.
2. Choose a module on the Module page.
3. On the Array page, for Mode, choose Specify numbers of modules and inverters.
4. Type a number of inverters that results in a total inverter DC capacity close to the system's DC
capacity.
SAM displays the total inverter AC capacity on the Array page. To see the rated DC capacity of a
single inverter, see the Inverter page: Power DCo for the Sandia model or Power (DC) for the
single-point efficiency model. The total inverter rated DC capacity is the product of the inverter's DC
capacity from the Inverter page and the number of inverters from the Array page.
5. Type a number of modules per string that results in an array maximum power rated DC voltage
(Vmp) less than the inverter's maximum operating DC voltage level (MPPT_hi) shown on the Inverter
page, but greater than the inverter's minimum operating DC voltage level (MPPT_low) so that
MPPT_low < Vmp < MPPT_hi.
6. If the array open circuit rated DC voltage (Voc) on the Array page is greater than the inverter's
maximum rated DC voltage (Vdcmax) from the Inverter page, reduce the number of modules per
string so that Voc < Vdcmax.

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7. Type a number of strings in parallel that results in a total array DC power value close to the
system's rated DC capacity.
8. Specify the tracking and orientation and system derate factors as appropriate. See Specifying
Array Tracking and Orientation for details.
9. When you run simulations, SAM will check the system sizing variables and display a message if
there appear to problems with the sizes you specified. See About Array Sizing Error Messages for
details.

Notes for Specifying Array Size by Hand.

For some of the inverters in the Sandia inverter database, the Vdcmax, MPPT_low, and MPPT_hi values
are not included in the database, and SAM displays zeros for those variables on the Inverter page. For
those inverters, there is insufficient information for you to determine whether the array rated voltages are
within the acceptable ranges for the inverter. To properly size the array, you must refer to the inverter
manufacturer specifications outside of SAM to find the voltage ratings.

Similarly, the single-point efficiency inverter model, simple efficiency module model, and concentrating
photovoltaic model, do not include information about rated voltage levels, so there is insufficient
information for you to determine whether the array rated voltages are within the acceptable ranges for the
inverter. In that case, you can only ensure that the array and inverter rated capacities are matched.

About Array Sizing Error Messages

Pre-simulation Size Checking and Error Messages
When you run simulations, before starting the simulations, SAM does a series of checks to make sure that
the array sizing variable values meet a set of rules based on the module and inverter ratings. If it finds any
problems with the array sizing variables, it displays a warning message. You can either go back to the
Array page and change values of the array sizing variables, or ignore the warnings and continue with the
simulations.
If you chose either the the Sandia or CEC model option on the Module page, SAM checks for the following
before starting simulations:
Voc < Vdcmax: Array open circuit voltage (Voc String) is less than the inverter maximum rated DC
voltage (Vdcmax on the Inverter page).
Vmp > MPPT_low: Array rated voltage at maximum power (Vmp String) is greater than the inverter
minimum rated operating DC voltage (MPPT_low on the Inverter page).
Vmp < MPPT_hi: Array rated voltage at maximum power (Vmp String) is less than the inverter
maximum rated operating DC voltage (MPPT_hi on the Inverter page).
Array Power ~ Desired Array Size: Array rated capacity (Array Power) in DC kilowatts is as close as
possible to the desired array capacity in DC kilowatts. (The actual array capacity must be an integer
multiple of the module's rated power (Pmp on the Module page.) The sizing calculator will not allow the
array capacity to be greater than the desired array capacity.
Total Inverter Capacity ~ Array Power: Inverter rated capacity (Total Inverter Capacity) in AC kilowatts
is as close as possible to the array capacity in DC kilowatts (Array Power).

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Note. For some of the inverters in the Sandia inverter database, the Vdcmax, MPPT_low, and MPPT_hi
values are not included in the database, and SAM displays zeros for those variables on the Inverter page
. For those inverters, SAM cannot ensure that the array's rated voltages are within the acceptable
ranges for the inverter. To properly size the array, you must refer to the inverter manufacturer
specifications, and manually size the array by choosing the Specify numbers of modules and
inverters mode.

If you chose the simple efficiency model or concentrating photovoltaics model on the Module page, SAM
does not have enough information to determine the array's open circuit and maximum power DC voltage
levels, so it only performs last two checks listed above to ensure that the array and inverter rated capacities
are as close as possible.

Post-simulation Size Checking and Error Messages

After completing simulations, SAM does another series of checks to see whether the inverter is over- or
under-sized based on the actual output of the array. If it finds any problems, SAM displays the Show
Simulation Warnings button in the notification area at the top right corner of the main window. Click the
button to display the warning message.
Post-simulation checks include:
Array output greater than inverter rated capacity: SAM counts the number of hours that the array's
simulated DC output is greater than the inverter's AC rated capacity, and displays a simulation warning
if the number of hours is greater than zero.
Inverter output less than 75 percent of inverter rated capacity: SAM also compares the inverter's
maximum AC output to the total inverter AC capacity and displays a simulation warning if the inverter's
maximum AC output is less than 75% of the total inverter rated AC capacity.

Specifying Array Tracking and Orientation

The tracking options allow you to choose from one of four options for specifying whether and how modules
on the array follow the movement of the sun across the sky.
Fixed: The array is fixed at the tilt and azimuth angles defined by the values of Tilt and Azimuth and
does not follow the sun's movement.
1 Axis: The array is fixed at the angle from the horizontal defined by the value of Tilt and rotates about
the tilted axis from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun
across the sky. Azimuth determines the array's orientation with respect to a line perpendicular to the
equator.
2 Axis: The array rotates from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of
the sun across the sky, and north-south to track the sun's seasonal movement throughout the year.
Azimuth Axis: The array rotates in a horizontal plane to track the daily movement of the sun.

Note. SAM does not adjust installation or operating costs on the System Costs page based on the
tracking options you specify. Be sure to use appropriate costs for the type of tracking system you
specify.

To specify array tracking and orientation:

1. Choose a tracking option: Fixed, 1 axis, 2 axis, or azimuth tracking.

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If you use a tracking system, be sure that the Balance of System cost category on the PV System
Costs page includes the cost of installing the tracking system, and that the Operation and
Maintenance cost includes the cost of maintaining the system.
2. Type a value for the array tilt angle in degrees from horizontal. Zero degrees is horizontal, 90
degrees is vertical.
If you are unsure of a value, use the location's latitude (displayed in the navigation menu under
Climate and on the Climate page), or check Force Tilt = Latitude if you want SAM to
automatically assign the value of the latitude from the weather file to the array tilt angle. Note that
SAM does not display the tilt angle when you choose this option, but it does use the correct value
in simulations.
3. If the array is oriented away from due south in the northern hemisphere (or oriented away from due
north in the southern hemisphere), change the default azimuth angle to the desired value. An
azimuth angle of 0 (facing the equator) normally maximizes energy production. For the northern
hemisphere, increasing the azimuth angle favors afternoon energy production, and decreasing the
azimuth angle favors morning energy production. The opposite is true for the southern hemisphere.

About Derate Factors

An AC photovoltaic system typically consists of a DC side that includes modules, diodes, and DC wiring
and fuses, and an AC side that includes AC wiring, fuses, and transformers. SAM allows you to enter two
derate factors, a pre-inverter derate factor to account for electrical losses on the DC side of the system, and
post-inverter derate factor to account for losses on the AC side.

Derate Factors in Performance Simulation Calculations

SAM calculates hourly conversion efficiency values for the module and inverter types included in the system
using the hourly simulation models that you specify on the Module page and Inverter page. The derate
factors allow you to account for losses outside of the modules and inverters. During simulation, SAM
calculates the solar radiation incident on the array for each hour, and calculates the array DC output using
equations in the Module model. For each hour in the simulation, SAM applies the pre-inverter derate factor
to the array's DC output before passing it to the inverter model. SAM calculates the inverter's AC output
using equations in the Inverter model, and applies the post-inverter derate factor to the inverter's AC output
to calculate the derated AC power.
The total array power shown on the Array page is the array's rated power based on the module's power from
the Module page and the number of modules shown on the Array page. SAM does not apply the derate
factor to this rated capacity value.
During simulations, SAM multiplies the array's DC power output by the pre-inverter derate factor to calculate
the inverter's DC input power for each hour of the simulation:

Similarly, to calculate the system's gross hourly output, it multiplies the inverter's output by the post-inverter
derate factor:

You can see these values in the hourly results.

To calculate the system's net annual energy output, SAM adds up the 8,760 hourly gross system output
values and adjusts this gross annual energy output value using the degradation and availability factors from
the Annual Performance page.

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Choosing Derate Factors

One source of information on derate factors is the website for NREL's PVWatts model, which includes a
table of derate factor components for various sources of losses. Because SAM's performance model already
accounts for some of the losses listed in the PVWatts table, it is not appropriate to use some of the
PVWatts derate factor components in your SAM analysis.

Note. The PVWatts derate factors are described at [Link]

changing_parameters.html

If you are in doubt about the value to use for the derate factors, you can use the default values supplied with
the SAM sample files. The following information is based on the information provided on the PVWatts
website, and can be used as a reference for choosing values for the derate factors in SAM.
The total pre-inverter derate factor is the product of the six DC derate factor categories.
The following derate factor components described on the PVWatts website are accounted for by SAM and
should not be included in the pre- or post-inverter derate factors.
Inverter and Transformer: SAM's inverter performance models calculate the inverter output based on the
output of the module (as determined by the performance model) and parameters defined on the Inverter
page, and not based on a derate factor.
System availability: The system availability is an input variable on the Annual Performance page, and
should not be included as a derate factor.
Shading: SAM accounts for shading based on the parameters specified on the Shading page.
Age: SAM's degradation factor on the Annual Performance page accounts for performance losses over
time due to aging of modules.
The following derate factor components described on the PVWatts website are not accounted for by SAM.

Table 1. Pre-inverter (DC) derate factors not accounted for by the module performance
model.
PVWatts
Derate Factor Default PVWatts
Component Cause of Loss Value Range
Mismatch Slight differences in performance of different modules in the 98.0 97.0 - 99.5
array.
Diodes and Voltage drops across blocking diodes and electrical 99.5 99.0 - 99.7
Connections connections.
DC Wiring Resistive losses in wiring on the DC side of the system. 98.0 97.0 - 99.0
Soiling Dirt, snow, or other matter on the module surface blocking 95.0 30.0 - 99.5
solar radiation from reaching cells.
Sun Tracking Inaccuracies in the tracking mechanisms ability to keep the 100.0 95.0 - 100.0
array oriented toward the sun. The default value of 100%
assumes a fixed array with no tracking. Applies only to
systems with one- or two-axis tracking arrays.
Nameplate Accounts for accuracy of the manufacturer's nameplate 0.95 0.80-1.05
rating, often for the performance degradation modules may
experience after being exposed to light.

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Table 2. Post-inverter (AC) derate factors not accounted for by the inverter performance
model.
PVWatts
Derate Factor Default PVWatts
Component Cause of Loss Value Range
AC wiring Resistive losses in wiring on the AC side of the system. 99.0 98.0 - 99.3
Transformer Transformer efficiency. If you use the Sandia inverter model, 100% --
then the transformer losses are accounted for by the model
parameters and you should set the Transformer derate factor
to 100%. If you use the simple efficiency inverter model, you
can specify a value to account for transformer losses if your
inverter efficiency value does not include transformer losses.
The PVWatts model combines the inverter and transformer
derate factor into a single value.

Backtracking Overview
Backtracking is a PV array tracking strategy that attempts to avoid row-to-row shading of modules in an
array. Without backtracking, a tracking array typically points the modules directly at the sun. However, for
an array with closely spaced rows, modules in adjacent rows may shade each other at certain sun angles
angles, which can dramatically reduce the array's power output. With backtracking, under these conditions,
the tracker will orient the modules away from the sun to avoid shading.

SAM's backtracking algorithm divides the array into subarrays. Each subarray has the same orientation as
all the others, meaning that the entire array is driven by a single tracking scheme. Each subarray has a
physical location (origin: x, y, z) and a length l and width w. The length is parallel to the axis of rotation. For
a typical one-axis tracking system, the length represents the north-south dimension of each tracking
subarray, and the width represents the east-west dimension.

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Note. The subarray layout for backtracking is not linked to the modules per string and strings in parallel
values you specify under Layout on the Array page. SAM uses the subarray layout values for
backtracking calculations, but not for array sizing calculations.

The backtracking algorithm is an iterative process that determines whether a subarray is shaded, and
subsequently adjusts the angle of rotation until there is no more array shading. Once a suitable angle is
found, the module power output is calculated for the array at the given rotation angle and known sun
position.

3.3.3 PVWatts Solar Array

The PVWatts Solar Array page displays variables for SAM's implementation of NREL's PVWatts model.
SAM includes an implementation of NREL's PVWatts model to facilitate comparing results calculated by
SAM's three other photovoltaic module performance models with PVWatts results, and to generate results
based on the PVWatts performance model but using SAM's cost and financial model and assumptions.

Note. NREL's PVWatts model is a web-based simulation model for grid-connected photovoltaic
systems. To use the model or find out more about it, visit the PVWatts website at [Link]
rredc/pvwatts/. The model is also described in Marion W et al, 2002. PVWatts Version 2: Enhanced
Spatial Resolution for Calculated Grid-Connected PV Performance. [Link]
codes_algs/PVWATTS/[Link].

To view the PVWatts Solar Array page, click PVWatts Solar Array on the main window's navigation menu.
Note that for the PVWatts Solar Array page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and
Market window must be Photovoltaics - PVWatts Performance Model.

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PVWatts System Inputs

The system inputs define the size of the system, derate factor, and the array orientation. For information
about choosing values for the PVWatts input variables, see the PVWatts website at [Link]
rredc/pvwatts/changing_parameters.html.
DC Rating
The array's nameplate DC power rating in kilowatts under standard test conditions (STC). The DC rating
is equal to a single module's DC power rating in watts at 25°C and 1,000 W/m2 multiplied by the
number of modules in the array divided by 1,000.
DC to AC Derate Factor
A factor accounting for conversion of the array's DC nameplate capacity to the system's AC power
rating at STC. The default value is 0.77. For help calculating the derate factor, see the PVWatts derate
factor calculator at [Link]
Array Tracking Mode
The three array tracking modes are:
A fixed array is fixed at the tilt and azimuth angles defined by the Tilt and Azimuth variables.
A one-axis tracking array is fixed at the tilt angle defined by the Tilt variable and rotates from east in
the morning to west in the evening to track the daily movement of the sun across the sky.
A two-axis tracking array rotates from east in the morning to west in the evening to track the daily
movement of the sun across the sky, and from north to south to track the sun's seasonal movement
throughout the year.
Tilt (degrees)
Applies only to fixed arrays and arrays with one-axis tracking. The array's tilt angle in degrees from
horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal, and 90 degrees is vertical. As a rule of thumb, system
designers often use the location's latitude as the optimal array tilt angle. The actual tilt angle will vary
based on project requirements.
Force Tilt = Latitude
Populates the array tilt value with the latitude value stored in the weather file and displayed on the
Climate page. Note that SAM does not display the tilt value on the Array page, but does use the correct
value during simulations.
Azimuth (degrees)
Applies only to fixed arrays with no tracking. The array's east-west orientation in degrees. An azimuth
value of zero or 360 degrees is facing north, 90 degrees = east, 180 degrees = south, and 270 degrees
= west, regardless of whether the array is in the northern or southern hemisphere. For systems north of
the equator, a typical azimuth value would be 180 degrees. For systems south of the equator, a typical
value would be 0 degrees. Note that this convention is different from the convention for the other SAM
photovoltaic model options.

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3.3.4 Shading
The Shading page provides access to options for modeling shading of the array using any of three shading
model options, or by importing shading data from SunEye shading device or PVsyst simulation software.
To view the Shading page, click Shading on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Shading
page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics -
SAM Performance Models.

Contents
Overview describes the Shading model and its limitations.
Enabling and Disabling Array Shading explains how to turn on and off array
shading.
Defining the Shading Factors explains how to edit the shading factor matrix.
Importing and Exporting Shading Factor Data explains how to use text files to store
shading matrix data.

Overview
SAM models two types of shading: Shading that affects the entire array uniformly, and shading of modules
within the array by neighboring modules. To model the first kind of shading, SAM reduces the solar radiation
incident on the array. To model self shading of modules within the array, SAM adjusts the array's DC
output:
Beam Radiation Shading
Shading objects block the direct normal component of radiation incident on the entire array. You can
either specify your own shading factors, or import shading factors from the SunEye shading device or
PVsyst simulation software. See Specifying Beam Shading Factors for details.
Sky Diffuse Shading
A reduction in the diffuse component of the radiation incident on the entire array for all hours of the year.
You can either specify your own shading factor, or import the factor from the PVsyst simulation
software. See Specifying a Sky Diffuse Shading Factor for details.
Self Shading
Estimates the reduction in the array's DC output due to row-to-row shading of modules within the array.
Unlike the beam radiation shading and sky diffuse shading models, which reduce the amount of
radiation incident on the array, the self-shading model reduces the DC output of the array. To use the
self-shading model, you must describe the configuration of cells in modules and modules in the array.
See Specifying Self Shading Parameters for details.

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Notes.

The self-shading model only works when the model option on the Module page is either CEC
Performance Model or Sandia PV Array Performance Model. If the Simple Efficiency Module or
Concentrating PV Module option is active, the self-shading parameters on the Shading page have no
effect on simulation results.

The self shading model is disabled for the PVWatts modeling option.

Beam and Sky Diffuse Shading Factors

Each shading factor is a value between zero and one that represents the fraction of radiation (either beam or
diffuse) allowed to reach the array. A shading factor of one represents no shading. A shading factor of zero
represents complete blockage of either the beam or sky diffuse radiation from the array.
The value of the shading factor in each hour depends on the method you use to specify the values on the
Shading page.
To calculate the effect of shading on the array, SAM adjusts the incident beam and diffuse radiation value
that it calculates from the data in the weather file and solar angles in each hour as appropriate:
SAM multiplies the the incident normal radiation in each hour by the beam shading factor for that hour.
The incident normal radiation is the solar radiation that reaches the array in a straight line from the sun.
SAM the incident sky diffuse radiation for each hour by the sky diffuse shading factor. Sky diffuse
radiation is radiation that reaches the array from the sun indirectly after being reflected by clouds and
particles in the atmosphere. Sky diffuse radiation does not include diffuse radiation reflected from the
ground. Note that you can only specify a single value that applies to all hours of the year for the sky
diffuse shading factor.

Enabling and Disabling Shading Models

SAM provides options for five different shading models. To enable a shading model, click its check box. For
example, to enable the beam shading model using month-by-hour shading factors, enter values in the beam
shading factor table and check Enable Month by Hour Beam Shading Factors.

Notes.

You must enable at least one shading option using one of the Enable checkboxes for SAM to include
shading.

SAM does not prevent you from enabling more than one shading option even if that results in an
unrealistic shading model. Be sure to verify that you have enabled the set of options you intend before
running SAM.

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Beam Radiation Shading Factors

SAM provides three options for specifying beam shading factors: Hourly 8760, Month by Hour, and Azimuth
by Altitude. If you enable more than one option, SAM multiplies the shading factors to calculate the total
shading factor for each hour.

Hourly 8760
The Hourly 8760 option allow you to use a set of hourly (8,760 hours/year) beam shading factors for the
project location. You can cut and paste the data from a spreadsheet if the data is organized into a single
column of 8,760 values, or you can import the data from a text file that contains a single column of data with
no header in the first row. See Overview for a description of shading factors.

To specify hourly beam shading factors:

1. Check Enable Hourly 8760 Beam Shading Factors.
2. Click Edit Data.
3. To copy data from a spreadsheet, select and copy a column of 8,760 beam shading factors in the
spreadsheet and click Paste in the Edit Data window.
To import data from a text file, click Import and navigate to the file. The file must contain a single
column of 8,760 beam radiation values with a header in the first row.

Month by Hour
To define the month-by-hour shading factor matrix, you assign a value to each cell in the matrix. The
shading factor in a cell applies to a given hour for an entire month. For example, a shading factor of 0.90 in
the 6 a.m. cell for May would mean that 90% of the beam radiation value in the weather file for each hour
beginning at 6 a.m. and ending at 7 a.m. in May would be used to calculate the global solar radiation
incident on the array.

Note. The time convention for the matrix is determined by the convention used in your weather file. For
example, TMY2 and TMY3 data use local standard time.

As you work with the shading factor matrix, keep the following in mind:
The first column in the matrix is for the hour beginning at 12:00 a.m. and ending at 1:00 a.m.
A red cell indicates a value of zero, or full shading (beam radiation completely blocked).
A white cell indicates a value of one, or no shading.
A dark shade of red indicates more shading (more beam radiation) than a light shade of red.

To define a shading factor for a single cell:

Click the cell and type the shading factor.
To replace the value in a cell, click the cell and type a replacement value.
To delete the value from a cell, double-click the cell and press the Delete key.

To define a single shading factor for multiple cells:

Select the cells to which you want to apply the shading factor.
Type a value between zero and one.

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Press the Enter key or click Apply to selected cells.

To import or export month-by-hour beam shading factors:

Solar Advisor allows you to import and export the shading factor matrix as a comma-delimited text file that
contains 12 rows of 24 hourly shading factors separated by commas. The file should not have row or column
headings.
To export the shading matrix as a text file, click Export.
To import a data from a comma-delimited text file, click Import.

Azimuth by Altitude
The azmiuth-altitude shading factors for beam radiation are represented as a two-dimensional lookup table,
where solar azimuth values are given across the top and solar altitude values are given along the side of the
table. Azimuth values must increase monotonically from left to right. Altitude values must increase
monotonically from bottom to top.
For each hour in the simulation, SAM calculates the position of the sun as a set of azimuth and altitude
angles. SAM uses a linear interpolation method to estimate the value of the beam shading factor for the
hour based on the nearest values in the lookup table.
To define the azimuth-altitude shading factor table, first enter the number of rows and columns in the table.
The number of rows is one greater than the number of azimuth values specified. The number of columns is
one greater than the number of altitude values specified. Second, enter the headings for the table, with
azimuth values increasing along the top and altitude values decreasing down the left side. Finally, enter the
shading factors for beam radiation.

Note: Azimuth values use the component based conventions. 0 = equator, 90 = west, -90 = east. This
convention is different from the convention used on the PVWatts Solar Array page.

Solar Advisor allows you to import and export the azimuth-altitude lookup table as a comma-delimited text
file that contains shading factors separated by commas. The file should have row or column headings.
To import or export azimuth-by-altitude beam shading factors:
To export the shading matrix as a text file, click Export.
To import a data from a comma-delimited text file, click Import.

Sky Diffuse Shading Factor

A shading factor for sky diffuse radiation may be used. This factor is applied to every hour in the year. This
value is considered to be the fraction of the sky that is obstructed, and is therefore constant.

Import from External Software

SAM allows you to import shading data from either PVPVsyst, photovoltaic system design software from
the University of Geneva in Switzerland ([Link] or from the SunEye, an electronic
shading analysis device from Solmetric ([Link]

Importing Data from PVsyst

You can import a "Near Shadings" table generated by PVsyst into SAM. SAM automatically imports data

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from the text file generated by PVsyst into the Azimuth-Altitude Shading Factors for Beam Radiation
table and Diffuse Shading Factor value.

Notes. We have tested the following procedure with Version 5 of PVsyst.

The "Near Shadings" table in PVsyst looks like this:

The "Near Shadings" data exported to a text file looks like this (in this example with semicolon delimiters):

To import a "Near Shadings" table from PVsyst:

1. In PVsyst, follow the procedure to create and export a "Near Shadings" table. The table in PVsyst
should look similar to the one below. SAM will recognize any of the delimiter options: tab, comma,
or semicolon.
2. In SAM, click the Import PVsyst Near Shading and navigate to the folder containing the shading
file.
When SAM imports data from the file, it displays the message "Azimuth-Altitude Table and Diffuse
Factor update" and populates the azimuth-altitude shading table, the sky diffuse shading factor,
and enables both options.
3. Disable any shading options that do not apply to your analysis.

Importing Data from SunEye

The Solmetric SunEye software generates shading data in two formats: The obstruction table, which
characterizes shading using an altitude-azimuth angle table to indicate solar positions that are blocked by
nearby obstructions, and the hourly shading file, which lists hourly beam radiation shading factors. SAM
can read data from both tables.

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Use the obstruction table if you plan to model the system for different locations (assuming the same
shading obstructions). Use the hourly shading factor table if you plan to model the system for a single
location.

Note. If you use the hourly shading factor table, be sure that the weather data specified on the Climate
page is for the same location as the one where the SunEye measurements were made.

To import a SunEye obstruction table:

1. In the Solmetric SunEye software (not the PV Designer software), on the File menu, click Export
Session Report and Data.
The SunEye software creates a set of files, and assigns a default name like
Sk [Link] to the obstruction data file. By default, the files are in a folder
named ExportedFiles in the exported report folder.
2. In SAM, on the Shading page, click Import Suneye Obstruction File, and navigate to the folder
containing the file you want to import.
3. Open the obstruction data file for any of the available skies (Sk y01ObstructionElevations,
Sk y02ObstructionElevations, etc.).
If the average or worst case obstruction data from multiple skylines will be used, then an extra step
is required. In a spreadsheet program, open the ObstructionElevation file containing the average
and maximum values as well as all skylines in the SunEye session. Make sure that the desired
data (average or maximum) is in the third column, delete the other columns, and save the file as .
csv with a name like [Link]. Use this file as the obstruction data file in
SAM.
SAM displays the message "Azimuth-Altitude Table updated," populates the azimuth-altitude
shading factor table, and enables the Enable Azimuth-Altitude Shading Factors for Beam
Radiation option.
4. Be sure to enable and disable the other shading options as appropriate.

To import a SunEye hourly shading file:

1. In the Solmetric SunEye software (not the PV Designer software), on the File menu, click Export
Session Report and Data.
The SunEye software creates a set of files, and assigns a default name like Sk [Link] to
the hourly shading file. By default, the files are in a folder named ExportedFiles in the exported
report folder.
2. In SAM, on the Shading page, click Import Suneye Hourly Shading File, and navigate to the
folder containing the shading file.
3. Open the shading file for any of the the available skies (Sk y01Shading, Sk y02Shading, etc.). To
use average shading for multiple skylines, open [Link].
SAM displays the message "Hourly Shading Factors for Beam Radiation updated," populates the
hourly shading factor table, and enables the Enable Hourly Beam Shading Factors option.
4. To see the hourly data, click Edit Data under Hourly Shading Factors for Beam Radiation.
5. Be sure to enable and disable the other shading options as appropriate.
6. On the Climate page, choose a weather file for the same location represented by the SunEye
shading data.

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Self Shading Calculator for Fixed Tilt Arrays

Overview and Requirements
The self-shading model calculates the effect of row-to-row shading in the array, where shadows from
modules in neighboring rows of the array block sunlight from parts of other modules in the array during
certain times of day. The response of a real photovoltaic module to shading is complex, and depends on
several factors including the cell material, shape and layout of cells in the module, and configuration of
bypass diodes in the module.
For a description of the effect of module shading on system performance, see Deline C, Partially Shaded
Operation of a Grid-Tied PV System, NREL/CP-520-46001, June 2009: [Link]/docs/fy09osti/46001.
pdf.
SAM's self-shading model has several limitations, and only works under the following conditions:
The performance model option on the Module page is either Sandia PV Array Performance model or
CEC Performance Model. The self-shading model does not work for the simple efficiency model or the
concentrating PV model. The self-shading model is disabled for the PVWatts modeling option.
The cell material is crystalline silicon, either mono-crystalline or poly-crystalline. The self-shading model
does not work for modules with thin film cells. SAM indicates the cell material on the Module page
under Physical Characteristics. See Module page for a list of abbreviations used to indicate cell
material.
Each module in the array consists of square cells arranged in a rectangular grid with one or more
bypass diodes and can be described using the input variables described below. The self-shading model
does not work for modules with rectangular, circular, or triangular shaped cells.
The array uses fixed tracking, as specified on the Array page. The self-shading model does not work for
one-axis, two-axis, or azimuth-axis tracking.
The the number of modules per string and strings in parallel specified on the Array page is consistent
with the array configuration specified on the Shading page.

Note. To use the self-shading model, you need information about the module's dimensions, cell layout,
and number of bypass diodes. This information is not available in SAM, but you should be able to find it
on the manufacturer's data sheet for the module.

SAM's Sandia and CEC photovoltaic performance models assume that modules operate at the maximum
power point for the level of incident radiation in each hour. The self-shading model calculates a single
derating factor that estimates the effect of shading on the array's [Link] self-shading model calculates
and applies hourly DC derating factors to the entire array's output using the following algorithm:
1. Calculate the array's derated DC output at the maximum power point based (without shading) on the
inputs you specify on the Module page and Array page.
2. Calculate the size and position of rectangles of shade on the array using information about the relative
positions of the sun and modules in the array.
3. Determine the reduction in output of each module in the array based on the number of shaded cells and
bypass diodes.
4. Calculate an overall derate factor to apply to the array's maximum power point DC output that
represents the reduction of output caused by the shadows.
5. Recalculate the array's derated DC output.

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Note. For hours when both 20% or more of module strings and 25% or more of all cell strings in the
array are shaded, the self-shading algorithm reduces the array DC output to near zero, which
exaggerates the impact of shading for those hours. This typically only occurs for arrays with closely
spaced rows, and could cause SAM to overestimate self-shading impacts. If this situation occurs, SAM
reports the overestimated shading impacts in a simulation warning message on the Results page.

Module
The module input variables describe the properties of the module required by the self-shading model. Note
that the values of these variables should be consistent with those shown on the Module page.
Orientation
The module orientation determines whether the short or long side of the module is parallel to the ground
or at the bottom of the module, assuming that all modules in the array are mounted at an angle from the
horizontal equal to the tilt angle specifed on the Array page.
Portrait orientation means the short end of the module is parallel to the ground, or at the bottom of the
module.
Landcape orientation means the long end of the module is parallel to the ground, or at the bottom of the
module.
Length
Long side of a module. SAM calculates this value based on the width (short side) you specify and area
from the Module page.
Length (m) = Module Area (m2) / Width (m)
Width
Short side of a module. The product of the width and length should be equal to the module area on the
Module page.
Number of cells along length
The number of cells along the long side of the module. SAM calculates this value based on the number
of cells along width that you specify and the number of cells from the Module page.
Number of Cells Along Length = Number of Cells / Number of Cells Along Width
Number of cells along width
The number of cells along the short side of the module. The product of the number of cells along the
length and width should equal the total number of cells on the Module page.
Number of bypass diodes
The number of bypass diodes in each module.
The images below show examples of a module with four cells along its width and in portrait orientation.
Because the module is in portrait orientation, SAM would consider it to have four cells along the bottom
of the module, and would assume the diode connections shown in the diagrams for the module with
two, four, and eight diodes.

Note. SAM only uses the diode connections to estimate the DC power output reduction of the array due
to shading. The model does not consider diode polarity or current flow through the modules.

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 Photovoltaic Systems 79

The number of diodes determines what portion of the module output is reduced. In the following images,
the grey square indicates the shaded cell for each of the combinations of numbers of diodes, and
rectangle with broken lines indicates the portion of the module affected by the shaded cell. For
example, for a module with four cells along the bottom and two diodes, when any single cell is shaded,
SAM reduces the module's power output by 50%.

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Array
The array input variables describe how modules are oriented in the array, and should be consistent with the
values specified on the Array page.

Note. The self-shading model assumes that the array consists of module strings that are both
electrically connected in series and physically laid out in a single line.

String Wiring
Describes the orientation of strings of modules in the array.
Horizontal: Strings are parallel to the ground.
Vertical: Strings are inclined at the array's tilt angle.
Number of modules along bottom
The number of modules along the edge of the array parallel to the ground. This is a calculated value that
you cannot edit.
Number of modules along side
The number of modules along the edge of the array perpendicular to the bottom of the array as defined
above.
Number of rows
One row consists of one or more strings and is inclined from the horizontal at the tilt angle specified on
the Array page.
Layout from Array Page
The Modules per String and Strings in Parallel values from the Array page for your reference to
facilitate calculating the correct shading layout values described below.

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As you type values for the shading layout variables, SAM performs checks to ensure that the values meet
the criteria described below for horizontal and vertical string wiring. If they do not, SAM displays a message
but does not prevent you from running simulations with the incorrect values.

For horizontal string wiring:

For vertical string wiring:

Row spacing
The distance in meters between rows.
Slope E/W
The east-west ground slope in degrees, where zero is horizontal and 90 is vertical.
An east-west slope of 10 degrees would be inclined uphill from east to west at a 10 degree angle from
horizontal. SAM assumes that the ground under the array is uniformly inclined.
Slope N/S
The north-south ground slope in degrees, where zero is horizontal and 90 is vertical.

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3.3.5 Module
The Module page allows you to choose a photovoltaic module performance model and either choose a
module from a list or to specify module characteristics. SAM assumes that the system consists of one or
more of the same type of module. Specify the number of modules in the system on the Array page.
To view the Module page, click Module on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Module
page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics -
SAM Performance Models.

Contents
Overview describes the Module page options and general guidelines for choosing a
photovoltaic module model.
Choosing a Module Performance Model explains guidelines for choosing the best
performance model for your analysis and for modeling thin-film modules.
Sandia PV Array Performance Model describes the Sandia model in more detail,
explains the model parameters, and suggests resources for learning more about
the model.
CEC Performance Model describes the CEC model in more detail (including
temperature correction), explains the model parameters, and suggests resources
for learning more about the model.
Simple Efficiency Module describes the input variables and algorithms for the
simple efficiency model for flat-plate modules.
Concentrating PV Module describes the concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) model and its
input variables and algorithms. It also explains how to use the Sandia model the CPV
modules included in the Sandia database.
Temperature Correction (Except CEC Model) describes how SAM calculates
module temperature and a temperature correction factor for the Sandia, simple
efficiency, and CPV moduel model.

Overview
The Module page allows you to choose a photovoltaic module performance model from four options:
Simple Efficiency Module
CEC Performance Model
Sandia PV Array Performance Model
Concentrating PV Module

Note. To model a photovoltaic system using the PVWatts model, you must choose PVWatts System
Model in the Technology and Market window.

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To specify a photovoltaic module model:

1. Choose the model name from the list.

2. For the Sandia or CEC models, choose a module from the database of available models.
For the simple efficiency model and concentrating PV Module, specify the module characteristics.

Hourly Simulation
Each of the four module performance models calculates the hourly DC electrical output of a single module
based on the hourly incident solar radiation (plane-of-array irradiance) calculated by the climate model using
data in the weather file as specified on the Climate page and array orientation and tracking information from
the Array page. The photovoltaic array output depends on the number of modules and the pre-inverter derate
factor specified on the Array page. SAM passes the array's hourly DC power output to the inverter model,
whose characteristics appear on the Inverter page.

Note. SAM assumes that the array operates at its maximum power point. SAM does not track changes
in voltage and current levels in the system.

Choosing a Module Performance Model

Each of the four available module performance models uses a different algorithm to predict module
performance. In general, if you are modeling a system that uses a particular brand and type of flat-plate PV
module, you should first look for the module in the Sandia database, and then in the CEC database. If you
do not find the module in either database, you can either choose a similar module, or use the simple
efficiency model.
The simple efficiency and concentrating PV models are ideal for analyses involving explorations of the
relationship between module efficiency and the system's performance and cost of energy. Both models
allow you to define a curve of the module's efficiency versus incident radiation. The Sandia and CEC models
do not allow you to modify module parameters such as efficiency, although advanced users with and
understanding of the model algorithms can add their own modules to the database.
The Sandia PV Array Performance Model calculates hourly efficiency values based on data measured
from modules and arrays in realistic outdoor operating conditions. The Sandia model tends to produce
more accurate predictions of module performance than the CEC model. However, because of the time
and effort required to make the field measurements, the Sandia module database is less up-to-date than
the CEC database.
The California Energy Commission (CEC) Performance Model predicts module performance based on a
database of module characteristics determined from module ratings. Like the Sandia model, the CEC
model calculates hourly efficiency values, and allows you to select from a list of a commercially-
available modules. The CEC module database tends to be more up-to-date than the Sandia database.
For some types of modules, the CEC model predictions may be less accurate than the Sandia model.
The Simple Efficiency Module model is a simple representation of module performance that requires you
to provide the module area, a set of conversion efficiency values, and temperature correction
parameters. The simple efficiency model is the least accurate of the three models for predicting the

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performance of specific modules. It is useful for preliminary performance predictions before you have
selected a specific module, and allows you to specify a module efficiency and temperature performance
parameters, which is useful for analyses involving sensitivity or parametric analysis.
For concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) modules, use the Concentrating PV Module model unless you are
modeling a CPV module available in the Sandia model, in which case, you can choose the module from
the database in the Sandia model. The concentrating PV module model is similar to the simple
efficiency model, except that it uses only the direct normal component of the incident solar radiation
instead of the total radiation for performance predictions.
Table 3. Guidelines for choosing a photovoltaic module performance model.
Use this model... ...if your analysis Comments
involves...
Sandia estimates of module performance If your module is in both the
Model based on field test data. for crystalline or thin-film Sandia and CEC lists, use the
modules. Sandia model.
CEC estimates of module performance Use the CEC model when your
Model based on module ratings. for crystalline-silicon modules or analysis involves a particular
for new modules recently module that is not available in the
available on the market. Sandia database.
Simple Efficiency Module sensitivity or parametric studies
Simple efficiency curve with on module efficiency or
temperature correction. temperature coefficients, or for
preliminary analyses before you
have chosen a specific module.
Concentrating PV Module Modeling concentrating See Modeling Concentrating
Simple efficiency curve with photovoltaic modules. Photovoltaic (CPV) Modules for
temperature correction. details.

Modeling Thin-film Modules

For modules based on thin-film cell technology, including amorphous silicon, copper indium diselenide
(CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT), the Sandia model may
provide more accurate results than the CEC and simple efficiency models, which do not adequately
represent module performance at low-light levels. For best results, if you are modeling a thin-film module,
look for the module in the Sandia database. If the module is not available in the Sandia database, you may
want to use a module from the database with similar characteristics to the one you are modeling. Use the
table below to help identify the thin-film modules in the Sandia database.

Table 4. Thin-film module manufacturers and model numbers available in the Sandia
module database.
Cell Type Manufacturer Model Series or Number
amorphous tandem junction (2-a- Solarex MST
Si) EPV Solar EPV-40
amorphous silicon triple junction Uni-Solar PVL, SHR, US, USF
(3-a-Si)
cadmium telluride (CdTe) BP Solar BP980, BP990
First Solar FS

June 2011
 Photovoltaic Systems 85

copper indium diselenide (CIS) Shell Solar ST

Siemens Solar ST
amorphous silicon heterojunction Sanyo HIP
(HIT-Si)

Sandia PV Array Performance Model

The Sandia PV Array Performance model consists of a set of equations that provide values for five points on
a module's I-V curve and a database of coefficients for the equations whose values are stored in the Sandia
Modules library. The coefficients have been empirically determined based on a set of manufacturer
specifications and measurements taken from modules installed outdoors in real, operating photovoltaic
systems.

Note. If you are a module manufacturer and would like to add your module to the Sandia database, you
should contact Sandia National Laboratories directly. See [Link]
htm.

The Sandia model is described in King et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia National
Laboratories. SAND2004-3535. [Link]

To use the Sandia photovoltaic model:

1. On the Module page, choose Sandia PV Array Performance Model.
2. Choose a module from the list of available modules. SAM displays the module's characteristics and
model coefficients.
When you choose a module from the list, SAM displays the module characteristics at reference
conditions on the Module page. Internally, the model applies a set of coefficients from the Sandia
Modules library to the simulation equations.
3. Choose a module structure from the three available options (displayed as front material / cell / back
material). See Temperature Correction for details. Module manufacturers typically include a
description of the front material, and frame or back material in a mechanical characteristics section
of module specification sheets.

Notes.

The current version of the Sandia database contains a single concentrating PV module, listed as Entech
22X Concentrator [1994].

The first several items in the module list are arrays instead of single modules. The arrays are indicated
by the word "Array" in the name. The array coefficients account for some losses not accounted for in the
single module parameters, including module mismatch, diodes and connections, and DC wiring losses.
When you use an array from the database, you should be sure that the Pre-Inverter derate factor on the
Array page does not include these losses.

Module Characteristics at Reference Conditions

SAM displays the module characteristics so that you can compare modules in the database to
manufacturer specifications or to different modules in the database.

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Reference Conditions
The reference conditions describe the incident solar radiation, air mass, ambient temperature, and wind
speed that apply to the module characteristics. The module efficiency, power, current, voltage, and
temperature coefficients values are those for the module operating at the reference conditions.
Efficiency (%)
The module's rated efficiency at reference conditions. SAM displays this value for reference only. During
simulations, the model calculates an efficiency value for each hour, which you can see in the hourly
output data in the tabular data browser on the Results page.
Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc
The module rated power in DC Watts. Equal to the product of the maximum power voltage and
maximum power current.
Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp), Vdc
Maximum power voltage in DC Volts under reference conditions.
Maximum Power Current (Imp), Adc
Maximum power current in DC Amps under reference conditions. Defines the maximum power point on
the module's I-V curve.
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc), Vdc
Open circuit voltage under reference conditions. Defines the open circuit point on the module's I-V
curve.
Short Circuit Current (Isc), Adc
Short circuit current under reference conditions. Defines the short circuit point on the module's I-V
curve.
Temperature Coefficients
SAM displays the temperature coefficients in %/°C and W/°C at the different points on the power curve.
Module Structure and Mounting
This option determines the coefficients that SAM uses to calculate the cell temperature in each hour of
the simulation. The default option is User Database Values, which displays the coefficients from the
measured data at reference conditions. See Temperature Correction for details.

Physical Characteristics
Material
A description of the semiconductor technology used in the photovoltaic cells.
2-a-Si: dual-junction amorphous silicon
3-a-Si: triple-junction amorphous silicon
CdTe: cadmium telluride
CIS: copper indium diselenide
HIT-Si: amorphous silicon heterojunction
c-Si: single-crystal silicon
mc-Si: multi-crystalline silicon

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 Photovoltaic Systems 87

Vintage
The year that module coefficients were added to the database.
The letter "E" indicates that the coefficients were estimated from a combination of published
manufacturer specifications and data from the outdoor testing of a similar module. Entries without an
"E" are for modules whose coefficients were derived entirely from outdoor tests involving one more or
more modules of that type.
Because the tested modules (listed without an "E") may have had different average power ratings than
production versions of the same module, the database typically also includes an "E" entry for each of
the tested modules that represents the average power rating specified by the manufacturer.
Module Area, m2
The total area of the module, including spaces between cells and the frame.
Number of Cells
Total number of cells in the module, equal to the product of the number of cells in series and number of
cell strings in parallel.
Number of Cells in Series
Number of cells connected in series per cell string.
Number of Cell Strings in Parallel
Number of cell strings connected in parallel per module.

References
A link to King et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND2004-
3535 document describing the Sandia PV Array Performance Model in detail. You can find links to more
documents in References.

CEC Performance Model

The California Energy Commission (CEC) Performance Model uses the University of Wisconsin-Madison
Solar Energy Laboratory's five-parameter model with a database of module parameters for modules from the
database of eligible photovoltaic modules maintained by the California Energy Commission (CEC) for the
California Solar Initiative.
The five-parameter model calculates a module's current and voltage under a range of solar resource
conditions (represented by an I-V curve) using an equivalent electrical circuit whose electrical properties can
be determined from a set of five reference parameters. These five parameters, in turn, are determined from
standard reference condition data provided by either the module manufacturer or an independent testing
laboratory, such as the Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory.

Note. If you are a module manufacturer and would like to add your module to the CEC database, you
should contact the CEC directly. See [Link]

The five-parameter model is described in brief in De Soto 2003, "Improvement and Validation of a Model for
Photovoltaic Array Performance," Solar 2003 Conference Proceedings, American Solar Energy Society. A
more detailed description can be founcec cd in De Soto 2004, Improvement and Validation of a Model for
Photovoltaic Array Performance, Master of Science Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
[Link]/handle/1793/7602.

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For information about the CEC list of eligible photovoltaic modules, see [Link]
equipment/[Link].

Note. To make sure that you have the latest CEC module library, on the Help menu, click Check for
updates. SAM will connect to NREL servers on the Internet and, if a more recent version of the library is
available, automatically update your current library. Updating the library only affects the standard CEC
module library, and will not affect any modules you may have added to the library.

To use the CEC photovoltaic model:

1. On the Module page, choose CEC Performance Model.
2. Choose a module from the list of available modules. SAM displays the model's characteristics and
model coefficients.

When you select a module from the CEC database on the Module page, SAM displays module's
parameters. You can see the complete set of parameters in the Module library by using SAM's
library editor.

Module Characteristics at Reference Conditions

Efficiency, %
The module's rated efficiency at reference conditions. SAM displays this value for reference only. During
simulations, the model calculates an efficiency value for each hour, which you can see in the hourly
output data.
Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc
The module rated power. Equal to the product of the maximum power voltage and maximum power
current.
Maximum Power Voltage (Vmp), Vdc
Reference maximum power voltage at the reference conditions.
Maximum Power Current (Imp), Adc
Reference maximum power current at the reference conditions.
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc), Vdc
Reference open circuit voltage at the reference conditions.
Short Circuit Current (Isc), Adc
Reference short circuit current at the reference conditions.
Temperature Coefficients
SAM displays the temperature coefficients in %/°C and W/°C at maximum power, open circuit, and
short circuit.
The temperature coefficients are based on data collected from laboratory test results and may not
match coefficients provided by the manufacturer on the module's data sheet.

Temperature Correction
The CEC model provides two options for modeling the effect of cell temperature on module performance.
The NOCT method determines the cell temperature based on the nominal operating cell temperature

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 Photovoltaic Systems 89

(NOCT) specified in the module parameters. In SAM 2010.11.9 and earlier versions, this was the only
available temperature correction option for the CEC mode.
The mounting-specific method uses a steady state heat transfer model to calculate cell temperatures, and
is described in Neises T, 2011. Development and Validation of a Model to Predict the Temperature of a
Photovoltaic Cell. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
publications/theses/[Link]

Notes.

The temperature correction algorithms use wind speed and ambient temperature data from the weather
file. SAM assumes that the ambient temperature and wind speed data in the weather file are mid-hour
values and that the radiation values are end-of-hour values. SAM interpolates temperature and wind
speed values by averaging the current hour value with the previous hour value.

When you specify a vertical or horizontal mounting structure option, SAM also uses wind direction data
in the cell temperature calculation. Note that for the NREL TMY weather data files, the degree of
uncertainty in the wind direction data is high.

NOCT Temperature Correction

Choose this option to use the nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) method from the original five-
parameter model.
Mounting Specific Temperature Correction
Choose this option to use the steady state heat transfer model for calculating the cell temperature, and
when you want to model different module mounting options.
Mounting Configuration
Describes how the module is installed. The mounting configuration affects the movement of air around
the module and the transfer of heat between the module and the building surface or ground. SAM
assumes that all modules in the array use the same mounting configuration.
Rack: Modules are mounted on open racks that allow ambient air to flow freely over the front and
back of the modules.
Flush: Modules are in direct contact with a roof or wall, preventing air from flowing over the back of
the module.
Integrated: Modules form part of the roof or wall so that the back of the module is in contact with the
indoor air. When you specify integrated mounting, you must also specify Temperature behind the
module.
Gap: Modules are mounted with a space between the module and building surface that allows limited
air flow over the back of each module. When you specify Gap mounting, you must also specify the
Mounting Structure Orientation and Gap Spacing.
Heat Transfer Dimensions
Module Dimensions: SAM calculates cell temperature using the module dimensions you specify.
Array Dimensions: SAM calculates cell temperature using the array dimensions you specify.
The Array Dimensions option assumes that modules in the array are in direct contact with each other
and results in a higher calculated cell temperatures than the Module Dimensions option. Use the Array
Dimensions option for more conservative array output estimates.

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Mounting Structure Orientation
This option describes how the mounting structure interferes with airflow under the modules for the gap
mounting configuration.
None: The mounting structure does not impede air flow over the back of the modules.
Vertical supporting structures: Mounting structures on module back are perpendicular to the roof
ridge and impede air flow parallel to the ridge.
Horizontal supporting structures: The mounting structures are parallel to the roof ridge and impede air
flow perpendicular to the ridge.
Module Width
Length of side of module parallel to the ground.
Module Height
SAM calculates this value by dividing the module area from the parameter library by the module width
that you specify.
Rows of modules in array
Assuming a rectangular array, the number of rows of modules, where a row is parallel to the line defined
by the Module Width variable.
Columns of modules in array
Assuming a rectangular array, the number of modules along the side perpendicular to the line defined
by the module width variable.

Note. The rows and columns of modules variables are independent of the similar variables on the Array
page and Shading page. Before running simulations, verify that the values on the different pages are
consistent.

Temperature behind the module

The indoor air temperature for the flush mounting configuration option. SAM assumes a constant indoor
air temperature.
Gap spacing
The distance between the back of the modules and the roof or wall surface for the gap mounting
configuration option.

Physical Characteristics
Material
A description of the semiconductor technology used in the photovoltaic cells.
1-a-Si: single-junction amorphous silicon
2-a-Si: dual-junction amorphous silicon
3-a-Si: triple-junction amorphous silicon
a-Si/nc: amorphous silicon - microcrystalline silicon tandem module
CdTe: cadmium telluride
CIGS: copper indium gallium sulfide

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 Photovoltaic Systems 91

CIS: copper indium diselenide

HIT-Si: amorphous silicon heterojunction
Mono-c-Si: single-crystal silicon
Multi-c-Si: multi-crystalline silicon
Module Area
The total area of the module, including spaces between cells and the frame.
Number of Cells
Number of cells per module.

Additional Parameters
T_noct
Nominal operating cell temperature
A_ref
Modified ideality factor at reference conditions
I_L_ref
Photocurrent at reference conditions
I_o_ref
Reverse saturation current at reference conditons
R_s
Series resistance (constant)
R_sh_ref
Shunt resistance at reference conditions

References
A link to De Soto W, 2004. Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance.
Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
You can find links to more documents in References.

Simple Efficiency Module

The flat-plate photovoltaic simple efficiency module model calculates the module's hourly DC output
assuming that the module efficiency varies with radiation incident on the module as defined by the radiation
level and efficiency table. The model makes an adjustment for cell temperature, See Temperature Correction
for details.

To use the simple efficiency module model:

1. On the Module page, choose Simple Efficiency Module.
2. Enter a temperature coefficient. This is the number typically reported on manufacturer specification
sheets as the maximum power coefficient. See Temperature Correction for suggested values.
3. Choose a module structure from the three available options (displayed as front material / cell / back
material). See Temperature Correction for details.

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Module manufacturers typically include a description of the front material, and frame or back
material in a mechanical characteristics section of module specification sheets.
4. Enter the module's total cell area in square meters, equivalent to the product of the cell area and
number of cells.
5. In the Radiation Level and Efficiency Table, enter an efficiency value for each of the five incident
global radiation reference values in increasing order. If you are defining the efficiency curve with
fewer than five efficiency values, you must include five radiation values, but you can assign the
same efficiency value to more than one radiation value. For example, to represent a module with
13.5% constant efficiency, you would assign the value 13.5 to each of the five radiation values 200,
400, 600, 850, 1000.
6. Choose the radiation level that represents the reference value, often 1000 W/m2 for flat-plate
modules.
SAM uses the reference value to calculate the module's rated power, displayed as the Power
variable on the Module page.

Characteristics
The module characteristics define the module's capacity, efficiency, and thermal characteristics.
Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc
The module's rated maximum DC power at the reference radiation indicated in the radiation level and
efficiency table. SAM uses this value to calculate the array cost on the PV System Costs page, but not
in simulation calculations. The module power is the product of the reference radiation, reference
efficiency, and area.
Temperature Coefficient (Pmp), %/C
The rated maximum-power temperature coefficient as specified in the module's technical specifications.
See Temperature Correction for details.
Area, m2
The module collector area in square meters. To calculate the area for a given module power rating at a
given reference radiation level, divide the power rating by the module efficiency and radiation level. For
example, a module with a 100 W rating and 13.5% efficiency at 1000 W/m2 would requires an area of
100 W / (0.135 × 1000 W/m2) = 0.74074 m2.
Module Structure and Mounting
The module's front and back materials (front material/cell/back material) used in the temperature
correction algorithm described below. See Temperature Correction for details.

Radiation Level and Efficiency Table

Radiation (W/m2)
The incident global (beam and diffuse) radiation level at which the given efficiency value applies.
Efficiency (%)
The module conversion efficiency at a given incident global radiation level. SAM calculates an efficiency
value for each hour in the simulation using linear extrapolation to determine the value based on radiation
data from the weather file. The efficiency values represent the efficiency of conversion from incident
global radiation to DC electrical output.

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 Photovoltaic Systems 93

Reference
Indicates the value to use for the reference calculations. SAM uses the reference values to calculate the
module's rated power on which module costs are based.
For each hour of the year, the flat-plate single-point efficiency model calculates the module DC output as
the product of the total incident global radiation, module area, and temperature correction factor:

Where,
ETotalIncident (W/m2) Total incident radiation from the Climate model.

AModule (m2) The module area in square meters.

n Module Module efficiency at a given incident global radiation level, calculated by
extrapolating values from the Radiation Level and Efficiency Table.
FTempCorr Temperature correction factor. See Temperature Correction for details.

Concentrating PV Module
The Concentrating PV Module model uses a simple algorithm that calculates the module's hourly DC output
by multiplying the hourly direct normal component of the solar radiation data from the weather file by the
module's area and efficiency as specified on the Module page, and makes a correction for the cell's
temperature.

Note. If you are modeling the Entech 22X Concentrator (c-Si), you can use the Sandia PV Array
Performance model instead of the Simple Efficiency model. The Entech module is modeled using a set
of coefficients determined by analyzing field test measurements. To use the Entech module, choose the
Sandia model option and select the Entech 22X Concentrator [1994] module from the list of available
modules.

To use the Concentrating PV module model:

1. On the Module page, choose Concentrating PV Module.
2. Enter a temperature coefficient. This is the number typically reported on manufacturer specification
sheets as the maximum power coefficient. See Temperature Correction for suggested values.
3. Enter the module's total collector area in square meters.
4. If you have a set of temperature correction coefficients, enter values for a, b, and dT. If you do not
have a set of values, use the default values (click Default Temperature Inputs to populate the
variables with their default values). See Temperature Correction for details.
5. In the Radiation Level and Efficiency Table, enter an efficiency value for each of the five incident
global radiation reference values in increasing order. If you are defining the efficiency curve with
fewer than five efficiency values, you must include five radiation values, but you can assign the
same efficiency value to more than one radiation value. For example, to represent a module with
20% constant efficiency, you would assign the value 20 to each of the five radiation values 200,
400, 600, 850, 1000.

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Concentrating PV Module Characteristics

Maximum Power (Pmp), Wdc
The module's rated maximum DC power at the reference radiation value indicated in the efficiency table
below. SAM uses this value to calculate the array cost shown on the PV System Costs page, but not
in simulation calculations. The rated module power is the product of the reference radiation, reference
efficiency and area.
Temperature Coefficient (Pmp), %/C
The rated maximum-power temperature coefficient as specified in the module's technical specifications.
The default value is -0.15. See Temperature Correction for details.
Area, m2
The module collector area in square meters.
a, b, and dT
Temperature correction coefficients, a=-3.2, b=-0.09, dT=17 by default. See Temperature Correction for
details.
Default Temperature Inputs
Resets the a, b, and dT coefficients to their default values.
Cell Temperature
The calculated cell temperature at the reference radiation level specified in the Radiation Level and
Efficiency Table. See Temperature Correction for a description of the equations used for the calculation.

Radiation Level and Efficiency Table

Radiation (W/m2)
The incident beam radiation level at which the given efficiency value applies.
Efficiency (%)
The module conversion efficiency at a given incident global radiation level and cell temperature shown
under Concentrating PV Module Characteristics.
Duing simulations, SAM calculates an efficiency value for each hour in the simulation using linear
extrapolation to determine the value based on radiation data from the weather file. The efficiency values
represent the efficiency of conversion from incident global radiation to DC electrical output.
Reference
Indicates which value to use for the reference calculations.
The module's hourly DC output is the product of the hour's direct normal solar radiation from the weather file
as defined on the Climate page, collector area, and module efficiency from the Module page:

Where,
Pmp,CPVModule (Wdc) The module's average DC electric output for the hour.
EDirectNormal (W/m2) The direct normal solar radiation from weather processor.

ACollector (m2) The collector area in square meters.

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n Module The module's conversion efficiency at the incident beam radiation for the current
hour, extrapolated from the efficiency curve defined by the table on the Module
page.
FTempCorr Temperature correction factor. See Temperature Correction for details.

Temperature Correction (Except CEC Model)

The Sandia, Simple Efficiency, and Concentrating PV models all use the temperature correction algorithm
originally developed for the Sandia model to calculate a temperature correction factor that accounts for
efficiency losses due to heating of the module during the day when the sun is shining. The algorithm
calculates an hourly module temperature as a function of the solar radiation, ambient temperature, and wind
speed in a given hour, and a set of properties describing the thermal characteristics of the cell and module.
The CEC model provides two options for calculating cell temperature. See CEC Performance Model for more
information.
For more details about the algorithm, see King et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia
National Laboratories. SAND2004-3535. [Link]
The CEC model uses a different temperature correction algorithm. For a description of the CEC temperature
correction approach, see De Soto 2004, Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array
Performance, Master of Science Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
[Link].

Note. The SAM temperature correction algorithms do not account for cooling strategies used in some
innovative photovoltaic systems.

Guidelines for choosing the Module Structure - Mounting (a, b, dT) parameters
The a, b, and dT parameters determine the relationship between ambient temperature and module
temperature. See the equations below for details.
For the Sandia and Simple Efficiency models for flat-plate modules, you can choose from a set of pre-
determined values of the parameters for different module mounting options, or specify your own values for
the parameters. For the Concentrating PV model, you can assign a set values to the parameters, or specify
your own.
For most analyses involving flat-plate modules mounted on open racks, choose Use Database Values.
These are the values determined empirically during testing of the module. Most of the modules in the
database were tested on open racks.
To see how a flat-plate module might perform under different mounting conditions, choose an
appropriate option from the list. Be sure to choose an option that is consistent with the module you are
modeling. You may need to refer to the module's specification sheet for information about its structure.
For the Concentrating PV model, use the default values (click Default Temperature Inputs) unless
you have a set of a, b, and dT values for your module. See the equations below for details.
If you understand the Sandia model well enough to generate your own temperature correction
coefficients, choose User Defined, and type your own values for a, b, and dT. See the equations below
for details.

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Table 5. Description of the module structure and mounting options.

Module Structure Description
and Mounting
Solar cells are between a glass front and polymer back, and the module
Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet
is mounted on an open rack allowing air to circulate freely around the
Open Rack
module.
Solar cells are between a glass front and glass back, and the module is
Glass/Cell/Glass
mounted on an open rack allowing air to circulate freely around the
Open Rack
module.
Solar cells are between a transparent polymer front and steel back, and
Polymer/Thin Film/Steel
the module is mounted on an open rack allowing air to circulate freely
Open Rack
around the module.
Solar cells are between a glass front and polymer back, and the module
Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet
is mounted directly to a building surface in a building-integrated PV
Insulated Back
(BIPV) application preventing air from flowing over the module back.
Solar cells are between a glass front and glass back, and the module is
Glass/Cell/Glass
mounted on a rack with little clearance between the building surface and
Close Roof Mount
module back allowing little air to flow over the module back.

Temperature Correction for Sandia, Simple Efficiency, and Concentrating PV

Models
SAM uses the method described below to calculate a module and cell temperature and temperature
correction factor for the Sandia, Simple Efficiency and Concentrating PV models. The model uses the
temperature correction factor to adjust each hour's module efficiency value: The higher the module's
temperature in a given hour, the lower the module's efficiency in that hour.
You can explore temperature effects on the array's performance in the hourly output data. The data shows
the hourly cell temperature, along with the solar radiation, wind speed, and ambient temperature.
The temperature correction equations use the following input values from the Module page:
Temperature coefficients. The Sandia model uses the four values listed in the Temperature Coefficients
column. The Simple Efficiency and Concentrating PV models use the single temperature coefficient of
power value.
Temperature correction coefficients: a , b , and dT. For the Sandia and Simple Efficiency models, the
three values appear under the Module Structure - Mounting option. For the Concentrating PV model, the
values appear below the temperature coefficient variable.
The equations use four hourly data sets from the weather file. You can see the hourly data by either viewing
the climate data from the Climate page, or viewing the hourly results data after running simulations:
Incident direct normal radiation
Incident diffuse radiation
Ambient temperature
Wind speed

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Table 6. Empirically-determined coefficients from the Sandia database for each of the
module structure and mounting options available on the Module page.
Module Structure dT
and Mounting a b ºC
Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet
-3.56 -0.0750 3
Open Rack
Glass/Cell/Glass
-3.47 -0.0594 3
Open Rack
Polymer/Thin Film/Steel
-3.58 -0.113 3
Open Rack
Glass/Cell/Polymer Sheet
-2.81 -0.0455 0
Insulated Back
Glass/Cell/Glass
-2.98 -0.0471 1
Close Roof Mount
Concentrating PV Module -3.2 -0.09 17
User Defined -99 0 0

Note. The default values for the User Defined option effectively remove temperature correction from the
model so that the cell temperature is equal to the ambient temperature.

Table 7. Sample temperature coefficient values for different cell types based on an
informal survey of manufacturer module specifications.
Cell Type Maximum Power Temperature Coefficient (%/°C)
Monocrystalline Silicon -0.49
Polycrystalline Silicon -0.49
Amorphous Silicon -0.24
Amorphous Silicon Triple Junction -0.21
Copper Indium Gallium DiSelenide (CIGS) -0.45
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) -0.25

Temperature Correction Equations

The temperature correction algorithm first calculates the module back temperature based on the incident
solar radiation, a and b coefficients, and the ambient temperature and wind speed:

Note. SAM assumes that the ambient temperature and wind speed data in the weather file are mid-hour
values and that the radiation values are end-of-hour values. SAM interpolates temperature and wind
speed values by averaging the current hour value with the previous hour value.

Next, the cell temperature is calculated based on the module back temperature, incident radiation, and dT:

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The temperature correction factor FTempCorr is:

In general, the temperature corrected module power is the the product of the power calculated by the
module model and the temperature correction factor. Each module model (Sandia, Simple Efficiency,
Concentrating PV) uses a different algorithm to calculate the module power before temperature correction:

Where,
EIncident (W/m2) The sum of the direct normal and diffuse radiation for the current hour in the
weather data. SAM determines this value based on the data in the weather file.
E0 (W/m2) The reference total incident radiation, equal to 1000 W/m2.
Tref (°C) The reference temperature in degrees Celsius, equal to 25°C.
gamma (%/°C) The maximum power temperature coefficient from Module page.
a, b Values from the Module page. They are empirically-determined coefficients
accounting for the effect of wind on the module temperature: a defines the module
temperature upper limit (at low wind speed and high solar radiation levels), and b
defines the rate at which module temperature decreases as wind speed increases.
The values depend on the module's construction, which determines its ability to
absorb and shed heat. See the table above for typical values.
dT Value from the Module page. The temperature difference between the cell and
module back surface at the reference incident radiation of 1000 W/m2. The value
depends on how the module is mounted in the system, which determines how
much air comes into contact with the module back surface. See the table above
for typical values.
vWind (m/s) Wind speed from the weather file in meters per second.
TAmbient (°C) Ambient temperature from weather file.
FTempCorr Temperature correction factor
PBeforeTempCorr Module power before temperature correction
PTempCorr Temperature-corrected module power

3.3.6 Inverter
The Inverter page allows you to choose an inverter performance model and either choose an inverter from a
list or to specify the inverter capacity and efficiency. SAM assumes that the system consists of one or
more of the same type of inverter. Specify the number of inverters in the system on the Array page.

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To view the Inverter page, click Inverter on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the Inverter
page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics -
SAM Performance Models.

Contents
Overview describes the two inverter model options and how to choose one for your
analysis.
Sandia Inverter Performance Model describes the Sandia describes the model in
more detail and explains the meanings of the input variables.
Single-point Efficiency Inverter Model describes in the input variables and
algorithms for the single-point efficiency model for inverters.
Modeling Microinverters provides instructions for modeling systems with
microinverters.

Overview
The Inverter page allows you to choose an inverter performance model from two options, and displays the
characteristics of the of the inverter.
On the Inverter page, you specify the characteristics of a single inverter. To enter the number of inverters in
the system, use the input variables on the Array page. SAM calculates the AC output of the total number of
inverters in the system based on the DC output of the photovoltaic array calculated by the module
performance model.
The current version of SAM includes two inverter performance models, the Sandia Performance Model for
Grid-Connected PV Inverters model and the single-point efficiency model. The Sandia model allows you to
choose an inverter from a list of commercially-available inverters. The single-point efficiency model allows
you to model inverters that are not in the list.

To specify an inverter model:

1. Choose the model name from the list.

2. For the Sandia model, choose an inverter from the database of available models.
For the Single Point Efficiency Model, enter inverter characteristics.

Sandia Inverter Performance Model

The Sandia Performance Model for Grid-Connected PV Inverters is an empirically-based performance model
that uses parameters from a database of commercially available inverters maintained by Sandia National
Laboratory. The parameters are based on manufacturer specifications and laboratory measurements for a
range of inverter types.

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The Sandia model consists of a set of equations that SAM uses to calculate the inverter's hourly AC output
based on the DC input (equivalent to the derated output of the photovoltaic array) and a set of empirically-
determined coefficients that describe the inverter's performance characteristics. The equations involve a set
of coefficients that have been empirically determined based on data from manufacturer specification sheets
and either field measurements from inverters installed in operating systems, or laboratory measurements
using the California Energy Commission (CEC) test protocol.
Because SAM does not track voltage levels in the system, it assumes that for each hour of the simulation,
the inverter operates at the photovoltaic array's maximum power point voltage, given the solar resource data
in the weather file for that hour.

Note. If you are an inverter manufacturer and would like to add your module to the Sandia database, you
should contact the California Energy Commission or Sandia National Laboratories directly.

The Sandia inverter model is described in King D et al, 2007. Performance Model for Grid-Connected
Photovoltaic Inverters. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND2007-5036. [Link]
sand_doc/2007/[Link]
The CEC inverter test protocol is described in Bower W et al, 2004. Performance Test Protocol for
Evaluating Inverters Used in Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems. [Link]
htm

To use the Sandia inverter model:

[Link] the Inverter page, choose Sandia Performance Model for Grid Connected PV Inverters.
[Link] an inverter from the list of available inverters. SAM displays the inverter's characteristics
and model coefficients for your reference.
If you are modeling an inverter not included in the database and want to use the Sandia model, you
can try to find an inverter with similar characteristics to your inverter's specifications.
Each inverter listing shows the manufacturer name, model number and AC voltage rating, and information in
brackets about the organization responsible for generating the test data and the year the data was
generated. "CEC" indicates that test data was generated by the California Energy Commission.

Inverter Characteristics
When you select an inverter from the Sandia database on the Inverter page, SAM displays the inverter's
parameters for your reference. You can see the complete set of parameters in the Inverter library by using
SAM's library editor.
The Sandia inverter library includes parameters for modules that have been tested by Sandia National
Laboratory. Manufacturers wishing to add their inverters to the Sandia database should contact Sandia
National Laboratory directly. Because the parameters involve data from field and test measurements, it is
not possible to generate parameters based only on manufacturer specifications.
The following table describes the parameters in the Sandia inverter library, which are explained in more
detail in the King 2004 reference cited above.
AC Voltage (Vac)
Rated output AC voltage from manufacturer specifications.
Power ACo (Wac)
Maximum output AC power at reference or nominal operating conditions. Available from manufacturer
specifications.

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 Photovoltaic Systems 101

Power DCo (Wdc)

Input DC power level at which the inverter's output is equal to the maximum AC power level. Available
from manufacturer specifications.
PowerSo (Wdc)
DC power required for the inverter to start converting DC electricity to AC. Also called the inverter's self-
consumption power. Sometimes available from manufacturer specifications, and not to be confused with
the nighttime AC power consumption.
PowerNTare (Wac)
AC power consumed by the inverter at night to operate voltage sensing circuitry when the photovoltaic
array is not generating power. Available from manufacturer specifications.
Vdcmax (Vdc)
The inverter's maximum DC input voltage.
Idcmax (Adc)
The maximum DC voltage input, typically at or near the photovoltaic array's maximum power point
current.
Coefficient 0 (1/V)
Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the relationship between AC and DC power levels at the
reference operating condition.
Coefficient 1 (1/V)
Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the value of the maximum DC power level.
Coefficient 2 (1/V)
Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the value of the self-consumption power level.
Coefficient 3 (1/V)
Empirically-determined coefficient that defines the value of Coefficient 0.
MPPT-low (Vdc)
Manufacturer-specified minimum DC operating voltage, as described in CEC test protocol (see
reference above).
Vdco (Vdc)
The average of MPPT-low and MPPT-high, as described in the CEC test protocol (see reference above).
MPPT-hi (Vdc)
Manufacturer-specified maximum DC operating voltage, as described in CEC test protocol (see
reference above). The test protocol specifies that the inverter's maximum DC voltage should not exceed
80% of the array's maximum allowable open circuit voltage.

Single Point Efficiency Inverter Model

The inverter single-point efficiency model calculates the inverter's AC output by multiplying the DC input
(equivalent to the array's derated DC output) by a fixed DC-to-AC conversion efficiency that you specify on
the Inverter page. Unlike the Sandia inverter model, the single-point efficiency model assumes that the
inverter's efficiency does not vary under different operating conditions.

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To use the single-point efficiency inverter performance model:

On the Inverter page, choose Single Point Efficiency Inverter.
1. Enter the inverter's rated AC power output in Watts. This information is available on manufacturer
specifications sheets.
2. Enter the inverter's conversion efficiency as a percentage.
Note that manufacturer specifications may include both a peak efficiency, which is the inverter's
maximum efficiency; and a CEC weighted efficiency value, which is an average value that better
represents the efficiency over a range of operating conditions.
SAM calculates the inverter's rated DC power input using the following equation:
Power DC (Wdc) = Power AC (Wac) / Efficiency (%)

Modeling Microinverters
The Sandia inverter model's library includes measured coefficients for several Enphase microinverters.
A microinverter is an inverter designed to be connected to a single module. A PV system with
microinverters has a single inverter for each module, rather than the more traditional single inverter
connected to the array or to individual string of modules. Microinverters track each module’s maximum
power point independently, and minimize shading and module mismatch losses associated with string
inverters.

Notes.

SAM assumes that all modules in the array operate at their maximum power point. The derate factor
associated with module mismatch losses is an input on the Array page. When you model a system with
microinverters, you should change the mismatch derate factor to 100% as described in the procedure
below.

SAM's self shading model on the Shading page does not account for MPPT tracking of individual
modules and is not suitable for use with microinverters.

For an example of a PV system with microinverters, see the Sample PV Systems sample file, which
includes a 3.22 kWdc residential system with the Enphase M210 microinverter paired with SunPower SPR-
230 230 Wdc modules.

To model a system with using microinverters in SAM:

1. Choose an Enphase inverter from the Sandia Inverter list.
2. On the Module page, choose a module matched with the microinverter.
For the Enphase microinverters, choose a module with rated maximum DC power ratings (Pmp) in
the range of 200-240 Wdc, and a nominal maximum power DC voltage (Vmp) in the 30-60 Vdc
range.
Consult the Enphase datasheet for more specific details.
3. On the Array page, choose the Specify number of modules and inverters mode.
4. For Modules per String, enter 1.
5. To calculate the number of Strings in Parallel, divide the system's nameplate capacity by the
module maximum power rating (Pmp) from the Module page:

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Strings in Parallel = System Nameplate Capacity (Wdc) / Module Maximum Power (Wdc)
6. For Number of Inverters, enter the value you calculated for the number of strings in parallel:
Number of Inverters = Strings in Parallel
7. Under System Derates, for Mismatch, enter 100.
Microinverters avoid system losses due to module-to-module mismatch.
8. On the PV System Costs, be sure that the inverter cost is appropriate for the microinverter.
9. On the Shading page, clear the Enable Self-Shading Calculator check box.

3.4 Generic System

3.4.1 Generic System Overview

The generic system model is a basic representation of a conventional fossil-fuel power plant. The Generic
technology option makes it possible to compare analyses of photovoltaic and concentrating power systems
to a base case conventional fossil fuel plant in the residential, commercial and central generation markets.
This section describes the system input pages that are available when the technology option in the
Technology and Market window is Generic Fossil System.

To use the generic system model:

1. Start SAM.
2. Under Enter a new project name to begin, type a name for your project. For example, "Gas
Power System."
3. Click Create New File.
4. Under 1. Select a technology, click Generic System.
5. Under 2. Select a financing option, click an appropriate financing option.
6. Click OK.
SAM creates a new .zsam file with a single case populated with default input values for a 100 MW
system.
Fossil System Costs
Fossil Plant
User Variables

3.4.2 Generic Plant

To view the Fossil Plant page, click Fossil Plant on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
generic fossil system input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market
window must be Generic Fossil System.
The parameters for the generic fossil system are for a simple model of a fossil fuel power plant. Unlike the

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photovoltaic and concentrating solar power models, the generic model is not based on an hourly simulation
engine. The first year annual energy output of the generic plant is based on a simple equation using the four
System variables: Nameplate Capacity, Capacity Factor, Availability, and Derate.
The First Year Annual Generation is calculated using the following equation:

Where,
EFirstYearOutput (kW) First Year Annual Generation: The generic system's total output in the first year,
before annual degradation applies.
ENamePlate (%) Nameplate Capacity: The rated capacity of the generic system.
FCapacityFactor (%) Capacity Factor: The expected net generated electricity over one year (8760 hours)
divided by the electricity that could have been generated at continuous full rated
power over the year. Base load plants typically operate at capacity factors of about
90%, with capacity factors of less than 100% due to curtailed output. Load
following plants and peaking plants will have lower capacity factors.
FAvailability (%) The Availability factor from the Annual Performance page: the number of hours per
year that the generic system is able to produce electricity divided by the number of
hours in one year (8760 hours). Availability factors of less than 100% are typically
due to plant down time for maintenance and repair.
FDerate (%) A derating factor applied to the generic system rated capacity to account for
output reductions caused by inefficiencies in the system from wiring losses or
other causes.

SAM also applies the system degradation factor from the Annual Performance page to represent an annual
reduction in system output due to equipment aging that applies to year two and subsequent years.
The heat rate determines the cost of fuel reported as Fuel O&M Expense in year one of the project cash
flow, and accounted for in the output metrics reported on the Results page. SAM uses the heat rate to
calculate the first year fuel cost as follows:

Where,
CFirstYearFuel ($/yr) The total cost of fuel for year one of the project cash flow, shown as the Fuel
O&M Expense reported for Year 1 in the project cash flow.
CCostOfFuel ($/MMBtu) Cost of Fuel from the Fossil System Costs page.
FHeatRate (MMBtu/MWh) The generic system's heat rate, or conversion efficiency, equivalent to the
number of MMBtu of heat required to produce one MWh of electricity.
EFirstYearOutput () The generic system's total electricity output in the first year.

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3.5 Dish Stirling

A dish-Stirling system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that consists of a parabolic
dish-shaped collector, receiver and Stirling engine. The collector focuses direct normal solar radiation on the
receiver, which transfers heat to the engine's working fluid. The engine in turn drives an electric generator. A
dish-Stirling power plant can consist of a single dish or a field of dishes.
SAM's dish-Stirling performance model uses the TRNSYS implementation of the energy prediction model
described in the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008) [Link]
gov/analysis/sam/pdfs/thesis_fraser08.pdf (4.1 MB).
This user guide describes the dish-Stirling system input variables and some basic calculations in SAM,
and is intended to be used with the Fraser publication, which describes dish-Stirling systems and the model
algorithms in more detail.

To use the dish-Stirling model:

1. Start SAM.
2. Under Enter a new project name to begin, type a name for your project. For example, "Dish
Stirling System."
3. Click Create New File.
4. Under 1. Select a technology, click Concentrating Solar Power.
5. Click Dish Stirling System.
6. Under 2. Select a financing option, click an appropriate financing option.
7. Click OK.
SAM creates a new .zsam file with a single case populated with default input values for a 25 kW
system.
The dish-Stirling input pages are:
Dish System Costs
System Library
Solar Field
Collector
Receiver
Stirling Engine
Parasitics
Reference Inputs
User Variables

3.5.1 System Library

To view the System Library page, click System Library on the main window's navigation menu. Note that
for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must
be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.
For dish-Stirling systems, a complete set of default values for the parameters on the system pages (except

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costs) are stored in the system library. There is a set of default input values for two systems: SES and
WGA-ADDS. When you choose one of these systems, SAM populates the input pages with parameters
appropriate for the system. You can modify variable values on the input pages without affecting the values
stored in the library.

Note: These systems are discussed in the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model
(Fraser 2008) [Link] (4.1 MB).

3.5.2 Solar Field

To view the Solar Field page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.

Contents
Overview describes the Solar Field page and lists references for more detailed
information.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the solar field page.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the
calculated values on the Solar Field page.

Overview
The parameters on the Solar Field page define the size of the solar field and the layout of the dish network.
To explore the impact of these parameters on the system's costs and performance, change the value of the
parameter.
The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008)
[Link] (4.1 MB) are:
3.1 Parabolic Collector Model, p 63
Appendix A: TRNSYS Parabolic Collector Model, p 152

Input Variable Reference

Field Layout
The solar field is assumed to be a rectangular field with collectors oriented north-south and east-west.
Number of Collectors North-South
Number of collectors oriented along north-south lines. Used to calculate the total number of collectors.

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Number of Collectors East-West

Number of collectors oriented along east-west lines. Used to calculate the total number of collectors.
Number of Collectors
Total number of collectors in the field. Used to calculate the predicted system output, the shading
factor, and piping distance for pumping loss calculation.
Collector Separation North-South (m)
Center-to-center distance between collectors along north-south lines. Used to calculate the solar field
area, shading factor, and piping distance for pumping loss calculation.
Collector Separation East-West (m)
Center-to-center distance between collectors along east-west lines. Used to calculate the solar field
area, shading factor, and piping distance for pumping loss calculation.
Total Solar Field Area (m 2)
The total ground area occupied by the collectors. Used in area-related cost calculations.

System Properties
Wind Stow Speed (m/s)
When the wind velocity from the weather file for the current hour is greater than or equal to this value,
the concentrator moves into stow position to prevent wind damage. The solar power intercepted by the
receiver is zero during this hour.
Total Solar Field Capacity (kWe)
Nominal electric output capacity of the solar field. Used in capacity-related cost calculations.

Array Shading Parameters

SAM uses the shading parameters to calculate the shading of the concentrator mirror by the dish
components and by neighboring dish systems. SAM's approach to modeling shading is different from the
Osborn approach described in the Fraser thesis.
Ground Slope, North-South (%)
Slope of the ground in percent (rise over run) along a north-south line. A positive slope indicates that for
two dishes aligned north-south, the dish to the south is lower than the dish to the north. Used to
calculate shading factor.
Ground Slope,East-West (%)
Slope of the ground in percent (rise over run) along a east-west line. A positive slope indicates that for
two dishes aligned east-west, the dish to the east is lower than the dish to the west. Used to calculate
shading factor.
Slot Gap Width (m)
Average width of the slot in the mirror perpendicular to the vertical support post. Used to calculate
shading factor.
Slot Gap Height (m)
Average height of the slot in the mirror parallel to the vertical support post. Used to calculate shading
factor.

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Equations for Calculated Values

Number of Collectors
The total number of collectors is calculated based on the numbers of north-south and east-west oriented
collectors.

Where,
NColl Number of Collectors
NColl,N-S Number of Collectors North-South
NColl,E-W Number of Collectors East-West

Total Solar Field Area

The total solar field area is the product of the north-south and east west dish collector separation distances
and the number of collectors.

Where,
ASF (m2) Total Solar Field Area
d CollSep,N-S
Collector Separation North-South
(m)
d CollSep,E-W
Collector Separation East-West
(m)
NColl Number of Collectors

Total Capacity
The total solar field capacity is the product of the number of collectors and the engine nameplate capacity
on the Stirling Engine page.

Where,
PSF (W) Total Capacity
PEngine (W) Singe Unit Nameplate Capacity from the Stirling Engine page.
NColl Number of Collectors

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3.5.3 Collector
To view the Collector page, click Collector on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish
input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System

Contents
Overview describes the Collector page and lists references for more detailed
information.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Collector page.
Default Parameter Values shows a table of default values for different systems.

Overview
The collector consists of parabolic mirrors, a support structure, and two-axis tracking system. The mirrors
focus direct normal solar radiation on the aperture of the receiver. The receiver aperture size is typically
optimized to maximize the quantity of reflected solar radiation that enters the receiver and minimize
convection and radiation losses out of the aperture.
The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008)
[Link] (4.1 MB) are:
2.1 Parabolic Concentrator, p 7
3.1 Parabolic Collector Model, p 63
Appendix A: TRNSYS Parabolic Collector Model, p 150
Appendix A: TRNSYS Parasitic Power Model, p 158

Input Variable Reference

The parameters on the Collector page are used to calculate the power output of the collector. The
parameters are for a single dish collector, and are assumed to apply to each dish in the solar field.

Mirror Parameters
Projected Mirror Area (m 2)
Area of one concentrator's mirror projected on the aperture plane. Used to calculated the solar power
intercepted by the receiver, and the shading factor.
Total Mirror Area (m 2)
Area of mirrored parabolic surface. Used to calculate collector diameter, which is used in the rim angle
calculation and in the shading factor calculation.
Mirror Reflectance
The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular
reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular
reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as

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viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs,
typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0..906
(silvered polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface).

Performance
Insolation Cut In (W/m 2)
Direct normal radiation value above which the cooling system fan operates. Used to calculated parasitic
losses.

Default Parameter Values

Table 8. Collector default parameter values.
Variable SES WGA SBP SAIC
Projected Mirror Area 87.7 41.2 56.7 113.5
Total Mirror Area 91.0 42.9 60 117.2
Insolation Cut In 200 275 250 375
Wind Stow Speed 16 16 16 16
Receiver Aperture Diameter for Reference Intercept Factor 0.184 0.14 0.15 0.38
Reference Intercept Factor 0.995 0.998 0.93 0.90
Reference Focal Length of Mirror 7.45 5.45 4.5 12.0

3.5.4 Receiver
To view the Receiver page, click Receiver on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the dish
input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.

Contents
Overview describes the Receiver page and lists references for more detailed
information.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Receiver page.
Default Parameter Values shows a table of default values for different systems.

Overview
The receiver absorbs thermal energy from the parabolic concentrator and transfers the energy to the working
fluid of the Stirling engine. The receiver consists of an aperture and absorber. The receiver aperture is
located at the parabolic concentrator's focal point. The current version of SAM models one receiver type,

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direct illumination receivers, in which solar radiation is directly absorbed by absorber tubes containing the
working fluid. Direct illumination receivers are the receiver type most commonly used for dish-Stirling
systems.
The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008)
[Link] (4.1 MB) are:
2.2 Receiver, p 14
6.1 Modifying the Receiver Aperture Diameter, p 133
6.2 Receiver Cover versus no Cover, p 134
Appendix A: TRNSYS Receiver Model, p 153
SAM uses the receiver parameters to calculate thermal losses from the receiver, which typically account for
over 50% of the system's total losses. Other system losses include collector losses due to mirror
reflectivity, receiver intercept losses, and Stirling engine losses. Receiver thermal losses are due to
conduction, convection, and radiation:
Conductive losses through the receiver housing.
Natural convection from the cavity in the absence of wind.
Forced convection in the presence of wind.
Emission losses due to thermal radiation emitted from the receiver aperture.
Radiation losses reflected off of the receiver cavity surfaces and out of the receiver through the aperture.

Input Variable Reference

Aperture
Receiver Aperture Diameter (m)
Diameter of the opening in the receiver that allows solar radiation to reach the absorber, and radiation
and convection losses to escape the receiver cavity. Typical values range from 0.14 m to 0.20 m.

Insulation
Thickness (m)
Thickness of the receiver housing insulation. Typically about 75 mm. Used to calculate conduction
losses.
Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K)
Thermal conductivity of the receiver cavity wall at 550 degrees Celsius. For high-temperature ceramic
fiber, the value is 0.061 W/m-K. Used to calculate conduction losses.

Absorber
The absorber is a component of the receiver that absorbs solar radiation and transfers thermal energy to the
Stirling engine.
Absorber Absorptance
The ratio of energy absorbed by the receiver absorber to the solar radiation reaching the absorber. Used
to calculate radiation losses.

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Absorber Surface Area (m 2)
Area of the absorber surface. Used to calculate the internal cavity area.

Cavity
The cavity parameters determine the cavity's geometry. The internal cavity area is the sum of the cavity wall
surface area and absorber area and is used to calculate radiation, conduction and convection losses.
Cavity Absorptance
The ratio of energy absorbed by the cavity wall to radiation reaching it. Used to calculated reflected
radiation losses.
Cavity Surface Area (m 2)
Area of the cavity wall surface. Used to calculate the internal cavity area.
Internal diameter of the Cavity Perp. to Aperture (m)
Average diameter of the cavity perpendicular to the receiver aperture. Used to calculate the internal
cavity area.
Internal Cavity Pressure with Aperture covered (kPa)
Applies only to receivers with a cover. Used to calculate convection losses.
Internal Depth of the Cavity Perpendicular to the Aperture (m)
Equivalent to the cavity's characteristic length, which is used to calculate convection losses.

Default Parameter Values

Table 9. Receiver default parameter values.
Variable SES WGA SBP SAIC
Absorber Absorptance 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90
Absorber Surface Area 0.6 0.15 0.15 0.8
Cavity Wall Absorptance 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Cavity Wall Surface Area 0.6 0.15 0.15 0.8
Internal Diameter of the Cavity Perpendicular to the Receiver
0.46 0.35 0.37 0.5
Aperture
Internal Depth of the Cavity Perpendicular to the Aperture 0.46 0.35 0.37 0.5
Receiver Insulation Thickness 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.075
Insulation Thermal Conductivity 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
Delta Temp. for DIR Receiver 90 70 70 90

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3.5.5 Stirling Engine

To view the Stirling Engine page, click Stirling Engine on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for
the trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.

Contents
Overview describes the Stirling Engine page and lists references for more detailed
information.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Stirling Engine page.
Default Parameter Values shows a table of default values for different systems.

Overview
The Stirling engine converts heat from the receiver's absorber to mechanical power that drives an electric
generator.
The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008)
[Link] (4.1 MB) are:
2.3 Stirling Engine Design, p 29
2.4 Stirling Engine Analysis Methods, p 40
3.3 Stirling Engine/System Models, p 82
6 TRNSYS Model Performance Predictions, p 132
Appendix A: TRNSYS Stirling Engine and Generator Model, p 156
The Stirling engine model is based on the Beale curve-fit equation with temperature correction described in
Fraser (2008). The model calculates the average hourly engine power output in Watts as a function of the
Beale curve-fit equation, pressure curve-fit equation, the engine displacement and operating speed, and
expansion space (heater head) temperatures. The Beale curve-fit equation calculates the engine's gross
output power as a function of the input power calculated by the collector and receiver models. SAM
determines the compression space temperature from the ambient temperatures in the weather data file.

Input Variable Reference

Estimated Generation
Single Unit Nameplate Capacity (kW)
The nominal electrical power output of the engine-generator set for a single dish-Stirling unit. Used for
capacity-related cost calculations.

Engine Parameters
Heater Head Set Temperature (K)
Expansion space temperature set point.

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Heater Head Lowest Temperature
The expansion space temperature in an engine with multiple cylinders of the heater head with the
lowest temperature. The heater head temperature is equivalent to the expansion space temperature.
Engine Operating Speed (rpm)
The rotational speed of the engine drive shaft. Used to calculate the engine output power.
Displaced Engine Volume (m 3)
The volume displaced by the pistons. Used to calculate the engine output power.

Beale Curve Fit Coefficients

The Beale numbers are a set of coefficients for the Beale curve-fit equation that describes the engine's
power output as a function of its input power and the engine pressure.

Pressure Curve Fit Coefficients

The pressure curve-fit equation expresses the engine pressure as a function of engine input power for a
constant volume system.

Default Parameter Values

Table 10. Stirling engine default parameter values.
The following parameter values are based on values developed for the model. The SBP and SAIC engines
are not included in the SAM standard library and require a different set of equations (see Fraser 35).
Variable SES WGA SBP SAIC
Heater Head Set
993 903 903 993
Temperature
Heater Head Lowest
973 903 903 973
Temperature
Engine Operating
1800 1800 1800 2200
Speed
Displaced Engine -4 -4 -4 -4
3.80 × 10 1.60 × 10 1.60 × 10 4.80 × 10
Volume
Beale Constant -2 -2 -3 -2
4.247 × 10 8.50686 × 10 -1,82451 × 10 -1.6 × 10
Coefficient
Beale First-order -5 -5 -5 -5
1.682 × 10 1.94116 × 10 2.60289 × 10 1.5 × 10
Coefficient
Beale Second-order -10 -10 -10 -10
-5.105 × 10 -3.18449 × 10 -4.68164 × 10 -3.50 × 10
Coefficient
Beale Third-order -15 0 0 -15
7.07260 × 10 3.85 × 10
Coefficient
Beale Fourth-order -20 0 0 -20
-3.586 × 10 -1.6 × 10
Coefficient
Pressure Constant -1 -1 -2 -5
6.58769 × 10 -7.36342 × 10 -2.00284 × 10 3.47944 × 10
Coefficient

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 Dish Stirling 115

Pressure First-order -4 -4 -4 -9
2.34963 × 10 3.6416 × 10 3.52522 × 10 5.26329 × 10
Coefficient

3.5.6 Parasitics
To view the Parasitics Costs page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.

Contents
Overview describes the Parasitics page and lists references for more detailed
information.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Parasitics page.

Overview
The input variables on the Parasitics page are used to calculate the compression space temperature and
the electrical power consumption of pumps, cooling fans, and tracking controls.
The relevant sections of the thesis Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model (Fraser 2008)
[Link] (4.1 MB) are:
2.5 Cooling System, p 55
3.4 Cooling System Analysis for Total System Optimization, p 92
Appendix A: TRNSYS Parasitic Power Model, p 158

Input Variable Reference

Parasitic Parameters
Control System Parasitic Power, Avg. (W)
Average power required by the tracking control system.
Cooling System Pump Speed (rpm)
Cooling fluid pump operating speed. Used to calculated parasitic losses due to cooling fluid pumping.
Cooling System Fan Speed 1 (rpm)
Fan operating speed when the cooling fluid temperature is less than the fan speed 2 cut-in temperature
below.
Cooling System Fan Speed 2 (rpm)
Fan operating speed when the cooling fluid temperature is greater than the fan speed 2 cut-in and less
than fan speed 3 cut-in temperature below.

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Cooling System Fan Speed 3 (rpm)
Fan operating speed when the cooling fluid temperature is greater than fan speed 3 cut-in temperature
below.
Cooling Fluid Temp. for Fan Speed 2 Cut-In (°C)
Cooling fluid temperature set point. Used to determine fan operating speeds.
Cooling Fluid Temp. for Fan Speed 3 Cut-In (°C)
Cooling fluid temperature set point. Used to determine fan operating speeds.
Cooling Fluid Type
Fluid used in the cooling system. Options are water, 50% ethylene glycol (EG), 25% ethylene glycol,
40% propylene glycol (PG), and 40% propylene glycol. Percentages are by volume.
Cooler Effectiveness
Used to calculate working fluid temperatures in the cooling system as part of the compression space
temperature calculation.
Radiator Effectiveness
Used to calculate cooling fluid temperature at the cooling system outlet as part of the compression
space temperature calculation.

3.5.7 Reference Inputs

To view the Reference Inputs page, click Reference Inputs on the main window's navigation menu. Note
that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.

Contents
Overview describes the Reference Inputs page and lists references for more detailed
information.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Reference Inputs
page.
Parasitic Variable Reference Conditions lists the reference conditions for different
systems.

Overview
SAM uses the reference condition parameters in an iterative process to calculate the total collector error for
a given set of values for the aperture diameter, focal length, and collector diameter. Once the collector error
is calculated, that value can be used to calculate a new intercept factor for different aperture diameters (See
Fraser, p 150-151).

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 Dish Stirling 117

Input Variable Reference

Collector Reference Condition Inputs
Intercept Factor
Fraction of energy reflected from the parabolic mirror that enters the receiver aperture. The intercept
factor can be increased by increasing the concentration ratio or by increasing the size of the aperture.
Intercept factors typically range between 0.94 and 0.99.
Focal Length of Mirror (m)
Parabolic mirror focal length.

Parasitic Variable Reference Conditions

The reference condition parameters given in the table below and as user inputs in SAM are used in the
pump law calculations that are part of the parasitic loss equations.
Variable SES WGA SBP SAIC
Pump Parasitic
150 100 175 300
Power
Pump Speed (rpm) 1800 1800 1800 1800
Cooling Fluid Type 50% EG 50% EG water 50% EG
Cooling Fluid
288 288 288 288
Temperature (K)
Cooling Fluid
Volumetric Flow 9 7.5 7.5 12
Rate (gal/min)
Cooling System Fan
1000 410 510 2500
Test Power (W)
Cooling System Fan
890 890 890 850
Test Speed (rpm)
Fan Air Density
1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
(kg/m3)
Fan Volumetric Flow
6000 4000 4500 10000
Rate (CFM)

3.6 Parabolic Trough Empirical

A parabolic trough system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that collects direct normal
solar radiation and converts it to thermal energy that runs a power block to generate electricity. The
components of a parabolic trough system are the solar field, power block, and in some cases, thermal
energy storage and fossil backup systems. The solar field collects heat from the sun and consists of
parabolic, trough-shaped solar collectors that focus direct normal solar radiation onto tubular receivers.

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Each collector assembly consists of mirrors and a structure that supports the mirrors and receivers, allows
it to track the sun on one axis, and can withstand wind-induced forces. Each receiver consists of a metal
tube with a solar radiation absorbing surface in a vacuum inside a coated glass tube. A heat transfer fluid
(HTF) transports heat from the solar field to the power block (also called power cycle) and other
components of the system. The power block is based on conventional power cycle technology, using a
turbine to convert thermal energy from the solar field to electric energy. The optional fossil-fuel backup
system delivers supplemental heat to the HTF during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive
the power block at its rated capacity.
The empirical parabolic trough model uses a set of equations based on empirical analysis of data collected
from installed systems (the SEGS projects in the southwestern United States) to represent the performance
of parabolic trough components. The model is based on Excelergy, a model initially developed for inernal
use at at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. For information about the physical parabolic trough
model, see Parabolic Trough Physical.

Note. Many of the input variables in the parabolic trough model are interrelated and should be changed
together. For example, the storage capacity, which is expressed in hours of thermal storage, should not
be changed without changing the tank heat loss value, which depends on the size of the storage
system. Some of these relationships are described in this documentation, but not all. If you have
questions about parabolic trough input variables, please contact SAM Support at [Link].
support@[Link].

To use the parabolic trough empirical model:

[Link] SAM.
[Link] Enter a new project name to begin, type a name for your project. For example,
"Parabolic Trough System."
3. Click Create New File.
4. Under 1. Select a technology, click Concentrating Solar Power.
5. Click Empirical Trough System.
6. Under 2. Select a financing option, click an appropriate financing option. You may want to start
with the Utility Independent Power Producer (IPP) option.
7. Click OK.
SAM creates a new .zsam file with a single case populated with default input values for a 100 MW
parabolic trough system.
The parabolic trough input pages for this option described in this section are:
Trough System Costs
Solar Field
SCA / HCE (solar collector assembly / heat collection element)
Power Block
Thermal Storage
Parasitics
User Variables

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3.6.1 Solar Field

To view the Solar Field page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the Solar Field page and where to find more information about
the solar field model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Solar
Field page.
Choosing the Field Layout Mode explains the two field layout options: Solar
multiple and solar field area.
About the Solar Multiple Reference Conditions explains how to choose an
appropriate reference direct normal radiation value for a given location.
About the Heat Transfer Fluid Properties explains the role of the heat transfer fluid
in the system and describes the properties of the HTFs available in the default
library.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the
calculated values on the Solar Field page.

Overview
The Solar Field page displays variables and options that describe the size and properties of the solar field,
properties of the heat transfer fluid, reference design specifications of the solar field, and collector
orientation.
For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the
SAM website's support page: [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Field Layout
Option 1: Solar Multiple and Option 2: Solar Field Area
For option 1, (solar multiple mode), SAM calculates the solar field area and displays it in Solar Field
Area (calc). For option 2 (solar field area mode), SAM calculates the solar multiple and displays it in
Solar Multiple (calc). Note that SAM does not use the value that appears dimmed for the inactive
option.
Distance Between SCAs in Row (m)
The end-to-end distance in meters between SCAs (solar collection elements, or collectors) in a single
row, assuming that SCAs are laid out uniformly in all rows of the solar field. SAM uses this value to

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calculate the end loss. This value is not part of the SCA library on the SCA / HCE page, and should be
verified manually to ensure that it is appropriate for the SCA type that appears on the SCA / HCE page.
Row spacing, center-to-center (m)
The centerline-to-centerline distance in meters between rows of SCAs, assuming that rows are laid out
uniformly throughout the solar field. SAM uses this value to calculate the row-to-row shadowing loss
factor. This value is not part of the SCA library, and should be verified manually to ensure that it is
appropriate for the SCA type that appears on the SCA / HCE page.
Number of SCAs per Row
The number of SCAs in each row, assuming that each row in the solar field has the same number of
SCAs. SAM uses this value in the SCA end loss calculation.
Deploy Angle (degrees)
The SCA angle during the hour of deployment. A deploy angle of zero for a northern latitude is vertical
facing due east. SAM uses this value along with sun angle values to determine whether the current hour
of simulation is the hour of deployment, which is the hour before the first hour of operation in the
morning. SAM assumes that this angle applies to all SCAs in the solar field.
Stow Angle (degrees)
The SCA angle during the hour of stow. A stow angle of zero for a northern latitude is vertical facing
east, and 180 degrees is vertical facing west. SAM uses this value along with the sun angle values to
determine whether the current hour of simulation is the hour of stow, which is the hour after the final
hour of operation in the evening.

Heat Transfer Fluid

Solar Field HTF Type
Name of the heat transfer fluid type. The Minimum HTF Temp value depends on the HTF type. The
available fluid types are limited to those described in the HTF Properties section.
Property table for user-defined HTF
When the Solar Field HTF type is "User-defined," click Edit to enter properties of a custom HTF.
Solar Field Inlet Temp (ºC)
Design temperature of the solar field inlet in degrees Celsius used to calculate design solar field
average temperature, and design HTF enthalpy at the solar field inlet. SAM also limits the solar field
inlet temperature to this value during operation and solar field warm up, and uses this value to calculate
the actual inlet temperature when the solar field energy is insufficient for warm-up.
Solar Field Outlet Temp (ºC)
Design temperature of the solar field outlet in degrees Celsius, used to calculate design solar field
average temperature. It is also used to calculate the design HTF enthalpy at the solar field outlet,
which SAM uses to determine whether solar field is operating or warming up. SAM also uses this value
to calculate the actual inlet temperature when the solar field energy is insufficient for warm-up.
Solar Field Initial Temp (ºC)
Initial solar field inlet temperature. The solar field inlet temperature is set to this value for hour one of the
simulation.
Piping Heat Losses @ Design Temp (W/m 2)
Solar field piping heat loss in Watts per square meter of solar field area when the difference between the

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average solar field temperature and ambient temperature is 316.5ºC. Used in solar field heat loss
calculation. See Equations for Calculated Values for details.
Piping Heat Loss Coeff (1-3)
These three values are used with the solar field piping heat loss at design temperature to calculate solar
field piping heat loss. See Equations for Calculated Values for details.
Solar Field Piping Heat Losses (W/m 2)
Design solar field piping heat losses. This value is used only in the solar field size equations. This
design value different from the hourly solar field pipe heat losses calculated during simulation. See
Equations for Calculated Values for details.
Minimum HTF Temp (ºC)
Minimum heat transfer fluid temperature in degrees Celsius. SAM automatically populates the value
based on the properties of the solar field HTF type, i.e., changing the HTF type changes the minimum
HTF temperature. The value determines when freeze protection energy is required, is used to calculate
HTF enthalpies for the freeze protection energy calculation, and is the lower limit of the average solar
field temperature.
HTF Gallons Per Area (gal/m 2)
Volume at 25°C of HTF per square meter of solar field area, used to calculate the total mass of HTF in
the solar field, which is used to calculate solar field temperatures and energies during hourly
simulations. The volume includes fluid in the entire system including the power block and storage
system if applicable. Example values are: SEGS VI: 115,000 gal VP-1 for a 188,000 m2 solar field is
0.612 gal/m2, SEGS VIII 340,500 gal VP-1 and 464,340 m2 solar field is 0.733 ga/m2.

Solar Multiple (Design Point)

Note. The ambient temperature, direct normal radiation, and wind velocity reference variables differ from
the hourly weather data that SAM uses for system output calculations. SAM uses the reference ambient
condition variables to size the solar field. Hourly data from the weather file shown on the Climate page
determine the solar resource at the site.

Solar Multiple (calc)

The solar field area expressed as a multiple of the exact area (see "Exact Area" below). SAM uses the
calculated solar multiple value to calculate the design solar field thermal energy and the maximum
thermal energy storage charge rate.
Solar Field Area (calc) (m 2)
The solar field area expressed in square meters. SAM uses this value in the delivered thermal energy
calculations. The solar field area is the total collection aperture area, which is less than the mirror area.
The solar field area does not include space between collectors or the land required by the power block.
Ambient Temp (ºC)
Reference ambient temperature in degrees Celsius. Used to calculate the design solar field pipe heat
losses.
Direct Normal Radiation (W/m 2)
Reference direct normal radiation in Watts per square meter. Used to calculate the solar field area that
would be required at this insolation level to generate enough thermal energy to drive the power block at
the design turbine thermal input level. SAM also uses this value to calculate the design HCE heat

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losses displayed on the SCA / HCE page. The appropriate value depends on the system location. For
example, 950 W/m2 is an appropriate value for the Mohave Desert and typical locations under
consideration for development in the U.S., and 800 W/m2 is appropriate for southern Spain. See below
for more information.
Wind Velocity (m/s)
Reference wind velocity in meters per second. SAM uses this value to calculate the design HCE heat
losses displayed on the SCA / HCE page.
Exact Area (m 2)
The solar field area required to deliver sufficient solar energy to drive the power block at the design
turbine gross output level under reference weather conditions. It is equivalent to a solar multiple of one,
and used to calculate the solar field area when the Layout mode is Solar Multiple.
Exact Num. SCAs
The exact area divided by the SCA aperture area. SAM uses the nearest integer greater than or equal
to this value in the solar field size equations to calculate value of the Solar Field Area (calc) variable
described above. The exact number of SCAs represents the number of SCAs in a solar field for a solar
multiple of one.
Aperture Area per SCA (m 2)
SCA aperture area variable from the SCA / HCE page. SAM uses this value in the solar field size
equations to calculate the value of the Solar Field Area (calc) variable described above.
HCE Thermal Losses (W/m 2)
Design HCE thermal losses based on the heat loss parameters from the SCA / HCE page. SAM uses
this value only in the solar field size equations. This design value is different from the hourly HCE
thermal losses calculated during simulation.
Optical Efficiency
Weighted optical efficiency variable from the SCA / HCE page. SAM uses this design value only in the
solar field size equations. This design value is different from SCA efficiency factor calculated during
simulations.
Design Turbine Thermal Input (MWt)
Design turbine thermal input variable from the Power Block page. Used to calculate the exact area
described above.

Orientation
Collector Tilt (degrees)
The collector angle from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal. A positive value tilts up the end of
the array closest to the equator (the array's south end in the northern hemisphere), a negative value tilts
down the southern end. Used to calculate the solar incidence angle and SCA tracking angle. SAM
assumes that the SCAs are fixed at the tilt angle.
Collector Azimuth (degrees)
The azimuth angle of the collector, where zero degrees is pointing toward the equator, equivalent to a
north-south axis. Used to calculate the solar incidence angle and the SCA tracking angle. SAM
calculates the SCAs' tracking angle for each hour, assuming that the SCAs are oriented 90 degrees
east of the azimuth angle in the morning and track the daily movement of the sun from east to west.

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Choosing the Field Layout Mode

SAM provides two options for defining the size of the solar field: Solar Multiple (Option 1) and Solar Field
Area (Option 2).

Note. The field layout mode options are similar to the options for the physical trough model. For details
about choosing between the two options, and optimizing the solar multiple for systems with and without
storage, see Sizing the Solar Field for the physical trough model.

In Solar Multiple mode, SAM calculates the solar field area based on the solar multiple, the power block's
rated thermal input capacity, reference weather conditions, and design heat loss parameters. For a solar
multiple of one, SAM calculates the solar field area that, under reference weather conditions and accounting
for heat losses from the field, generates a thermal energy amount equal to the design turbine thermal input
value from the Power Block page.
In Solar Field Area mode, SAM uses the user-defined solar field area, and calculates the equivalent solar
multiple.
The solar multiple mode is useful for determining the optimal solar field area for a given location. By varying
the solar multiple, you can find the value that minimizes the levelized cost of energy for a given power block
capacity. The levelized cost of energy metric captures the tradeoff between the benefit of higher annual
electricity output and the cost of increased capital expenditures associated with increasing the solar field
area.
Using the Solar Multiple mode is best for analyses involving a known or fixed power block capacity because
SAM automatically calculates the solar field area based on the power block capacity. The Solar Field Area
mode is best for analyses involving a known or fixed solar field area, but requires that the power block
capacity be manually adjusted to match the solar field output.
The third case in the Sample Parabolic Trough System file "Phys Trough - Parameterized Storage,"
illustrates this approach using the physical trough model. The case compares the levelized cost of energy
for systems with different solar multiple values with and without storage. You can use the same approach
with the empirical model. For a description of the approach, see Sizing the Solar Field.

About the Solar Multiple Reference Conditions

The three reference condition variables, ambient temperature, direct normal radiation, and wind velocity, are
the ambient conditions at which the solar field thermal output is equal to the power block's design thermal
input multiplied by the solar multiple. In other words, under reference conditions, the system operates at the
system's design capacity. Note that these reference condition variables are system design parameters, and
do not describe the weather conditions at the project site. Weather conditions are determined by the data in
the weather file shown on the Climate page.
The reference ambient temperature and reference wind velocity variables are used to calculate the design
heat losses, and do not have a significant effect on the solar field sizing calculations. Reasonable values for
those two variables are the average annual measured ambient temperature and wind velocity at the project
location.
The reference direct normal radiation value, on the other hand, does have a significant impact on the solar
field size calculations. For example, a system with reference conditions of 25°C, 950 W/m2, and 5 m/s
(ambient temperature, direct normal radiation, and wind speed, respectively), a solar multiple of 2, and a
100 MWe power block, requires a solar field area of 871,940 m2. The same system with reference direct
normal radiation of 800 W/m2 requires a solar field area of 1,055,350 m2. Note that with a solar multiple of 2,

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both systems would produce two times the thermal energy required to drive the power block at its rated
capacity during hours in which the direct normal radiation, temperature, and wind speed from the weather
file are equal to the reference conditions.
For systems in the Mohave Desert of the United States, a value of 950 W/m2 is reasonable, and for
southern Spain, a value of 800 W/m2 is reasonable.
Four factors affect the choice of a reference direct normal radiation value for a given system:
Location defined on the Climate page.
Storage capacity defined on the Thermal Storage page.
Maximum storage charge rate defined on the Thermal Storage page.
Variability of the solar resource over the year, determined by the weather data as defined on the Climate
page.
Using too low of a reference direct normal radiation value results in excessive dumped energy: The actual
direct normal radiation from the weather data is frequently greater than the reference value so that the solar
field sized for the low reference radiation value often produces more energy than required by the power
block, and excess thermal energy is either dumped or put into storage. On the other hand, using too high of
a reference direct normal radiation value results in an undersized solar field that produces sufficient thermal
energy to drive the power block at its design point only during the few hours when the actual direct normal
radiation is at or greater than the reference value.

Method 1 for Choosing the Reference Direct Normal Radiation Value

The first approach to choosing a value for the reference direct normal radiation value is to set the value to
the maximum value of the incident direct normal radiation (Q_nipCosTh) reported in the hourly simulation
results.

To display the cumulative distribution function for the direct normal radiation data:
1. On the Solar Field page, choose the collector tilt and azimuth values you plan to use for your
analysis.
2. Click Run. The values you use for the other inputs are not important at this stage, so you can use
default or preliminary values.
3. On the Results menu, click View Hourly Time Series.
4. In the data viewer (DView), click the CDF tab and choose Q_nipCosTh in the variable list to display
the "CDF of Q_nipCosTh" graph.

You can either read the maximum value off of the graph as the right-most value on the x-axis, or
right-click the graph to export values to a text file and read the maximum value there.
You can also find the maximum Q_nipCosTh in the simulation output file (.out) as described in
Viewing Hourly Output Data. Use this option if you are running SAM on a Mac.

Method 2 for Choosing the Reference Direct Normal Radiation Value

Another approach to determine the reference direct normal radiation value for a given location is to find the
value that minimizes the amount of thermal energy that the system dumps.

To minimize dumped thermal energy:

1. Use Option 1 (Solar Multiple) for the field layout option and set the value to one.
2. Enter an arbitrary value for the reference direct normal radiation, such as 950 W/m2.

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 125

3. Run a simulation.
4. In the hourly simulation results, examine the amount of dumped thermal energy QDump. You can
view the variable's hourly values either in the time series data viewer or in Excel.
5. If the amount of dumped thermal energy is excessive, try a lower value for the reference direct
normal radiation value and repeat the above steps.

To determine the reference solar radiation value based on dumped thermal energy:
1. On the Solar Field page use the Solar Multiple option under Layout and set its value to one.
2. Enter an arbitrary value for the reference solar radiation value.
3. Run a simulation.
4. In the hourly simulation results, examine the amount of dumped thermal energy QDump. You can
view the variable's hourly values by clicking either Spreadsheet or Time Series Graph.
5. If the amount of dumped thermal energy is excessive, try a lower value for the reference solar
radiation and repeat the above steps.

About the Heat Transfer Fluid Properties

The solar field heat transfer fluid (HTF) absorbs heat as it circulates through the heat collection elements in
the solar field and transports the heat to the power block where it is used to run a turbine. Several types of
heat transfer fluid are used for trough systems, including hydrocarbon (mineral) oils, synthetic oils, silicone
oils and nitrate salts.
When you choose a heat transfer fluid, SAM populates the minimum HTF temperature variable with that oil's
minimum operating temperature value. SAM will not allow the system to operate at a temperature below the
minimum HTF temperature. Electric heaters in the system maintain the fluid temperature. SAM accounts
for the electric power requirement for heating on the Parasitics page.
The remaining heat transfer fluid parameters describe characteristics of the solar field that affect the
performance of the heat transfer fluid. The two area-related parameters refer to square meters of solar field
area. If you are unsure of what values to use for these parameters, refer to the Solar Field page for the case
in Sample Parabolic Trough [Link].

Note. Solar field outlet temperature and solar field area data for U.S. parabolic trough power plants are
available on the Troughnet website at [Link]

If the heat transfer fluid you want to use in the solar field is not included in the Field HTF Fluid list, you can
define a custom heat transfer fluid using the User-defined option in the list. To define a custom fluid, you
need to know the following properties for at least two temperatures:
Temperature, ºC
Specific heat, kJ/kg-K
Density, kg/m³
Viscosity, Pa-s
Kinematic viscosity, m²-s
Conductivity, W/m-K
Enthalpy, J/kg
HTF properties are available from the fluid manufacturers.

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Table 11. Heat transfer fluids on the Field HTF Fluid list.
Max Operating
Min HTF Temp Temp
Name Type ºC ºC Freeze Point Comments
Solar Salt Salt 260 600 220
Caloria mineral -20 300 -40 used in first Luz
hydrocarbon oil trough plant,
SEGS I
Hitec XL Nitrate salt 150 500 120 New generation
Therminol VP-1 mixture of 50 400 12 Standard for
biphenyl and current
diphenyl oxide generation oil
HTF systems
Hitec Nitrate salt 175 500 140 For high-
temperature
systems
Dowtherm Q Synthetic oil -30 330 -50 New generation
Dowtherm RP Synthetic oil -20 350 -40 New generation

To define a custom heat transfer fluid:

1.
In the Field HTF fluid list, click User-defined.
2.
In the Edit Material Properties table, change Number of data points to 2 or higher. The number
should equal the number of temperature values for which you have data.
3. Type values for each property in the table.
You can also import data from a text file of comma-separated values. Each row in the file should
contain properties separated by commas, in the same the order that they appear in the Edit
Material Properties window. Do not include a header row in the file.
Keep the following in mind when you define a custom heat transfer fluid:
Each row in the materials property fluid table must be for a set of properties at a specific temperature.
No two rows should have the same temperature value.
SAM calculates property values from the table using linear interpolation.
The rows in the table must sorted by the temperature value, in either ascending or descending order.
The physical trough model uses the temperature, specific heat, density, viscosity, and conductivity
values. It ignores the enthalpy and kinematic viscosity values (the empirical trough model does use
those values).

Equations for Calculated Values

Calcualted values appear on the Solar Field page in blue type with blue backgrounds.

Solar Multiple and Solar Field Area

When the Layout option is Solar Multiple (Option 1), SAM calculates the solar field area based on the value
you enter for the solar multiple:

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When the Layout option is Solar Field Area (Option 2), SAM calculates the solar multiple based on the
value you enter for the solar field area:

Where,
AExactArea (m2) Exact Area

ASolarField (m2) Solar Field Area

ASolarFieldCalculated (m2) Solar Field Area (calc)

FSolarMultiple Solar Multiple

FSolarMultipleCalculated Solar Multiple (calc)

Exact Area and Exact Number of SCAs

The exact area is the solar field area for a solar multiple of one calculated as follows:

The values used for these equations are displayed under Solar Multiple Reference Conditions and Values
From Other Pages, except for the five FET factors, which are on the Power Block page.

Where,
AExactArea (m2) Exact Area

FET0 ...FET4 Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm from the Power Block page
Optical Efficiency from the SCA / HCE page
OpticalEfficiency
QDesignTurbineThermalInput (W) Design Turbine Thermal Input from the Power Block page

QDirectNormalRadiation (W/m2) Direct Normal Radiation

QHCEThermalLosses (W/m2) HCE Thermal Losses from the SCA / HCE page

QSolarFieldPipingHeatLosses (W/m2) Solar Field Piping Heat Losses

Note. Direct Normal Radiation does not represent weather conditions at the site, but is the reference
radiation value used to calculate the solar field area when the solar multiple is one.

Where,
AApertureAreaPerSCA (m2) Aperture Area per SCA, equivalent to SCA Aperature Area on SCA / HCE
page

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AExactArea (m2) Exact Area
NExactNumberOfSCAs Exact Number of SCAs

Solar Field Piping Heat Losses

SAM uses the design solar field piping heat losses QsolarFieldPipeHeatLosses value reported on the Solar Field
page to calculate the solar field area for Field Layout Option 1, when you specify the solar field area using
the solar multiple:

Where,
QSolarFieldPipeHeatLosses (W/m2) Solar Field Piping Heat Losses
FPHL1 ... FPHL3 Piping Heat Loss Temp Coeff 1 through 3. The default values (.001693, -
1.683e-005, 6.78e-008) result in a scaling factor of one when Delta T =
316.5ºC.
QSFPipeHLDesign (W/m2) Solar Field Piping Heat Losses @ Design T, equivalent to the solar field
piping heat losses when the difference between the average solar field
temperature and ambient temperature is 316.5ºC.
TAmbient (°C) Ambient Temperature at reference conditions, 25ºC by default.
TSFinDesign (°C) Solar Field Inlet Temperature, 293ºC by default
TSFoutDesign (°C) Solar Field Outlet Temperature, 391ºC by default.

3.6.2 SCA / HCE

To view the SCA / HCE page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the SCA and HCE components and where to find more
information about the components.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the SCA /
HCE page.
About the SCA Parameters describes the physical charateristics of the four SCAs
included in the default library.

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 129

About the HCE Parameters describes the four HCE (receiver) types and five HCE
conditions included in the default library.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the
calculated values on the SCA / HCE page.

Overview
The SCA / HCE page displays the characteristics of the solar collector assembly (SCA) and heat collection
elements (HCE) in the solar field. Note that the SCA is often referred to as the collector. The HCE is often
referred to as the receiver.
A solar collector assembly (SCA) is an individually tracking component of the solar field that includes
mirrors, a supporting structure, and heat collection elements or receivers.
A heat collection element (HCE) is a metal pipe contained in a vacuum within glass tube that runs through
the focal line of the trough-shaped parabolic collector. Seals and bellows ensure that a vacuum is
maintained in each tube. Anti-reflective coatings on the glass tube maximize the amount of solar radiation
that enters the tube. Solar-selective radiation absorbing coatings on the metal tube maximize the transfer of
energy from the solar radiation to the pipe.

Note. See [Link] for more information on solar collector

assemblies and heat collection elements. Also see relevant articles in the list of publications on the
Troughnet website.

For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the
SAM website's support page: [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Solar Collector Assembly (SCA)
The solar collector assembly (SCA) input variables describe the dimensions and optical characteristics
of the SCA or collector.
Current SCA inputs
The name of the collector in the SCA library
SCA Length (m)
The total length of a single SCA. Used in SCA end loss calculation.
SCA Aperture (m)
The structural width of a single SCA, including reflective area and gaps. Used in the row-to-row
shadowing loss factor and HCE thermal loss calculations.
SCA Aperture Area (m 2)
The reflective area of a single SCA, not including gaps. Used in the solar field size calculations.
Average Focal Length (m)
Average trough focal length. Used in end gain and end loss factor calculations.

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Incident Angle Mod Coeff (1-3)
Incident angle modifier coefficients. Used to calculate the incident angle modifier factor, which is used
to calculate the HCE absorbed energy and the solar field optical efficiency.
Tracking Error and Twist
Accounts for errors in the SCA's ability to track the sun. Sources of error may include poor alignment of
sun sensor, tracking algorithm error, errors caused by the tracker drive update rate, and twisting of the
SCA end at the sun sensor mounting location relative to the tracking unit end. A typical value is 0.985.
Used to calculate SCA field error factor.
Geometric Accuracy
Accounts for SCA optical errors caused by misaligned mirrors, mirror contour distortion caused by the
support structure, mirror shape errors compared to an ideal parabola, and misaligned or distorted HCE.
A typical range of values is between 0.97 and 0.98. Used to calculate SCA field error factor.
Mirror Reflectance
The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular
reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular
reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as
viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs,
typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0..906
(silvered polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface).
Mirror Cleanliness Factor (avg)
Accounts for dirt and dust on the mirrors that reduce their effective reflectivity. Typically, mirrors are
continuously cleaned, but a single mirror may be cleaned once each one or two weeks. The expected
overall effect on the total solar field would be an average loss of between one and two percent. A typical
value would be 0.985. Used to calculate SCA field error factor.
Dust on Envelope (avg)
Accounts for dust on the HCE envelope that affects light transmission. A typical value would be 0.99.
Used to calculate HCE heat loss.
Concentrator Factor
A additional error factor to make it possible to adjust the SCE performance without modifying the other
error factors. Useful for modeling an improved or degraded SCE. The default value is 1. Used to
calculate SCA field error factor.
Solar Field Availability
Accounts for solar field down time for maintenance and repairs. Used to calculate absorbed energy.

Heat Collection Element (HCE)

The HCE variables describe the properties of up to four HCE types that can make up the solar field. This
makes it possible to model a solar field with HCEs in different states. Each set of properties applies to one
of the HCE types. The Fraction of Field variable determines what portion of the solar field is made up of a
given HCE type.
Current HCE inputs
The name of the receiver and its condition. Vacuum refers to an HCE in good condition, lost vacuum,
broken glass, and hydrogen refer to different problem conditions. You can define up to four HCE
(receiver) conditions.

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 131

Fraction of Field
Fraction of solar field using this HCE type and condition. Used to calculate HCE field error factor and
HCE heat loss.
Bellows Shadowing
The portion of the HCE tube that does not absorb solar thermal radiation. Used to calculate HCE field
error factor.
Envelope Transmissivity
Used to calculate HCE field error factor.
Absorber Absorption
Accounts for inefficiencies in the HCE black coating. Used to calculate HCE field error factor.
Unaccounted
Allows for adjustment of the HCE performance to explore effect of changes in performance of the HCE
without changing the values of other correction factors. A typical value is 1. Used to calculate HCE field
error factor.
Optical Efficiency (HCE)
The design optical efficiency of each of the four receiver type and condition options. SAM uses the
values to calculate the design weighted optical efficiency.
Optical Efficiency (Weighted)
The design weighted optical efficiency, representing the average optical efficiency of all receivers in the
field (see equation for calculated values below). SAM uses the value to calculate the solar field area.
Note that SAM also calculates a separate HCE optical efficiency value for each hour during simulation
that counts for the loss factors on the SCA / HCE page that also accounts for the incident angle
modifier factor, which depends on the time of day and collector orientation.
Heat Loss Coefficient A0...A6
Used to calculate the HCE heat loss. The default values are based on NREL modeling and test results.
(See Forristall R, 2003. Heat Transfer Analysis and Modeling of a Parabolic Trough Solar Receiver
Implemented in Engineering Equation Solver. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/TP-550-
34169. [Link] and Burkholder F et al, 2009, Heat Loss
Testing of Schott's 2008 PTR70 Parabolic Trough Receiver. National Renewable Energy Laboratory
NREL/TP-550-45633. [Link]
Heat Loss Factor
The design heat loss factor that applies to the active HCE type and condition. Used to calculate design
HCE heat loss that is part of the solar field area equation. The heat loss factor scales the heat loss
equation and can be used to fine tune the results when measured heat loss data are available. The
default value of 1.0 is valid for the current version of SAM using the default heat loss coefficients.
Min windspeed (m/s)
Used to calculated the HCE heat loss for hours when the wind speed from the weather file is lower than
the minimum wind speed.
HCE Heat Losses (W/m), Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m), Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m2)
These values are provided for reference. SAM calculates the HCE heat loss for each hour during
simulation based on the loss factor coefficients on the SCA / HCE page and other values from the
weather data.

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About the SCA Parameters

The default SCA library includes a set of parameters for four types of SCAs described in the table below.
These SCA types are either installed in currently operating systems, or were used in past system designs.
See Working with Libraries for information about managing libraries.

Table 12. Default collector types.

Name Description Location
Euro Trough ET150 Torque box, galvanized steel SEGS V, Kramer Junction, California
Luz LS-2 Torque-tube, galvanized steel SEGS I - VII, Kramer Junction, California
Luz LS-3 Bridge truss, galvanized steel SEGS VII - IX, Kramer Junction, California
Solargenix SGX-1 Organic hubbing structure, Nevada Solar One, Boulder City, Nevada
extruded aluminum

The values of input variables on the SCA / HCE page are stored in libraries. See Working with Libraries for
information about managing libraries.

About the HCE Parameters

The HCE library includes four HCE types, and for each HCE type, five HCE conditions. See Working with
Libraries for information about managing libraries.
For each HCE type and condition, you can assign a Percent of Field value. For example, in the figure
below, the receiver type is Schott PTR70, and 98.5% percent of the HCEs are in normal condition, 1.0%
have lost vacuum, 0.5% have glass damage, and 0% have allowed hydrogen to enter the tube.
When you select a name from the Receiver Type and Condition list, SAM populates the optical and heat
loss parameters using values stored in the library. When you change one or more of these values, SAM
creates a copy of the parameter set and adds it to the library under the name "CUSTOM CUSTOM."
The four HCE types are described in the table below.

Table 13. Default HCE types.

HCE Type Description
Luz Cermet Original HCE design. Low reliability of seals.
Schott PTR70 Vacuum Newer design with improved reliability. Two versions are available.
Solel UVAC2 Newer design with improved reliability.
Solel UVAC3 The newest HCE available as of May 2008.

The performance of the HCE is highly dependent on the quality of the vacuum in the glass tube. SAM
models the HCE under the five conditions described in the following table.

Table 14. HCE conditions.

HCE Condition Description
Broken glass Glass tube is damaged, increasing heat transfer between tube and atmosphere.
Fluorescent Selective coating on metal tube is compromised, reducing absorption of solar
radiation

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 133

Hydrogen Hydrogen from hydrocarbon-based heat transfer fluid (e.g., mineral oil) has
permeated through metal tube into the vacuum, increasing heat transfer between
metal tube and glass.
Lost vacuum Glass-to-metal seal is compromised
Vacuum HCE is not damaged and is operating as designed.

Equations for Calculated Values

Optical Efficiency (HCE)
The design optical efficiency of each receiver type and condition option is a function of the efficiency and
loss factors for each option.

Where,
FOptEffD,n Optical Efficiency (HCE) for each of the four receivers types.
FSCAFieldError,n The SCA field error factor, which is the product of Tracking Error and Twist, Geometric
Accuracy, Mirror Reflectivity, Mirror Cleanliness Factor and Concentrator Factor. (Note
that the Dust on Envelope factor is used for the HCE field error calculation above, not
here.)
FDustEnvelope,n Dust on Envelope (avg) specified in the SCA parameters above. The same value applies
to each of teh four receiver types.
FBellows,n Bellows Shadowing for the receiver type n .
FTransmissivity,n Envelope Transmissivity for the receiver type n .
FAbsorption,n Absorber Absorption for the receiver type n .
FUnaccounted,n Unaccounted for the receiver type n .
n The receiver type number (1 through 4)

Optical Efficiency (Weighted)

The design weighted optical efficiency is a design value that SAM uses to calculate the solar field area.
Note that the design optical efficiency equations differ from the optical efficiency factor equations used in
the hourly simulation. It is a function of the four design optical efficiency factors and fraction of field values
for each receiver type option:

Where,
FOptEffD Optical Efficiency (Weighted)
FOptEffD,n Optical Efficiency (HCE) for each of the four receivers
FPercentOfField,n Percent of Solar Field for each of the four receivers

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n Receiver number (1 through 4)

HCE Heat Losses (W/m)

The heat loss for each of the four HCE types (Receiver 1 through 4) depends on the value of the six heat
loss coefficients and heat loss factor for each HCE type, and on the design parameters specified on the
Solar Field page:

Where,
QHCEHLD,n (W/m) HCE heat losses for HCE type n expressed in thermal Watts per meter
FHeatLoss,n Heat Loss Factor for HCE type n
FA0 ... FA6 A0 Heat Loss Coefficient through A6 Heat Loss Coefficient
TSFin (°C) Solar Field Inlet Temperature from the Solar Field page
TSFout (°C) Solar Field Outlet Temperature from the Solar Field page
TAmb (°C) Reference ambient temperature from the Solar Field page
QDNIRef Reference direct normal radiation from the Solar Field page

(m/s) Reference wind velocity from the Solar Field page

Wind

Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m)

The total HCE losses are expressed in Watts per meter of SCA length:

Where,
QHCELossD(W/m) (W/m) Thermal Losses per SCA aperture length.
QHCELosses,n (W/m) Receiver Heat Losses for receiver number n
FPercentOfField,n Percent of Solar Field for each of the four receivers

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Thermal Losses (Weighted W/m2)

The total HCE losses are also expressed in Watts per square meter (the product of the aperture length
(SCA Length) and aperture width (SCA Aperture):

Where,
QHCELossD(W/m2) Thermal losses per square meter

QHCELossD(W/m) (W/m) Thermal losses per SCA aperture length (described above)
DSCAAperture (m) SCA Aperture (structural width of SCA)

3.6.3 Power Block

To view the Power Block page, click Power Block on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the Power Block page and where to find more information about
the power block model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Power
Block page.
Power Cycle Library Options describes the reference steam turbines included in the
default power block library.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the
calculated values on the Power Block page.

Overview
The Power Block parameters describe the equipment in the system that converts thermal energy from the
solar field or thermal energy storage system into electricity. The power block is based on a steam turbine
that runs on a conventional Rankine power cycle and may or may not include fossil fuel backup. Power
block components include a turbine, heat exchangers to transfer heat from the solar field or thermal energy
storage system to the turbine, and a cooling system to dissipate waste heat. SAM considers the thermal
energy storage system to be a separate component, which is described on the Thermal Storage page.
The input variables on the Power Block page are divided into two groups. The turbine ratings group
determines the capacity of the power block, and the power cycle group defines the performance parameters

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of the reference turbine.
For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the
SAM website's support page: [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Plant Characteristics
Design Turbine Gross Output (MWe)
The power cycle's design output, not accounting for parasitic losses. SAM uses this value to size
system components, such as the solar field area when you use the solar multiple to
specify the solar field size.
Estimated Gross to Net Conversion Factor
An estimate of the ratio of the electric energy delivered to the grid to the power cycle's gross output.
SAM uses the factor to calculate the system's nameplate capacity for capacity-related calculations,
including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the System Costs page, capacity-based
incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the capacity factor reported in the results.
Estimated Net Output at Design (MWe)
The power cycle's nominal capacity, calculated as the product of the design gross output and
estimated gross to net conversion factor. SAM uses this value to calculate the system's rated capacity
for capacity-related calculations, including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the
System Costs page, capacity-based incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the capacity
factor reported in the results.

Power Cycle
The variables in the power cycle group describe a reference steam turbine. SAM uses the reference turbine
specifications to calculate the turbine output, and then scales the actual output based on the turbine rating
variables. Each set of reference turbine specifications is stored in the reference turbine library.
Current power block
Name of the reference turbine. Selecting a reference system determines the values of the other power
cycle variables.
Design Turbine Thermal Input (MWt)
The thermal energy required as input to the power block to generate the design turbine gross (electric)
output. SAM uses the design turbine thermal input to calculate several power block capacity-related
values, including the solar field size, power block design point gross output, and parasitic losses.
Design Turbine Gross Efficiency
Total thermal to electric efficiency of the reference turbine. Used to calculate the design turbine thermal
input.
Max Over Design Operation
The turbine's maximum output expressed as a fraction of the design turbine thermal input. Used by the
dispatch module to set the power block thermal input limits.

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 137

Minimum Load
The turbine's minimum load expressed as a fraction of the design turbine thermal input. Used by the
dispatch module to set the power block thermal input limits.
Turbine Start-up Energy
Fraction of the design turbine thermal input required to bring the system to operating temperature after a
period of non-operation. Used by the dispatch module to calculate the required start-up energy.
Boiler LHV Efficiency
The back-up boiler's lower heating value efficiency. Used by the power block module to calculate the
quantity of gas required by the back-up boiler.
Max Thermal Input (MWt)
The maximum thermal energy that can be delivered to the power block by the solar field, thermal energy
storage system or both.
Min Thermal Input (MWt)
The minimum thermal energy that can be delivered to the power block by the solar field, thermal energy
storage system or both.
Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec
Factors for the turbine thermal-to-electric efficiency polynomial equation. Used to calculate the design
point gross output, which is the portion of the power block's electric output converted from solar energy
before losses.
Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm
Factors for turbine's part load electric-to-thermal efficiency polynomial equation. Used to calculate the
energy in kilowatt-hours of natural gas equivalent required by the backup boiler. SAM dispatches the
backup boiler based on the fossil-fill fraction table in the thermal storage dispatch parameters on the
Thermal Storage page.
Cooling Tower Correction
Cooling tower correction factor. Used to calculate the temperature correction factor that represents
cooling tower losses. To model a system with no cooling tower, set F0 to 1, and F1 = F2 = F3 = F4 =0.
Temperature Correction Mode
In the dry bulb mode, SAM calculates a temperature correction factor to account for cooling tower
losses based on the ambient temperature from the weather data set. In wet bulb mode, SAM calculates
the wet bulb temperature from the ambient temperature and relative humidity from the weather data.

Power Cycle Library Options

The power cycle library includes six reference turbines. See Working with Libraries for information about
managing libraries.
The reference turbines include five conventional Rankine-cycle steam turbines in a range of sizes, and one
organic Rankine-cycle turbine. Conventional Rankine-cycle turbines are similar to those used in coal,
nuclear, or natural gas power plants. A heat exchanger transfers energy from the solar field's heat transfer
fluid to generate steam that drives the turbine. The organic Rankine-cycle turbine operates on the same
principle as the conventional turbine, but uses an organic fluid, typically butane or pentane, to run the
turbine instead of water.

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Table 15. Power cycle reference systems.

Approximate Solar Approximate Operating
Field Size Range Temperature Suggested Modeling
Reference System m2 ºC Application
Organic Rankine-cycle
APS Ormat 1 MWe 300C 10,000 300
power block
High-temperature heat
Nexant 450C HTF - 450
transfer fluid (molten salt)
High-temperature heat
Nexant 500C HTF - 500
transfer fluid (molten salt)
SEGS 30 MWe Turbine 180,000 - 230,000 300 - 400 Typical applications
SEGS 80 MWe Turbine 460,000 - 480,000 400 Typical applications
High-temperature heat
Siemens 400C HTF 400
transfer fluid

When you choose a turbine from the reference system library, SAM changes the values of the Power Cycle
variables. The following table shows the power cycle parameters for the standard reference systems. Note
that you can use any value for the Rated Turbine Net Capacity and Design Turbine Gross Output variables,
SAM will use the reference system parameters with the rated and design turbine parameters.

Table 16. Reference system parameters.

Parameter Name SEGS 30 SEGS 80 APS ORC Nexant Nexant Siemens
450 500 400
Rated Turbine Net Capacity 30 80 1 100 100 50
Design Turbine Gross Output 35 89 1.160 110 110 55
Design Turbine Thermal Input 93.3 235.8 5.600 278.0 269.9 147.2
Design Turbine Gross Efficiency 0.3749 0.3774 0.2071 0.3957 0.4076 0.3736
Max Over Design Operation 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15
Minimum Load 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F0 -0.0571910 -0.0377260 -0.1593790 -0.0240590 -0.0252994 -0.0298
Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F1 1.0041000 1.0062000 0.9261810 1.0254800 1.0261900 0.7219

Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F2 0.1255000 0.0763160 1.1349230 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.7158
Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F3 -0.0724470 -0.0447750 -1.3605660 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.5518
Turb. Part Load Therm to Elec F4 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.4588420 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.1430
Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F0 0.0565200 0.0373700 0.1492050 0.0234837 0.0246620 0.044964
Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F1 0.9822000 0.9882300 0.8521820 0.9751230 0.9744650 1.182900
Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F2 -0.0982950 -0.0649910 -0.3247150 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.563880
Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F3 0.0595730 0.0393880 0.4486300 0.0000000 0.0000000 0.467190
Turb. Part Load Elec to Therm F4 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.1256020 0.0000000 0.0000000 -0.130090

You can use any of the the built-in power cycle options to model most systems expected to run at or near
the power block's design point for most operating hours. You can specify your own power cycle if you have

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 139

a set of part load coefficients from the manufacturer, or if you have calculated coefficients using power plant
simulation or equation solving software. The part load equation is a fourth-order or lower polynomial equation
that describes the relationship between power cycle efficiency and operating load.

Equations for Calculated Values

Design Turbine Thermal Input

Where,
Design Turbine Gross Efficiency
DesignTurbineGross
QDesignTurbineGross (W) Design Turbine Gross Output
Q Design Turbine Thermal Input
DesignTurbineThermalInput
(W)

Max Thermal Input

Where,
QtoPBMax (W) Max Thermal Input
QPBDesign Design Turbine Thermal Input
(W)
FET(0-4) Turbine Part Load Elec To Therm coefficients
FPBMax Max Over Design Operation

Min Thermal Input

Where,
QtoPBMin (W) Min Thermal Input
QPBDesign (W) Design Turbine Thermal Input
FET(0-4) Turbine Part Load Elec To Therm coefficients
FPBMax Minimum Load

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3.6.4 Thermal Storage

To view the Thermal Storage page, click Thermal Storage on the main window's navigation menu. Note
that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market
window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes thermal energy storage systems and explains where find more
information about them.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Thermal
Storage page.
Estimating Tank Heat Loss Values describes how to choose values for the tank
heat loss variable for different thermal energy storage capacities.
Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls describes the dispatch controls that
determine the timing of energy releases from the storage and fossil back up
systems.
Defining Dispatch Schedules explains how to assign dispatch periods to weekday
and weekend schedules.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the
calculated values on the Thermal Storage page.

Overview
A thermal energy storage system (TES) stores heat from the solar field in a liquid medium. Heat from the
storage system can drive the power block turbine during periods of low or no sunlight. A TES is beneficial in
many places where the peak demand for power occurs after the sun has set. Adding TES to a parabolic
trough system allows the collection of solar energy to be separated from the operation of the power block.
For example, a system might be able to collect energy in the morning and use it to generate electricity late
into the evening.
In direct systems, the heat transfer fluid itself serves as the storage medium. In indirect systems, a
separate fluid is the storage medium, and heat is transferred from the HTF to the storage medium through
heat exchangers. The TES system consists of one or two tanks, pumps to circulate the liquids, and
depending on the design, heat exchangers. A thermocline system stores both the hot and cold storage
medium in one tank. The zone in the tank where hot and cold fluids meet is called a thermocline. The
storage tank in a thermocline system contains low-cost filler materials such as sand and rock. A two-tank
system consists of a hot tank to store heat from the solar field, and a cold tank to store the cooled storage
medium after the power block has extracted its energy.

Note. For more information on thermal energy storage systems for parabolic trough systems, see http://
[Link]/csp/troughnet/thermal_energy_storage.html.

The user inputs on the Thermal Storage page are divided into two groups. The thermal energy storage (TES)
group defines the thermal energy storage capacity and type along with some efficiency parameters. The

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thermal storage dispatch controls group variables determine the the operation of the storage and fossil back
up systems.
For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the
SAM website's support page: [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
Equiv Full Load Hours of TES hours
The thermal storage capacity expressed in number of hours of thermal energy delivered at the power
block's design thermal input level. The physical capacity is the number of hours of storage multiplied by
the power block design thermal input. Used to calculate the TES maximum storage capacity.
Storage System Configuration
The current version of SAM models a two-tank TES consisting of a cold storage tank and hot storage
tank.
Storage Fluid Type
The Storage fluid used in the TES. When the storage fluid and solar field heat transfer fluid (HTF) are
different, the system is an indirect system with a heat exchanger. When the storage fluid and solar field
HTF are the same, the system is a direct system that uses the solar field HTF as the storage medium.
Used to calculate the heat exchanger duty.
Turbine TES Adj Efficiency
SAM applies the TES efficiency adjustment factor to the turbine efficiency for trough systems with
storage to account for the lower steam temperature that results from imperfect heat exchange in the
storage system. Used to calculate maximum TES discharge rate. Also used to calculate a TES
correction factor.
Turbine TES Adj Gross Output
Efficiency adjustment factor. Used to calculate maximum TES discharge rate.
Initial Thermal Storage (MWht)
The amount of energy in storage when the simulation starts, at midnight on January 1. The default value
is zero.
Tank Heat Losses (MWht)
Storage tank thermal losses. SAM subtracts value from the total energy in storage at the end of each
simulation hour. See the table below for suggested values.
Maximum Energy Storage (MWht)
The maximum thermal energy storage capacity of the TES.
Design Turbine Thermal Input (MWt)
The thermal input requirement of the power block to operate at its design point. Used to calculate the
following dispatch parameters: power block input limits, power block load requirement, TES maximum
storage capacity, and the start-up requirement
Max Power to Storage (MWt)
Maximum TES charge rate. Used in the dispatch calculation when energy from the solar field exceeds

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the power block load requirement.
Max Power From Storage (MWt)
Maximum TES discharge rate. Used in the dispatch calculation when energy from the solar field is less
or equal to than the power block load requirement.
Heat Exchanger Duty
Applies only to indirect thermal storage systems that use a different storage fluid and solar field HTF.
Used to calculate the maximum TES charge rate.

Thermal Storage Dispatch Control

The storage dispatch control variables each have six values, one for each of six possible dispatch periods.
They determine how SAM calculates the energy flows between the solar field, thermal energy storage
system, and power block. The fossil-fill fraction is used to calculate the energy from a backup boiler.
Storage Dispatch Fraction with Solar
The fraction of the TES maximum storage capacity (see table above) required for the system to start
when the solar field energy is greater than zero. A value of zero will always dispatch the TES in any
hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch the TES. Used to
calculate the storage dispatch levels.
Storage Dispatch Fraction without Solar
The fraction of the TES maximum storage capacity (see table above) required for the system to start
when the solar field energy is equal to zero. A value of zero will always dispatch the TES in any hour
assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch the TES. Used to calculate the
storage dispatch levels.
Turbine Output Fraction
A fraction of the design turbine thermal input adjusted by the turbine part load electric-to-thermal
efficiency factors. Used to calculate the power block load requirement.
Fossil Fill Fraction
A fraction of the power block design turbine gross output from the Power Block page that can be met by
the backup boiler. Used by the power block module to calculate the energy from the backup boiler.
Payment Allocation Factor
The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity
price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in
conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page.

Estimating Tank Heat Loss Values

An increase in the hours of thermal storage requires a both an increase in the solar field size to minimize
the levelized cost of energy for the system, and an increase in the tank heat losses to account for the larger
tank. The "100 MW Baseline - Parameterized Storage" case in Sample Parabolic Trough [Link]
illustrates these relationships. See Sizing the Solar Field for a discussion of an approach to optimize the
solar field for system with storage.
The following table shows suggested tank heat loss values for three sample systems over a range of
thermal storage capacities. The relationship between tank heat losses and hours of thermal storage is
linear, so you can extrapolate to estimate values for storage capacity values not on the table.

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 143

Table 17. Suggested Tank Heat Losses (MWt) values for different thermal storage
capacities (hours).
Hours of Thermal Storage
System Description 0 3 6 9 12 15
100 MW Two Tank Indirect
0 0.62 0.96 1.23 1.56 1.87
VP-1/Nitrate Salt
200 MW Two Tank Indirect
0 1.0 1.61 2.21 2.81 3.56
VP-1/Nitrate Salt
200 MW Two Tank Direct
0 0.34 0.64 0.93 1.24 1.52
Hitec Salt

Storage and Fossil Dispatch Controls

The thermal storage dispatch controls determine the timing of releases of energy from the thermal energy
storage and fossil backup systems to the power block. When the system includes thermal energy storage
or fossil backup, SAM can use a different dispatch strategy for up to six different dispatch periods.

Storage Dispatch
SAM decides whether or not to operate the power block in each hour of the simulation based on how much
energy is stored in the TES, how much energy is provided by the solar field, and the values of the thermal
storage dispatch controls parameters. You can define when the power block operates for each of the six
dispatch periods. For each hour in the simulation, if the power block is not already operating, SAM looks at
the amount of energy that is in thermal energy storage at the beginning of the hour and decides whether it
should operate the power block. For each period, there are two targets for starting the power block: one for
periods of sunshine (w/solar), and one for period of no sunshine (w/o solar).
The turbine output fraction for each dispatch period determines at what load level the power block runs using
energy from storage during that period. The load level is a function of the turbine output fraction, design
turbine thermal input, and the five turbine part load electric to thermal factors on the Power Block page.
For each dispatch period during periods of sunshine, thermal storage is dispatched to meet the power block
load level for that period only when the thermal power from the solar field is insufficient and available storage
is equal to or greater than the product of the storage dispatch fraction (with solar) and maximum energy in
storage. Similarly, during periods of no sunshine when no thermal power is produced by the solar field, the
power block will not run except when the energy available in storage is equal to or greater than the product
of storage dispatch fraction (without solar) and maximum energy in storage.
By setting the thermal storage dispatch controls parameters, you can simulate the effect of a clear day
when the operator may need to start the plant earlier in the day to make sure that the storage is not filled to
capacity and solar energy is dumped, or of a cloudy day when the operator may want to store energy for
later use in a higher value period.

Fossil Dispatch
When the fossil fill fraction is greater than zero for any dispatch period, the system is considered to include
fossil backup. The fossil fill fraction defines the solar output level at which the backup system runs during
each hour of a specific dispatch period. For example, a fossil fill fraction of 1.0 would require that the fossil
backup operate to fill in every hour during a specified period to 100% of design output. In that case, during

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periods when solar is providing 100% output, no fossil energy would be used. When solar is providing less
than 100% output, the fossil backup operates to fill in the remaining energy so that the system achieves
100% output. For a fossil fill fraction of 0.5, the system would use energy from the fossil backup only when
solar output drops below 50%.
The boiler LHV efficiency value on the Power Block page determines the quantity of fuel used by the fossil
backup system. A value of 0.9 is reasonable for a natural gas-fired backup boiler. SAM includes the cost of
fuel for the backup system in the levelized cost of energy and other metrics reported in the results, and
reports the energy equivalent of the hourly fuel consumption in the hourly simulation results. The cost of fuel
for the backup system is defined on the Trough System Costs page.

Payment Allocation Factor

The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price
based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with
the assumptions on the Financing page.
For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that
covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive
payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors.
When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the payment
allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose.

Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods
to one.

Defining Dispatch Schedules

The storage dispatch schedules determine when each of the six periods apply during weekdays and
weekends throughout the year. You can either choose an existing schedule from one of the schedules in
the CSP trough TES dispatch library or define a custom schedule. For information about libraries, see
Working with Libraries.
The TES dispatch library only assigns period numbers to the weekday and weekend schedule matrices.
The dispatch fractions assigned to each of the six periods are not stored in the library.

To choose a schedule from the library:

1. Click Dispatch schedule library.
2. Choose a schedule from the list of four schedules. The schedules are based on time-of-use pricing
schedules from four California utilities.
3. Click OK.
You can modify a schedule using the steps described below. Modifying a schedule does not affect
the schedule stored in the library.
4. For each of the up to six periods used in the schedule, enter values for the dispatch fractions
described above. Use the period number and color to identify the times in the schedule that each
period applies.

To specify a weekday or weekend schedule:

1. Assign values as appropriate to the Storage Dispatch, Turbine Output Fraction, Fossil Fill Fraction,

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and Payment Allocation Factor for each of the up to nine periods.

2. Click Dispatch schedule library.
3. Choose a Uniform Dispatch.
4. Click OK.
5. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.

6. Type the number 2.

7. SAM shades displays the period number in the squares that make up the rectangle, and shades
the rectangle to match the color of the period.

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8. Repeat Steps 2-4 for each of the remaining periods that apply to the schedule.

Equations for Calculated Values

Maximum Energy Storage

Where,
QMaximumStorage Maximum Energy Storage
(Wh)
QDesignTurbineInput Design Turbine Thermal Input
(W)
NHoursOfStorage Equiv. Full Load Hours of TES
(hours)

Design Turbine Thermal Input

The thermal energy required by the power block to operate at its rated capacity, described on the Power
Block page.

Maximum Power To and From Storage

The maximum power to and from storage depends on whether the TES includes a heat exchanger. When
the TES fluid is different from the solar field fluid, the TES includes a heat exchanger. When the fluids are
the same, there is no heat exchanger.
For a TES with heat exchanger (TES fluid and solar field fluid are different):

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 147

For a TES with no heat exchanger (TES fluid and solar field fluid are the same):

Where,
FHeatExchangerDuty Heat Exchanger Duty
FSolarMultiple Solar Multiple from Solar Field page
FTESAdjustEfficiency Turbine TES Adj. - Efficiency
FTESAdjustOutput Turbine TES Adjustment - Gross Output
FTurbineMaximumOverDesign Max Over Design Operation from Power Block page
NHoursOfStorage Equiv. Full Load Hours of TES
PMaximumFromStorage (W) Maximum Power From Storage
PMaximumToStorage (W) Maximum Power To Storage
QDesignTurbineInput (W) Design Turbine Thermal Input from Power Block page
QMaximumStorage (W) Maximum Energy Storage

Heat Exchanger Duty

The heat exchanger duty depends on the value of the solar multiple. When the solar multiple is greater than
one:

When the solar multiple is equal to or less than one:

Where,
FHeatExchangerDuty Heat Exchanger Duty
FSolarMultiple Solar Multiple from Solar Field page

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3.6.5 Parasitics
To view the Parasitics page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.

Contents
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Parasitics
page.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculated the
calculated values on the Parasitics page.

Overview
The Parasitics page displays parameters describing losses due to parasitic electrical loads, such as drive
motors, electronic circuits, and pump motors. SAM includes a set of default parasitic parameters for a
range of solar trough power systems. Choose a reference parasitic system option that is the same or
similar to the system you are modeling. SAM will automatically adjust the total parasitic load to match the
size of the solar field and power block in the system you are modeling.
The design point parasitic values are the maximum possible values for each parasitic loss category. SAM
calculates the hourly parasitic loss value for each category during simulation based on the design point, the
PF and F0-F2 coefficients, and the solar field thermal output and power block load in each hour, and reports
them in the hourly simulation results. The calculated parasitic loss values are never as high as the total
design point parasitic losses.
For a more detailed description of the model, please download the CSP trough reference manual from the
SAM website's support page: [Link]

Input Variable Reference

The values of input variables on the Parasitics page are stored in a library of reference solar fields. You can
change the parameter values without changing the values stored in the library. For information about
libraries, See Working with Libraries.

Parasitic Electric Energy Use

Current reference parasitic system
The reference system from the CSP trough parasticis library. SAM stores a set of parasitic parameters
for reference systems.
Solar Field Area (m 2)
The calculated solar field area from the Solar Field page. Used to calculate parasitic losses that are
based on the solar field size with units of MWe/m2.

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 Parabolic Trough Empirical 149

Gross Turbine Output (MWe)

The design turbine gross output value from the Power Block page. Used to calculate parasitic losses
that are based on the power block capacity with units of MWe/Mwe.
SCA Drives and Electronics (MWe)
Electrical losses from electric or hydraulic SCA drives that position the collector to track the sun and
from electronic SCA tracking controllers and alarm monitoring devices. Calculated as a function of the
solar field area.
Solar Field HTF Pumps
Electrical losses from cold HTF pumping in the solar field. Calculated as a function of the solar field
area. These losses are calculated only in hours when the solar field is operating, which is defined as
when the solar field load is greater than zero.
TES Pumps
Electrical losses from pumps in the TES system. Calculated as a function of the design turbine gross
output.
Antifreeze Pumping (MWe)
Electrical losses from HTF pumps in the solar field. Calculated as a function of the solar field area.
These losses are used only in hours when the solar field is not operating, which is defined as when the
solar field load is zero.
Power Block Fixed (MWe)
These fixed losses apply 24 hours per day, for all of the 8,760 hours of the year.
Balance of Plant (MWe)
Electrical losses that apply in hours when the power block operates at part or full load.
Heater and Boiler (MWe)
Losses that apply only when the back-up boiler is in operation.
Cooling Towers (MWe)
The cooling tower parasitic losses are electrical losses that occur when the power block operates at
part or full load. Calculated either as a function of power block load or at a fixed 50% or 100% of the
design cooling tower parasitic losses.
Cooling Tower Operation Mode
Determines how cooling tower parasitic losses are calculated. For "Cooling Tower at 50% or 100%,"
parasitic losses are calculated as 50% of the design cooling tower parasitic losses when the power
block load is 0.5 or less, and as or 100% of the design parasitic losses when the power block load is
greater than 0.5. For "Cooling Tower parasitics a function of load," cooling tower parasitic losses are
calculated as a function of power block load.
Total Design Parasitics (MWe)
The sum of collector drives and electronics, solar field HTF pump, night circulation pumping, power
block fixed, balance of plant, heater/boiler, and cooling towers design loss values. This value represents
the maximum possible value if all parasitic losses were to occur simultaneously in a given hour, and is
typically greater than the actual parasitic losses. SAM displays the value for reference only, and does
not use it in simulation calculations.

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Equations for Calculated Values

Each parasitic loss type has a set of parameters that includes a factor, PF and F0, F1, and F2 coefficient.
The design point values are maximum values and are calculated using the factor and PF coefficient. SAM
uses the F0-F2 coefficients in calculations for the hourly simulations, which are described in the reference
manual.

Table . Design point parasitic loss equations for each parasitic loss category.
Source of Parasitic Loss Equation
SCA Drives and Electronics Factor x PF x Solar Field Area
Solar Field HTF Pumps Factor x PF x Solar Field Area
TES Pumps Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output
Antifreeze Pumping Factor x Solar Field HTF Pump losses
Power Block Fixed Factor x Gross Turbine Output
Balance of Plant Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output
Heater and Boiler Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output
Cooling Towers Factor x PF x Gross Turbine Output

The Total Design Point Parasitics is the sum of the the design point parastic loss categories:
SCA Drives and Electronics
Solar Field HTF Pumps
TES Pumps
Power Block Fixed
Balance of Plant
Heater and Boiler
Cooling Towers

3.7 Parabolic Trough Physical

A parabolic trough system is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP) system that collects direct normal
solar radiation and converts it to thermal energy that runs a power block to generate electricity. The
components of a parabolic trough system are the solar field, power block, and in some cases, thermal
energy storage and fossil backup systems. The solar field collects heat from the sun and consists of
parabolic, trough-shaped solar collectors that focus direct normal solar radiation onto tubular receivers.
Each collector assembly consists of mirrors and a structure that supports the mirrors and receivers, allows
it to track the sun on one axis, and can withstand wind-induced forces. Each receiver consists of a metal
tube with a solar radiation absorbing surface in a vacuum inside a coated glass tube. A heat transfer fluid
(HTF) transports heat from the solar field to the power block (also called power cycle) and other
components of the system. The power block is based on conventional power cycle technology, using a
turbine to convert thermal energy from the solar field to electric energy. The optional fossil-fuel backup
system delivers supplemental heat to the HTF during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive
the power block at its rated capacity.

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 Parabolic Trough Physical 151

The physical trough system model approaches the task of characterizing the performance of the many of
the system components from first principles of heat transfer and thermodynamics, rather than from
empirical measurements as in the empirical trough system model. The physical model uses mathematical
models that represent component geometry and energy transfer properties, which gives you the flexibility to
specify characteristics of system components such as the absorber emissivity or envelope glass thickness.
The empirical model, on the other hand, uses a set of curve-fit equations derived from regression analysis of
data measured from real systems, so you are limited to modeling systems composed of components for
which there is measured data. While the physical model is more flexible than the empirical model, it adds
more uncertainty to performance predictions than the empirical model. In a physical model, uncertainty in
the geometry and property assumptions for each system component results in an aggregated uncertainty at
the system level that tends to be higher than the uncertainty in an empirical model. We've included both
models in SAM so that you can use both in your analyses.
The following are some key features of the physical model:
Includes transient effects related to the thermal capacity of the heat transfer fluid in the solar field
piping, headers, and balance of plant.
Allows for flexible specification of solar field components, including multiple receiver and collector types
within a single loop.
Relatively short simulation times to allow for parametric and statistical analyses that require multiple
simulation runs.
As with the other SAM models for other technologies, the physical trough model makes use
of existing models when possible:
Collector model adapted from NREL's Excelergy model.
Receiver heat loss model by Forristall (2003).
Field piping pressure drop model by Kelley and Kearney (2006).
Power cycle performance model by Wagner (2008) for the power tower (also known as a central
receiver) CSP system model in SAM.
For publications describing the subcomponent models, see References, Parabolic Trough Technology and
Modeling.

To use the parabolic trough physical model:

1. Start SAM.
2. Under Enter a new project name to begin, type a name for your project. For example,
"Parabolic Trough System."
3. Click Create New File.
4. Under 1. Select a technology, click Concentrating Solar Power.
5. Click Physical Trough System.
6. Under 2. Select a financing option, click an appropriate financing option. You may want to start
with the Utility Independent Power Producer (IPP) option.
7. Click OK.
SAM creates a new .zsam file with a single case populated with default input values for a 100 MW
parabolic trough system.
The parabolic trough input pages for this option described in this section are:
Trough System Costs
Solar Field
Collectors (SCAs)

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Receivers (HCEs)
Power Cycle
Thermal Storage
Parasitics
User Variables

3.7.1 Solar Field

To view the Solar Field page, click Solar Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the Solar Field page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Solar
Field page.
Sizing the Solar Field describes how to choose between Option 1 and Option 2,
choose a field layout, choose an irradiation at design value, and optimize the solar
multiple for systems with and without storage.
Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid describes the steps for creating your own
heat transfer fluid
Specifying the Loop Configuration describes the single loop configuration diagram
and how to specify collector-receiver assemblies in the loop.
Defining Collector Defocusing describes the collector defocusing options
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values
on the Solar Field page.

Overview
The Solar Field page displays variables and options that describe the size and properties of the solar field,
properties of the heat transfer fluid. It also displays reference design specifications of the solar field. See
Input Variable Reference for a description of the solar field input variables.
SAM provides two options for specifying the size of the solar field: Option 1 specifies the field area as a
multiple of the area required to drive the power cycle at its rated capacity under design conditions, and
Option 2 specifies the field area as an explicit value in square meters. See Sizing the Solar Field for details.
You can specify the heat transfer fluid by choosing from a list of pre-defined fluids, or by creating your own
fluid. See Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid for details.
SAM assumes that all collectors in the field use single-axis tracking with the collector tilt and azimuth
defined by the collector orientation input variables. See the variable descriptions in Input Variable Reference
for details.

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The mirror washing variables determine the quantity of water required for mirror washing. See the variable
descriptions in Input Variable Reference for details.

Input Variable Reference

Solar Field Parameters
Option 1 and Option 2
For Option 1 (solar multiple mode), SAM calculates the total required aperture and number of loops
based on the value you enter for the solar multiple. For option 2 (field aperture mode), SAM calculates
the solar multiple based on the field aperture value you enter. Note that SAM does not use the value
that appears dimmed for the inactive option. See Sizing the Solar Field for details.
Solar Multiple
The field aperture area expressed as a multiple of the aperture area required to operate the power cycle
at its design capacity. See Sizing the Solar Field for details.
Solar Field Area
The total solar energy collection area of the solar field in square meters. Note that this is less than the
total mirror surface area.

Note. SAM uses the Solar Multiple and Solar Field Area values shown under Calculated Values for
simulations. The calculated value of the inactive option may differ from the value you see under Field
Layout.

Row spacing (m)

The centerline-to-centerline distance in meters between rows of collectors, assuming that rows are laid
out uniformly throughout the solar field. Default is 15 meters.
Stow angle (degrees)
The collector angle during the hour of stow. A stow angle of zero for a northern latitude is vertical facing
east, and 180 degrees is vertical facing west. Default is 170 degrees.
Deploy angle (degrees)
The collector angle during the hour of deployment. A deploy angle of zero for a northern latitude is
vertical facing due east. Default is 10 degrees.
Number of field subsections
SAM assumes that the solar field is divided into between two and 12 subsections. Examples of solar
field with 2, 4, and 6 subsections are shown below:

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The number of field subsections determine the location and shape of header piping that delivers heat
transfer fluid to the power block, which affects the heat loss calculation.
Header pipe roughness (m)
The header pipe roughness is a measure of the internal surface roughness of the header and runner
piping. SAM uses this value in calculation of the shear force and piping pressure drop in the headers.
Surface roughness is important in determining the scale of the pressure drop throughout the system.
As a general rule, the rougher the surface, the higher the pressure drop (and parasitic pumping power
load). The surface roughness is a function of the material and manufacturing method used for the piping.
A conservative roughness value for extruded steel pipe (the type often used for the absorber pipe) is
about 3e-6 meters. The default value of 4.5e-5 m is based on this value and the absorber tube inner
diameter value of 0.066 m: 3e-6 m / 6.6e-2 m = 4.5e-5.
HTF pump efficiency
The electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion efficiency of the field heat transfer fluid pump. This value
accounts for all mechanical, thermodynamic, and electrical efficiency losses.
Freeze protection temp (ºC)
The minimum temperature that the heat transfer fluid is allowed to reach in the field. The temperature at
which freeze protection equipment is activated. The fluid temperature is maintained at this value during
hours that freeze protection is operating.
Irradiation at design (W/m²)
The design point direct normal radiation value, used in solar multiple mode to calculate the aperture
area required to drive the power cycle at its design capacity. Also used to calculate the design mass
flow rate of the heat transfer fluid for header pipe sizing. See Sizing the Solar Field for details.
Allow partial defocusing
Partial defocusing assumes that the tracking control system can adjust the collector angle in response
to the capacity of the power cycle (and thermal storage system, if applicable). See Defining Collector
Defocusing for details.

Heat Transfer Fluid

Field HTF fluid
The heat transfer fluid (HTF) used in the heat collection elements and headers of the solar field. SAM
includes the following options in the HTF library: Solar salt, Caloria, Hitec XL, Therminol VP-1, Hitec
salt, Dowtherm Q, Dowtherm RP. You can also define your own HTF using the user-defined HTF fluid
option
User-defined HTF fluid
To define your own HTF, choose User-defined for the Field HTF fluid and specify a table of material
properties for use in the solar field. You must specify at least two data points for each property:
temperature, specific heat, density, viscosity, and conductivity. See Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer
Fluid for details.
Design loop inlet temp (ºC)
The temperature of HTF at the loop inlet under design conditions. The actual temperature during
operation may differ from this value. SAM sets the power cycle's design outlet temperature equal to this
value.

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 Parabolic Trough Physical 155

Design loop outlet temp (ºC)

The temperature of the HTF at the outlet of the loop under design conditions. During operation, the
actual value may differ from this set point. This value represents the target temperature for control of the
HTF flow through the solar field and will be maintained when possible.
Min single loop flow rate (kg/s)
The minimum allowable flow rate through a single loop in the field.
Max single loop flow rate (kg/s)
The maximum allowable flow rate through a single loop in the field.
Min field flow velocity (m/s)
The minimum allowable HTF flow velocity through the field.
Max field flow velocity (m/s)
The maximum allowable HTF flow velocity through the field.
Header design min flow velocity (m/s)
A calculated value that indicates the minimum flow velocity in the field corresponding to the specified
minimum single loop flow rate. This value is calculated using the density of the HTF at the design inlet
temperature and the maximum specified receiver diameter.
Header design max flow velocity (m/s)
A calculated value that indicates the maximum flow velocity in the field corresponding to the specified
maximum single loop flow rate. This value is calculated using the density of the HTF at the design
outlet temperature and the minimum specified receiver diameter.
Initial field temperature (ºC)
Temperature of the HTF in the solar field in the first time step of the simulation (Hour one, typically the
hour beginning at midnight on January 1). The value affects the system's performance in the first hours
of the simulation, but typically has little impact on subsequent hours and total annual plant
performance.

Design Point
Single loop aperture (m²)
The aperture area of a single loop of collectors, equal to the product of aperture width, reflective area,
times the structure length times the number of collector assemblies per loop according to the
distribution of the up to four collector types in the field. This area does not include non-reflective surface
on the collector or non-reflective space between collectors.
Single Loop Aperture (m²) = Sum of the SCA Reflective Aperture Area (m²) values for each SCA in
the loop
The SCA reflective aperture area for each SCA type is specified on the Collectors (SCAs) page. The
number of each type of SCA in a single loop is specified under Single Loop Configuration as
described in Specifying the Loop Configuration.
Loop optical efficiency
The optical efficiency when incident radiation is normal to the aperture plane, not including end losses
or cosine losses. This value does not include thermal losses from piping and the receivers.
Loop Optical Efficiency = SCA Optical Efficiency at Design × HCE Optical Derate

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The SCA and HCE optical efficiency values are from the Collectors (SCA) page and Receivers (HCEs)
page, respectively.
Total loop conversion efficiency
The total conversion efficiency of the loop, including optical losses and estimated thermal losses. Used
to calculate the required aperture area of the solar field.
Total Loop Conversion Efficiency = Loop Optical Efficiency × HCE Heat Loss Efficiency
SAM calculates the HCE heat loss efficiency using the Heat Loss at Design value you specify on the
Receivers (HCE) page along with information about the SCA and HCE dimensions:
HCE Heat Loss Efficiency = SCA Length (m) × [1 - HCE Heat Loss at Design (W/m) / [Irradiation at
Design (W/m²) × SCA Reflective Aperture Area (m²) / SCA Length (m)]]
derate = sca_len * (1 - ( hce_hl / ( ibn * sca_ap / sca_len ) ));

Total required aperture, SM=1 (m²)

The exact mirror aperture area required to meet the design thermal output for a solar multiple of 1.0.
SAM uses the required aperture to calculate the actual aperture. The actual aperture may be slightly
more or less than the required aperture, depending on the collector dimensions you specify on the
Collectors page.
Required number of loops, SM=1
The exact number of loops required to produce the total required aperture at a solar multiple of 1.0. This
number may be a non-integer value, SAM rounds this value to the nearest integer to caculate the value
of the actual number of loops variable.
Actual number of loops
The actual number of loops in the field, equal to the solar multiple times the required number of loops at
a solar multiple of 1.0. The required number of loops is rounded to the nearest integer to represent a
realistic field layout.
Actual aperture (m²)
The actual aperture area based on the actual number of loops in the field, equal to the single loop
aperture times the actual number of loops.
Actual solar multiple
For Option 1 (solar multiple mode), the calculated solar multiple based on the actual (rounded) number
of loops in the field. For Option 2 (field aperture mode), the solar multiple value corresponding to the
thermal output of the field based at design point: The actual aperture divided by the field thermal output.
Field thermal output (MWt)
The thermal energy delivered by the solar field under design conditions at the actual solar multiple.

Collector Orientation
Collector tilt (degrees)
The angle of all collectors in the field in degrees from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal. A
positive value tilts up the end of the array closest to the equator (the array's south end in the northern
hemisphere), a negative value tilts down the southern end. SAM assumes that the collectors are fixed
at the tilt angle.

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Collector azimuth (degrees)

The azimuth angle of all collectors in the field, where zero degrees is pointing toward the equator,
equivalent to a north-south axis. West is 90 degrees, and east is -90 degrees. SAM assumes that the
collectors are oriented 90 degrees east of the azimuth angle in the morning and track the daily
movement of the sun from east to west.

Mirror Washing
SAM reports the water usage of the system in the results based on the mirror washing variables. The
annual water usage is the product of the water usage per wash and 365 (days per year) divided by the
washing frequency.
Water usage per wash
The volume of water in liters per square meter of solar field aperture area required for periodic mirror
washing.
Washing frequency
The number of days between washing.

Plant Heat Capacity

The plant heat capacity values determine the thermal inertia due to the mass of hot and cold headers, and
of SCA piping, joints, insulation, and other components whose temperatures rise and fall with the HTF
temperature. SAM uses the thermal inertia values in the solar field energy balance calculations.
You can use the hot and cold piping thermal inertia inputs as empirical adjustment factors to help match
SAM results with observed plant performance.
Hot piping thermal inertia (kWht/K-MWt)
The thermal inertia of the hot header to account for any thermal inertia not accounted for in the HTF
volume calculations: Thermal energy in kilowatt-hours per gross electricity capacity in megawatts
needed to raise the hot side temperature one degree Celsius. The default value is 0.2 kWht/K-MWt.
Cold piping thermal inertia (kWht/K-MWt)
The thermal inertia of the cold header to account for any thermal inertia not accounted for in the HTF
volume calculations: Thermal energy in kilowatt-hours per gross electricity capacity in megawatts
needed to raise the hot side temperature one degree Celsius. The default value is 0.2 kWht/K-MWt.
Field loop thermal inertia (Wht/K-m)
The thermal inertia of piping, joints, insulation, and other SCA components: The amount of thermal
energy per meter of SCA length required to raise the temperature of piping, joints, insulation, and other
SCA components one degree K. The default value is 4.5 Wht/K-m.

Land Area

Note. SAM does not use the land area variables in any calculations. The values are presented for your
reference.

Solar Field Area (m²)

The actual aperture area converted from square meters to acres:
Solar Field Area (acres) = Actual Aperture (m²) × Row Spacing (m) / Maximum SCA Width (m) ×

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0.0002471 (acres/m²)
The maximum SCA width is the aperture width of SCA with the widest aperture in the field, as specified
in the loop configuration and on the Collectors (SCA) page.
Non-Solar Field Land Area Multiplier
Land area required for the system excluding the solar field land area, expressed as a fraction of the
solar field aperture area. A value of one would result in a total land area equal to the total aperture area.
The default value is 1.4.
Total Land Area (acres)
Land area required for the entire system including the solar field land area
Total Land Area (acres) = Solar Field Area (acres) × (1 + Non-Solar Field Land Area Multiplier)

Single Loop Configuration

Number of SCA/HCE assemblies per loop
The number of individual solar collector assemblies (SCAs) in a single loop of the field. Computationally,
this corresponds to the number of simulation nodes in the loop. See Specifying the Loop Configuration
for details.
Edit SCAs
Click Edit SCAs to assign an SCA type number (1-4) to each of the collectors in the loop. Use your
mouse to select collectors, and type a number on your keyboard to assign a type number to the
selected collectors. SAM indicates the SCA type by coloring the rectangle representing the collector in
the diagram, and displaying the type number after the word "SCA." See Specifying the Loop
Configuration for details.
Edit HCEs
Click Edit HCEs to assign a receiver type number (1-4) to each of the collectors in the loop. Use your
mouse to select collectors, and type a number on your keyboard to assign a type number. SAM
indicates the HCE type by coloring the line representing the receiver, and displaying the type number
after the word "HCE." See Specifying the Loop Configuration for details.
Edit Defocus Order
Click Edit Defocus Order to manually define the defocus order of the collectors in the field. Click an
assembly to assign the defocus order. You should assign each collector a unique defocus order
number. See Defining Collector Defocusing for details.
Reset Defocus
Click to reset the defocus order to the default values, starting at the hot end of the loop and proceeding
sequentially toward the cold end of the loop. See Defining Collector Defocusing for details .

Sizing the Solar Field

Sizing the solar field of a parabolic trough system in SAM involves determining the optimal solar field
aperture area for a system at a given location. In general, increasing the solar field area increases the
system's electric output, thereby reducing the project's LCOE. However, during times there is enough solar
resource, too large of a field will produce more thermal energy than the power block and other system
components can handle. Also, as the solar field size increases beyond a certain point, the higher
installation and operating costs outweigh the benefit of the higher output.

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An optimal solar field area should:

Maximize the amount of time in a year that the field generates sufficient thermal energy to drive the
power block at its rated capacity.
Minimize installation and operating costs.
Use thermal energy storage and fossil backup equipment efficiently and cost effectively.
The problem of choosing an optimal solar field area involves analyzing the tradeoff between a larger solar
field that maximizes the system's electrical output and project revenue, and a smaller field that minimizes
installation and operating costs.
The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is a useful metric for optimizing the solar field size because it includes
the amount of electricity generated by the system, the project installation costs, and the cost of operating
and maintaining the system over its life. Optimizing the solar field involves finding the solar field aperture
area that results in the lowest LCOE. For systems with thermal energy storage systems, the optimization
involves finding the combination of field area and storage capacity that results in the lowest LCOE.

Option 1 and Option 2

SAM provides two options for specifying the solar field aperture area: Option 1 (solar multiple) allows you to
specify the solar field area as a multiple of the power block's rated capacity (design gross output), and
Option 2 (field aperture) allows you to specify the solar field aperture area as an explicit value in square
meters.
Option 1: You specify a solar multiple, and SAM calculates the solar field aperture area required to
meet power block rated capacity.
Option 2: You specify the aperture area independently of the power block's rated capacity.
If your analysis involves a known solar field area, you should use Option 2 to specify the solar field aperture
area explicitly.
If your analysis involves optimizing the solar field area for a specific location, or choosing an optimal
combination of solar field aperture area and thermal energy storage capacity, then you should choose
Option 1, and follow the procedure described below to size the field.

Solar Multiple
The solar multiple makes it possible to represent the solar field aperture area as a multiple of the power
block rated capacity. A solar multiple of one (SM=1) represents the solar field aperture area that, when
exposed to solar radiation equal to the design radiation value (irradiation at design), generates the quantity
of thermal energy required to drive the power block at its rated capacity (design gross output), accounting
for thermal and optical losses.
Because at any given location the number of hours in a year that the actual solar resource is equal to the
design radiation value is likely to be small, a solar field with SM=1 will rarely drive the power block at its
rated capacity. Increasing the solar multiple (SM>1) results in a solar field that operates at its design point
for more hours of the year and generates more electricity.
For example, consider a system with a power block design gross output rating of 111 MW and a solar
multiple of one (SM=1) and no thermal storage. The following frequency distribution graph shows that the
power block never generates electricity at its rated capacity, and generates less than 80% of its rated
capacity for most of the time that it generates electricity:

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For the same system with a solar multiple chosen to minimize LCOE (in this example SM=1.5), the power
block generates electricity at or slightly above its rated capacity almost 15% of the time:

Adding thermal storage to the system changes the optimal solar multiple, and increases the amount of time
that the power block operates at its rated capacity. In this example, the optimal storage capacity (full load
hours of TES) is 3 hours with SM=1.75, and the power block operates at or over its rated capacity over 20%
of the time:

Note. For clarity, the frequency distribution graphs above exclude nighttime hours when the gross power
output is zero.

Irradiance at Design
The irradiance at design value is a reference value that represents the solar resource at a given location for
solar field sizing purposes. The value is necessary to establish the relationship between the field aperture
area and power block rated capacity for solar multiple (SM) calculations:
Total Required Aperture SM 1 = Design Gross Output ÷ (Irradiation at Design x Rated Cycle
Conversion Efficiency x Total Loop Conversion Efficiency)

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The total loop efficiency conversion accounts for collector optical and thermal losses.

Note. The irradiance at design value is different from the solar radiation data in the weather file. SAM
uses the design value to size the solar field, but not in hourly simulations.

The irradiance at design value should be close to the maximum direct radiation incident on the field
expected for the location. For trough systems with horizontal collectors and a field azimuth angle of zero in
the Mohave Desert of the United States, we suggest a design irradiance value of 950 W/m2. For southern
Spain, a value of 800 W/m2 is reasonable for similar systems. However, for best results, you should choose
a value for your specific location as described below.
Parabolic trough collectors typically track the sun by rotating on a single axis, which means that the direct
solar radiation rarely (if ever) strikes the collector aperture at a normal angle. Consequently, the total energy
per square meter incident on the solar field in any given hour will always be less than the direct normal
radiation (DNI) value in the resource data for that hour. The cosine-adjusted DNI value is a measure of the
incident irradiance. One method for choosing a design irradiation value involves finding the maximum cosine-
adjusted direct normal irradiation (DNI) given a field orientation and weather data set.
In order to determine the maximum cosine-adjusted DNI for a particular location in SAM, you choose the
weather file on the Climate page, run a test simulation to generate a list of hourly cosine-adjusted DNI
values, and find the maximum value in the list. To ensure that the values are appropriate for your system,
you should set the collector orientation variables on the Solar Field page (collector tilt and azimuth) to the
values you plan to use for your analysis. For this test simulation, the only important variables are:
Location on the Climate page.
Collector tilt on the Solar Field page.
Collector azimuth on the Solar Field page.

To find the maximum cosine-adjusted annual direct normal irradiation value:

1. On the Climate page, choose a location for your system. See Climate page for details.
2. On the Solar Field page, enter values of collector tilt and azimuth for the system. See Input
Variable Reference for descriptions of the input variables. You can use default values for the
remaining inputs.
3. Click run all simulations, or press Ctrl-G.

4. On the Results menu, choose View Hourly Time Series (DView), or press Ctrl-T.
5. On the Boxplot tab, choose Collector_DNI-x-CosTh.
6. Read the maximum annual value from the graph. If you want to use an exact value, right-click the
graph and click Export Data to export of values to a text file, which you can open in a text editor.

Optimizing the Solar Multiple

Representing the solar field aperture area as a solar multiple (Option 1) makes it possible to run parametric
simulations in SAM and create graphs of LCOE versus solar multiple like the ones shown below. You can
use this type of graph to find the optimal solar multiple.

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For a parabolic trough system with no storage, the optimal solar multiple is typically between 1.4 and 1.5.
The graph shown below is for a system with no storage in Blythe, California, the optimal solar multiple is 2,
meaning that the solar field aperture area should be chosen to be twice the area required to drive the power
cycle at its rated capacity:

Because the optimal solar multiple depends on the LCOE, for accurate results, you should specify all of the
project costs, financing, and incentive inputs in addition to the inputs specifying the physical characteristics
of the solar field, power cycle and storage system before the optimization. However, for preliminary results,
you can use default values for any variables for which you do not have values.
The following instructions describe the steps for optimizing the solar multiple for a preliminary system
design that mostly uses default values except for a few key variables. This example is for a 50 MW system,
but you can use the same procedure for a system of any size.

To optimize the solar field with no storage:

1. Create a new physical trough project with Utility IPP financing.
2. On the Climate page, choose a location.
3. Follow the instructions above to find an appropriate irradiation at design value for your weather data.
Use zero for both the collector tilt and azimuth variables.
4. On the Power Cycle page, for Design gross output, type 55 to specify a power block with a rated
net electric output capacity of 50 MW (based on the default net conversion factor of 0.9).
5. On the Thermal Storage page, for Full load hours of TES, type 0 to specify a system with no
storage.
6. On the Solar Field page, under Solar Field Parameters, choose Option 1 (solar multiple) if it is
not already active.
7. Click Configure simulations.

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8. Click Parametrics.

9. Click Add Parametric Simulation.

10. Click Add to open the Choose Parametrics window.
11. Double-click the Physical Trough Solar Field category to show the list of solar field variables.
12. Check Solar Multiple.

Note. Do not check Actual solar multiple. The actual solar multiple is a calculated value on the solar
field page whose value you cannot change.

13. Click Edit to open the Edit Parametric Values window.

14. Type the following values: Start Value = 1, End Value = 2, Increment = 0.25.
15. Click Update. The parametric simulation setup options should look like this:
16. Click OK.

17. Click Run all simulations. SAM will run a simulation for each of the 5 solar multiple values you
specified. The simulations may take a few minutes to run.

18. On the Results page, click Add a new graph.

19. Choose the following options: Choose Simulation = Parametric Set 1, X Value = {Solar Multiple},
Y1 Values = LCOE Nominal, Graph Type = Line Plot
20. Click Accept. SAM should display a graph that looks similar to the "Nominal LCOE vs Solar
Multiple (No Storage)" graph above.

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21. On the graph, find the solar multiple value that results in the lowest LCOE. If the minimum LCOE
occurs at either end of the graph, you may need to add more values to the solar multiple parametric
variable to find the optimal value.

Optimal Solar Multiple for a System with Storage

Adding storage to the system introduces another level of complexity: Systems with storage can increase
system output (and decrease the LCOE) by storing energy from an larger solar field for use during times
when the solar field output is below the design point. However, the thermal energy storage system's cost
and thermal losses also increase the LCOE.
To find the optimal combination of solar multiple and storage capacity for systems with thermal storage, run
a parametric analysis as described above, but with two parametric variables instead of one: Solar multiple
and Full load hours of TES (storage capacity). The parametric setup options should look similar to this:

After running simulations, you will be able to create a graph like the one below that allows you to choose
the combination of solar multiple and storage capacity that minimizes the LCOE. For example, the following
graph shows that for a system in Blythe, California, the optimal combination of solar multiple and thermal
storage capacity is SM = 1.75 and Hours of TES = 3.

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Each line in the graph represents a number of hours of thermal energy storage from the list we saw in the
list of parametric values for the Equivalent Full Load Hours of TES variable: 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 hours of
storage.
For the no storage case (the dark green line, zero hours of storage), the lowest levelized cost of energy
occurs at a solar multiple of 1.25. For a given storage capacity, as the solar multiple increases, both the
area-dependent installation costs electricity output increase. The interaction of these factors causes the
levelized cost of energy to decrease as the solar multiple increases from 1, but at some point the cost
increase overwhelms the benefit of the increased electric energy output, and the levelized cost of energy
begins to increase with the solar multiple.

Simplified Steps for Optimizing the Solar Field

If you are performing a preliminary analysis or learning to use SAM, you can use the following simplified
steps, using default values for most of the inputs:
1. Choose a location on the Climate page.
2. Specify the power cycle capacity on the Power Cycle page.
3. Choose an irradiation at design value on the Solar Field page.
4. Optimize the solar field aperture area using Option 1.

Overall Steps for Optimizing the Solar Field

1. Choose a location on the Climate page.
2. Specify the power cycle capacity and other characteristics on the Power Cycle page.
3. Specify characteristics of the solar field components on the Receivers (HCEs) and Collectors (SCAs)
pages.
4. If the system includes thermal energy storage, specify its characteristics on the Thermal Storage page.
(Note. For systems with storage, use the optimization process in Step 8 below to find the optimal
storage capacity.)
5. Define the project costs on the Trough System Costs page.

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6. Configure a single loop and specify solar field heat transfer fluid (HTF) properties on the Solar Field
page.
7. Specify the collector orientation on the Solar Field page.
8. Choose an irradiation at design value on the Solar Field page.
9. Either optimize the solar field aperture area using Option 1, or specify the solar field area explicitly
using Option 2 on the Solar Field page.
[Link] your analysis by adjusting other model parameters.

Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid

If the heat transfer fluid you want to use in the solar field is not included in the Field HTF Fluid list, you can
define a custom heat transfer fluid using the User-defined option in the list. To define a custom fluid, you
need to know the following properties for at least two temperatures:
Temperature, ºC
Specific heat, kJ/kg-K
Density, kg/m³
Viscosity, Pa-s
Kinematic viscosity, m²-s
Conductivity, W/m-K
Enthalpy, J/kg
HTF properties are available from the fluid manufacturers.

Table 18. Heat transfer fluids on the Field HTF Fluid list.
Max Operating
Min HTF Temp Temp
Name Type ºC ºC Freeze Point Comments
Solar Salt Salt 260 600 220
Caloria mineral -20 300 -40 used in first Luz
hydrocarbon oil trough plant,
SEGS I
Hitec XL Nitrate salt 150 500 120 New generation
Therminol VP-1 mixture of 50 400 12 Standard for
biphenyl and current
diphenyl oxide generation oil
HTF systems
Hitec Nitrate salt 175 500 140 For high-
temperature
systems
Dowtherm Q Synthetic oil -30 330 -50 New generation
Dowtherm RP Synthetic oil -20 350 -40 New generation

To define a custom heat transfer fluid:

1. In the Field HTF fluid list, click User-defined.

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2. In the Edit Material Properties table, change Number of data points to 2 or higher. The number
should equal the number of temperature values for which you have data.
3. Type values for each property in the table.
You can also import data from a text file of comma-separated values. Each row in the file should
contain properties separated by commas, in the same the order that they appear in the Edit
Material Properties window. Do not include a header row in the file.
Keep the following in mind when you define a custom heat transfer fluid:
Each row in the materials property fluid table must be for a set of properties at a specific temperature.
No two rows should have the same temperature value.
SAM calculates property values from the table using linear interpolation.
The rows in the table must sorted by the temperature value, in either ascending or descending order.
The physical trough model uses the temperature, specific heat, density, viscosity, and conductivity
values. It ignores the enthalpy and kinematic viscosity values (the empirical trough model does use
those values).

Specifying the Loop Configuration

The solar field consists of loops of collector-receiver assemblies. On the Solar Field page, you specify the
characteristics of a single loop in the field.

When you configure a loop, you specify the following characteristics using the single loop configuration
diagram:
Number of assemblies in a single loop.
Collector (SCA) type of each assembly in the loop.
Receiver (HCE) type of each assembly in the loop.
Collector defocusing order, if applicable.
Each rectangle in the diagram represents a collector-reciever assembly. SAM allows you to specify a single
loop of up to 35 collector-receiver assemblies, and up to four different receiver and collector types.

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Note. In the current version of SAM, it is not possible to specify more than one loop. If your field
consists of different types of collectors and receivers, you must represent the proportion of different
types in a single loop.

Assembly #1, at the cold end of the loop, appears at the top left corner of the diagram. Depending on the
collector defocusing option you use, you may need to know each assembly's number to assign a collector
defocusing order. See Defining Collector Defocusing for details.

The color of the rectangle and SCA number indicates the collector type of each assembly. Similarly, the
color of the line representing the receiver and the HCE number indicates the receiver type. The "DF" number
indicates the collector defocusing order:

The characteristics of each collector type are defined on the Collectors page, and of each receiver type on
the Receivers page.

To specify the loop configuration:

1. In Number of SCA/HCE assemblies per loop, type a number between 1 and 32. SAM displays a
rectangle for each assembly in the loop.
2. If the loop has more than one type of collector, define each of up to four collector types on the
Collectors page. At this stage in your analysis, you can simply make note of the type number for
each collector type you plan to include in the loop and define its characteristics on the Collectors
page later.
3. Click Edit SCAs.

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4. Use your mouse to select all of the collectors to which you want to assign a type number. You can
use the Ctrl key to select individual collectors.
5. Use your keyboard to type the number corresponding to the collector's type number as defined on
the Collectors page. SAM displays the collector (SCA) type number and color in the rectangle
representing the collector type.
6. Repeat Steps 4-5 for each collector type in the loop.
7. If the loop includes more than one receiver type, click Edit HCEs, and follow Steps 4-6 for each
receiver (HCE) type. You can define up to four receiver types on the Receivers page.

Defining Collector Defocusing

During hours when the solar field delivers more thermal energy than the power cycle (and thermal storage
system, if available) can accept, or when the mass flow rate is higher than the maximum single loop flow
rate defined on the Solar Field page, SAM defocuses collectors in the solar field to reduce the solar field
thermal output. Mathematically, the model multiplies the radiation incident on the collector by a defocusing
factor. In a physical system, the collector tracker would adjust the collector angle to reduce the amount of
absorbed energy.
SAM provides three defocusing options:
Option 1. No partial defocusing allowed: Collectors are either oriented toward the sun or in stow
position. Collectors defocus in the order you specify. You should define a defocusing order as described
below for this option.
Option 2. Partial defocusing allowed with sequenced defocusing: Collectors can partially defocus by
making slight adjustments in the tracking angle. Collectors defocus in the order you specify. You
should define a defocusing order as described below for this option.
Option 3. Partial defocusing allowed with simultaneous defocusing: Collectors can partially defocus by
making slight adjustments in the tracking angle. All of the collectors in the field defocus by the same
amount at the same time. You do not need to define a defocusing order for this option.

To define collector defocusing option:

In the Solar Field Parameters options, choose a defocusing option (see descriptions above):
Option 1: Clear Allow partial defocusing.
Option 2: Check Allow partial defocusing, and choose Sequenced.
Option 3: Check Allow partial defocusing, and choose Simultaneous.
If you choose Option 1 or Option 2, you should define the defocus order as described in the next procedure.
If you choose Option 3, SAM ignores the defocusing order displayed in the single loop diagram.

To define the defocus order:

1. If you choose Option 1 or 2 for the defocusing option, under Single Loop Configuration, click Edit
Defocus Order.
2. Click each collector-receiver assembly in the loop, and type a number in the Defocus Order
window. Assemblies are numbered starting at the top right corner of the diagram, at the cold end of
the loop. Be sure to assign a unique defocus order number to each assembly.
Click Reset Defocus if you want the defocus order to start at the hot end of the loop and proceed
sequentially to the cold end of the loop.

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Equations for Calculated Values

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Solar Field page. It is currently under
development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.

Min field flow velocity, Max field flow velocity

The minimum and maximum solar field HTF flow velocity depend on the minimum and maximum HTF mass
flow rates, HTF density at the design loop inlet temperature, and the absorber tube inner diamater specified
on the Receivers page. SAM calculates the field HTF flow velocity for the receiver type with the smallest
diameter.

Single loop aperture

Loop optical efficiency

Total loop conversion efficiency

Total required aperture, SM=1

Required number of loops, SM=1

Actual number of loops

Actual aperture

Actual solar multiple

Field thermal output

3.7.2 Collectors (SCAs)

To view the Collectors page, click Collectors (SCAs) on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for
the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the Collectors page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Collectors
page.

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Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values
on the Collectors page.

Overview
A collector (SCA, solar collector assembly) is an individually tracking component of the solar field that
includes mirrors, a supporting structure, and receivers.

Note. See the Troughnet website at [Link] for more

information about collectors.

On the Collectors page, you can define the characteristics of up to four collector types. On the Solar Field
page, you specify how the different collector types are distributed in each loop of the field, assuming that
the field consists of identical loops. SAM only uses data for collector types that you have included in the
single loop specification on the Solar Field page

Input Variable Reference

Collector Type and Configuration Name
Collector Type
Choose the active SCA type (1-4). SAM displays the properties of the active SCA type on the
Collectors page. You can assign different properties to each of the up to four collector types. See
Specifying the Loop Configuration for details on including different SCA types in the solar field.
Configuration Name
The name of library entry for the receiver type.

Collector Geometry
Reflective aperture area (m 2)
The total reflective area of a single collector, used to calculate the loop aperture area of a loop, and
number of loops required for a solar field with the aperture area defined on the Solar Field page.
Aperture width, total structure (m)
The structural width of the collector, including reflective and non-reflective area. SAM uses this value to
calculate row-to-row shadowing and blocking effects.
Length of collector assembly (m)
The length of the collector assembly, used to calculate the length of a single assembly, and for a solar
field with an "H" layout, the length of runner pipes.
Number of modules per assembly
The number of individual collector-receiver sections in a single collector.
Average surface-to-focus path length (m)
The average distance between the collector surface and the focus of the parabola. This value is not
equal to the focal length of the collector. To calculate the value when you know the focal length and

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aperture width, use the following equation, where Favg is the average surface-to-focus path length:

Where a is the focal length at the vertex, and w is the aperture width
Piping distance between assemblies (m)
Length of pipes and hoses connecting collectors in a single row, not including the length of crossover
pipes.
Length of single module (m)
The length of a single collector-receiver module, equal to the collector assembly length divided by the
number of modules per assembly.

Optical Parameters
Incidence angle modifier coeff 1-3
Coefficients for a polynomial equation defining the Incidence Angle Modifier equation. The equation
captures the degradation of collector performance as the incidence angle (theta) of the solar radiation
increases.
Tracking error
Accounts for reduction in absorbed radiation error in collectors tracking caused by poor alignment of
sun sensor, tracking algorithm error, errors caused by the tracker drive update rate, and twisting of the
collector end at the sun sensor mounting location relative to the tracking unit end.
Geometry effects
Accounts for errors in structure geometry caused by misaligned mirrors, mirror contour distortion
caused by the support structure, mirror shape errors compared to an ideal parabola, and misaligned or
distorted receiver.
Clean mirror reflectance
The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular
reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular
reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as
viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs,
typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0.906 (silvered
polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface).
Dirt on mirror
Accounts for reduction in absorbed radiation caused by soiling of the mirror surface. This value is not
linked to the mirror washing variables on the Solar Field page.
General optical error
Accounts for reduction in absorbed radiation caused by general optical errors or other unaccounted
error sources.

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Optical Calculations
Incidence angle modifier
The incidence angle modifier equation calculated as a reference for the location in question at noon on
the summer solstice. This value is not used in determining the design of the solar field.
End loss at design
Optical end loss at noon on the summer solstice due to reflected radiation spilling off of the end of the
collector assembly. This value is provided as a reference and is not used in determining the design of
the solar field.
Optical efficiency at design
The collector's optical efficiency under design conditions.

Equations for Calculated Values

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Collectors page. It is currently under
development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.

Incidence angle modifier

Where,
IAM incidence angle modifier
F0-2 incidence angle modifier coefficients that you specify on the Collectors page
Theta solar incidence angle (zero at normal incidence)

End loss at design

Optical efficiency at design

3.7.3 Receivers (HCEs)

To view the Receivers page, click Receivers (HCEs) on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for
the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the Receivers page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Receivers
page.

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Specifying Receiver Type Variations describes an example of using variant
weighting fraction values and different receiver types.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values
on the Receivers page.

Overview
A receiver (HCE, heat collection element) is a metal pipe contained in a vacuum within glass tube that runs
through the focal line of the trough-shaped parabolic collector. Seals and bellows ensure that a vacuum is
maintained in each tube. Anti-reflective coatings on the glass tube maximize the amount of solar radiation
that enters the tube. Solar-selective radiation absorbing coatings on the metal tube maximize the transfer of
energy from the solar radiation to the pipe.

Note. See the Troughnet website at [Link] for more

information about receivers.

On the Receivers page, you define the characteristics of up to four receiver types. On the Solar Field page,
you specify how the different receiver types are distributed in each loop of the field, assuming that the field
consists of identical loops. SAM only uses data for receiver types that you have included in the single loop
specification on the Solar Field page.
For each receiver type, you also specify up to four variations. You can use the variations to describe
different conditions of the receiver type. For example, you may use one variation to describe the receiver
type in good condition, and another to describe the receiver type with a damaged glass envelope.

Input Variable Reference

Receiver Type and Configuration Name
Receiver Type
Choose the active receiver type (1-4). SAM displays the properties of the active receiver.
Configuration Name
The name of library entry for the receiver type.
Choose receiver from library
Allows you to choose a receiver from the library of available receivers.

Receiver Geometry
Absorber tube inner diameter (m)
Inner diameter of the receiver absorber tube, this surface in direct contact with the heat transfer fluid.
Absorber tube outer diameter (m)
Outer diameter of the receiver absorber tube, the surface exposed to the annular vacuum.
Glass envelope inner diameter (m)
Inner diameter of the receiver glass envelope tube, the surface exposed to the annular vacuum.

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 Parabolic Trough Physical 175

Glass envelope outer diameter (m)

Outer diameter of the receiver glass envelope tube, the surface exposed to ambient air.
Absorber flow plug diameter (m)
A non-zero value represents the diameter of an optional plug running axially and concentrically within
the receiver absorber tube. A zero value represents a receiver with no plug. The plug allows for an
increase in the receiver absorber diameter while maintaining the optimal heat transfer within the tube
heat transfer fluid. For a non-zero value, be sure to use annular flow for the absorber flow pattern option.
Internal surface roughness
The surface roughness of the inner receiver pipe surface exposed to the heat transfer fluid, used to
determine flow shear force and the corresponding pressure drop across the receiver.
Surface roughness is important in determining the scale of the pressure drop throughout the system.
As a general rule, the rougher the surface, the higher the pressure drop (and parasitic pumping power
load). The surface roughness is a function of the material and manufacturing method used for the piping.
A conservative roughness value for extruded steel pipe (the type often used for the absorber pipe) is
about 3e-6 meters. The default value of 4.5e-5 m is based on this value and the absorber tube inner
diameter value of 0.066 m: 3e-6 m / 6.6e-2 m = 4.5e-5.
Absorber flow pattern (m)
Use standard tube flow when the absorber flow plug diameter is zero. Use annual flow with a non-zero
absorber flow plug diameter.
Absorber material type
The material used for the absorber tube. Choose from stainless steel or copper.

Parameters and Variations

Variant weighting fraction
The fraction of the solar field that consists of the active receiver variation. For each receiver type, the
sum of the four variations should equal one. See Specifying Receiver Type Variations for details.
Absorber absorptance
The ratio of radiation absorbed by the absorber to the radiation incident on the absorber.
Absorber emittance
The energy radiated by the absorber surface as a function of the absorber's temperature. You can either
specify a table of emittance and temperature values, or specify a single value that applies at all
temperatures.
Envelope absorptance
The ratio of radiation absorbed by the envelope to the radiation incident on the envelope, or radiation
that is neither transmitted through nor reflected from the envelope. Used to calculate the glass
temperature. (Does not affect the amount of radiation that reaches the absorber tube.)
Envelope emittance
The energy radiated by the envelope surface.
Envelope transmittance
The ratio of the radiation transmitted through the glass envelope to the radiation incident on the
envelope, or radiation that is neither reflected nor refracted away from the absorber tube.

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Broken glass
Option to specify that the envelope glass has been broken or removed, indicating that the absorber tube
is directly exposed to the ambient air.
Annulus gas type
Gas type present in the annulus vacuum. Choose from Hydrogen, air, or Argon.
Annulus pressure (torr)
Absolute pressure of the gas in the annulus vacuum, in torr, where 1 torr = 133.32 Pa
Estimated avg. heat loss (W/m)
An estimated value representing the total heat loss from the receiver under design conditions. SAM
uses the value to calculate the total loop conversion efficiency and required solar field aperture area for
the design point values on the Solar Field page. It does not use the value in simulation calculations.
Bellows shadowing
An optical derate factor accounting for the fraction of radiation lost after striking the mechanical bellows
at the ends of the receiver tubes.
Dirt on receiver
An optical derate factor accounting for the fraction of radiation lost due to dirt and soiling on the
receiver.

Total Weighted Losses

The total weighted losses are used in the solar field sizing calculations as an estimate of the optical and
thermal losses in the solar field at the design point. SAM does not use the weighted loss variables in hourly
simulations.
Heat loss at design
The total thermal loss expected from the active receiver type under design conditions accounting for the
weighting fraction of the four receiver variations. SAM uses the value to calculate the design point total
loop conversion efficiency and the solar field aperture area shown on the Solar Field page.
Optical derate
Represents the total optical losses expected from the active receiver type under design conditions
accounting for the weighting fraction of the four receiver variations. SAM uses the value to calculate the
design point total loop conversion efficiency and the solar field aperture area shown on the Solar Field
page.

Specifying Receiver Type Variations

You can use the receiver variations to model a solar field with receivers in different conditions. If you want all
of the receivers in the field to be identical, then you can use a single variation and assign it a variant
weighting fraction of 1.
When you use more than one receiver variation, be sure that the sum of the four variant weighting fractions
is 1.
Here's an example of an application of the receiver variations for a field that consists of a two receiver types.
The first type, Type 1, represents receivers originally installed in the field. Type 2 represents replacement
receivers installed as a fraction of the original receivers are damaged over time.

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Over the life of the project, on average, 5 percent of the Type 1 receivers have broken glass envelopes, and
another 5 percent have lost vacuum in the annulus. We'll also assume that degraded receivers are randomly
distributed throughout the field -- SAM does not have a mechanism for specifying specific locations of
different variations of a given receiver type. To specify this situation, we would start with Type 1, and use
Variation 1 to represent the 90 percent of intact receivers, assigning it a variant weighting fraction of 0.90.
We'll use Variation 2 for the 5 percent of receivers with broken glass envelopes, giving it a weighting fraction
of 0.05, and Variation 3 for the other 5 percent of lost-vacuum receivers with a weighting fraction of 0.05.
We'll assign appropriate values to the parameters for each of the two damaged receiver variations.
Next, we'll specify Type 2 to represent intact replacement receivers. We will us a single variation for the
intact Type 2 receivers.
On the Solar Field page, we'll specify the single loop configuration (assuming a loop with eight assemblies),
using Type 2 for the first and second assembly in the loop, and Type 1 receivers (with the variant weighting
we assigned on the Receivers page) for the remaining six assemblies in the loop.

Equations for Calculated Values

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Receivers page. It is currently under
development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.

Heat loss at design

Optical derate

3.7.4 Power Cycle

To view the Power Cycle page, click Power Cycle on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the power cycle model and where to find more information about
the model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Power
Cycle page.
Modeling a Fossil-fired Backup Boiler describes the steps for including a backup
boiler in the system.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values
on the Power Cycle page.

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Overview
The power cycle model represents a power block that converts thermal energy delivered by the solar field
and optional thermal energy system to electric energy using a conventional steam Rankine cycle power
plant.
The power cycle can use either an evaporative cooling system for wet cooling, or an air-cooled system for
dry cooling.
The power cycle may include a fossil-fired backup boiler that heats the heat transfer fluid before it enters the
power cycle during times when there is insufficient solar energy to drive the power cycle at its design load.

The power cycle model for the SAM physical trough model is the same as that used for the power tower
model. For a detailed description of the power cycle model, see Chapter 4 of Wagner M, 2008. Simulation
and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants. Master of
Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Plant Capacity
Design gross output (MWe)
The power cycle's design output, not accounting for parasitic losses. SAM uses this value to size
system components, such as the solar field area when you use the solar multiple to
specify the solar field size.
Estimated gross to net conversion factor
An estimate of the ratio of the electric energy delivered to the grid to the power cycle's gross output.
SAM uses the factor to calculate the power cycle's nameplate capacity for capacity-related
calculations, including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the Trough System Costs
page, capacity-based incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the capacity factor reported in
the results.
Estimated net output design (nameplate) (MWe)
The power cycle's nameplate capacity, calculated as the product of the design gross output and
estimated gross to net conversion factor.

Power Block Design Point

Rated cycle conversion efficiency
The thermal to electric conversion efficiency of the power cycle under design conditions.
Design inlet temperature (ºC)
The heat transfer fluid temperature at the power cycle inlet under design conditions.
Design outlet temperature (ºC)
The heat transfer fluid temperature at the power cycle outlet under design conditions.

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Boiler operating pressure (bar)

The steam pressure in the main Rankine cycle boiler at design, used to calculate the steam saturation
temperature in the boiler, and thus the driving heat transfer temperature difference between the inlet
heat transfer fluid and the steam in the boiler.
Boiler LHV efficiency
The back-up boiler's lower heating value efficiency, used to calculate the quantity of gas required by the
back-up boiler. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details.
Heat capacity of balance of plant (kWht/ºC-MWhe)
A term to introduce additional thermal capacity into the solar field to account for thermal inertia effects
not directly linked to the mass of heat transfer fluid in the solar field. The units for this value are thermal
kilowatt-hours per megawatt of gross electric output capacity needed to raise the balance of plant
temperature one degree Celsius.
Steam cycle blowdown fraction
The fraction of the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle that is extracted and replaced by fresh
water. This fraction is multiplied by the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle for each hour of plant
operation to determine the total required quantity of power cycle makeup water. The blowdown fraction
accounts for water use related directly to replacement of the steam working fluid. The default value of
0.013 for the wet-cooled case represents makeup due to blowdown quench and steam cycle makeup
during operation and startup. A value of 0.016 is appropriate for dry-cooled systems to account for
additional wet-surface air cooling for critical Rankine cycle components.

Plant Control
Fraction of thermal power needed for standby
The fraction of the power cycle's design thermal input required from storage to keep the power cycle in
standby mode. This thermal energy is not converted into electric power. SAM does not calculate
standby energy for systems with no storage.
Power block startup time (hr)
The time in hours that the system consumes energy at the startup fraction before it begins producing
electricity. If the startup fraction is zero, the system will operate at the design capacity during the
startup time.
Fraction of thermal power needed for startup
The fraction of the turbine's design thermal input energy required during startup. This thermal energy is
not converted to electric power.
Min required startup temp (ºC)
The temperature at which heat transfer fluid circulation through the power cycle heat exchangers
begins, typically near the power block design heat transfer fluid outlet temperature.
Max turbine over design operation
The maximum allowable power cycle output as a fraction of the electric nameplate capacity. Whenever
storage is not available and the solar resource exceeds the irradiation at design value from the Solar
Field page, some collectors in the solar field are defocused to limit the power block output to the
maximum load.

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Min turbine operation
The fraction of the nameplate electric capacity below which the power cycle does not generate
electricity. Whenever the power block output is below the minimum load and thermal energy is available
from the solar field, the field is defocused. For systems with storage, solar field energy is delivered to
storage until storage is full before the field is defocused.

Cooling System
Condenser type
Choose either an air-cooled condenser (dry cooling), evaporative cooling (wet cooling), or hybrid cooling
system.
In hybrid cooling a wet-cooling system and dry-cooling share the heat rejection load. Although there are
many possible theoretical configurations of hybrid cooling systems, SAM only allows a parallel cooling
option.
Hybrid Dispatch
For hybrid cooling, the hybrid dispatch table specifies how much of the cooling load should be handled
by the wet-cooling system for each of 6 period in the year. The periods are specified in the matrices on
the Thermal Storage page. Each value in the table is a fraction of the design cooling load. For example,
if you want 60% of heat rejection load to go to wet cooling in Period 1, type 0.6 for Period 1. Directing
part of the heat rejection load to the wet cooling system reduces the total condenser temperature and
improves performance, but increases the water requirement. SAM sizes the wet-cooling system to
match the maximum fraction that you specify in the hybrid dispatch table, and sizes the air-cooling
system to is sized to meet the full cooling load.
Ambient temp at design (ºC)
The ambient temperature at which the power cycle operates at its design-point-rated cycle conversion
efficiency. For the air-cooled condenser option, use a dry bulb ambient temperature value. For the
evaporative condenser, use the wet bulb temperature.
Ref. Condenser Water dT (ºC)
For the evaporative type only. The temperature rise of the cooling water across the condenser under
design conditions, used to calculate the cooling water mass flow rate at design, and the steam
condensing temperature.
Approach temperature (ºC)
For the evaporative type only. The temperature difference between the circulating water at the
condenser inlet and the wet bulb ambient temperature, used with the ref. condenser water dT value to
determine the condenser saturation temperature and thus the turbine back pressure.
ITD at design point (ºC)
For the air-cooled type only. Initial temperature difference (ITD), difference between the temperature of
steam at the turbine outlet (condenser inlet) and the ambient dry-bulb temperature.
Condenser pressure ratio
For the air-cooled type only. The pressure-drop ratio across the air-cooled condenser heat exchanger,
used to calculate the pressure drop across the condenser and the corresponding parasitic power
required to maintain the air flow rate.
Min condenser pressure
The minimum condenser pressure in inches if mercury prevents the condenser pressure from dropping

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below the level you specify. In a physical system, allowing the pressure to drop below a certain point
can result in physical damage to the system. For evaporative (wet cooling), the default value is 1.25
inches of mercury. For air-cooled (dry cooling), the default is 2 inches of mercury. For hybrid systems,
you can use the dry-cooling value of 2 inches of mercury.
Cooling system part load levels
The cooling system part load levels tells the heat rejection system model how many discrete operating
points there are. A value of 2 means that the system can run at either 100% or 50% rejection. A value
of three means rejection operating points of 100% 66% 33%. The part load levels determine how the
heat rejection operates under part load conditions when the heat load is less than full load. The default
value is 2, and recommended range is between 2 and 10. The value must be an integer.

Modeling a Fossil-fired Backup Boiler

To model a system with a fossil-fired backup boiler, set the boiler LHV efficiency input variable value to an
appropriate value, and define the boiler's operating schedule on the Thermal Storage page. See Storage and
Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details.

Equations for Calculated Values

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Power Cycle page. It is currently under
development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.

Estimated net output at design (nameplate)

Design inlet temperature

Design outlet temperature

3.7.5 Thermal Storage

To view the Thermal Storage page, click Thermal Storage on the main window's navigation menu. Note
that for the physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market
window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the thermal storage model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Thermal
Storage page.
Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls describes the storage dispatch
options, and the control parameters for a fossil-fired backup boiler.
Defining Dispatch Schedules explains how to assign times to the six dispatch
periods using the weekday and weekend schedules.

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Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values
on the Thermal Storage page.

Overview
A thermal energy storage system (TES) stores heat from the solar field in a liquid medium. Heat from the
storage system can drive the power block turbine during periods of low or no sunlight. A thermal storage
system is beneficial in many locations where the peak demand for power occurs after the sun has set.
Adding thermal storage to a parabolic trough system allows the collection of solar energy to be separated
from the operation of the power block. For example, a system might be able to collect energy in the
morning and use it to generate electricity late into the evening.
In direct storage systems, the solar field's heat transfer fluid itself serves as the storage medium. In indirect
systems, a separate fluid is the storage fluid, and heat is transferred from the solar field's heat transfer fluid
to the storage fluid through heat exchangers. The thermal storage system consists of one or more tank
pairs, pumps to circulate the liquids, and depending on the design, heat exchangers. Each tank pair
consists of a hot tank to store heat from the solar field, and a cold tank to store the cooled storage medium
after the power block has extracted its energy.

Note. For more information on thermal energy storage systems for parabolic trough systems, see http://
[Link]/csp/troughnet/thermal_energy_storage.html.

The storage system variables describe the thermal energy storage system. The thermal storage dispatch
control variables determine when the system dispatches energy from the storage system, and from a fossil-
fired backup system if the system includes one.

Input Variable Reference

Storage System
Full Load Hours of TES (hours)
The thermal storage capacity expressed in number of hours of thermal energy delivered at the power
block's design thermal input level. The physical capacity is the number of hours of storage multiplied by
the power cycle design thermal input. Used to calculate the system's maximum storage capacity.
Storage volume (m 3)
SAM calculates the total heat transfer fluid volume in storage based on the storage hours at full load
and the power block design turbine thermal input capacity. The total heat transfer fluid volume is divided
among the total number of tanks so that all hot tanks contain the same volume of fluid, and all cold
tanks contain the same volume of fluid.
TES Thermal capacity (MWt)
The equivalent thermal capacity of the storage tanks, assuming the thermal storage system is fully
charged. This value does not account for losses incurred through the heat exchanger for indirect storage
systems.
Parallel tank pairs
The number of parallel hot-cold storage tank pairs. Increasing the number of tank-pairs also increases
the volume of the heat transfer fluid exposed to the tank surface, which increases the total tank thermal

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losses. SAM divides the total heat transfer fluid volume among all of the tanks, and assumes that each
hot tank contains an equal volume of fluid, and each cold tank contains and equal volume.
Tank height (m)
The height of the cylindrical volume of heat transfer fluid in each tank.
Tank fluid min height (m)
The minimum allowable height of fluid in the storage tank(s). The mechanical limits of the tank
determine this value.
Tank diameter (m)
The diameter of a storage tank, assuming that all tanks have the same dimensions. SAM calculates
this value based on the specified height and storage volume of a single tank, assuming that all tanks
have the same dimensions.
Min fluid volume (m 3)
The volume of fluid in a tank that corresponds to the tank's minimum fluid height specified above.
Tank loss coeff (W/m 2-K)
The thermal loss coefficient for the storage tanks. This value specifies the number of thermal watts lost
from the tanks per square meter of tank surface area and temperature difference between the storage
fluid bulk temperature and the ambient dry bulb temperature.
Estimated heat loss (MWt)
The estimated value of heat loss from all storage tanks. The estimate assumes that the tanks are 50%
charged, so that the storage fluid is evenly distributed among the cold and hot tanks, and that the hot
tank temperature is equal to the solar field hot (outlet) temperature, and the cold tank temperature is
equal to the solar field cold (inlet) temperature.
Tank heater set point (ºC)
The minimum allowable storage fluid temperature in the storage tanks. If the fluid temperature falls
below the set point, the auxiliary heaters deliver energy to the tanks, attempting to increase the
temperature to the set point.
Fossil dispatch mode
Choose an option to define how the fossil backup system operates. See Storage and Fossil Dispatch
Controls for details.
Aux heater outlet set temp (ºC)
The temperature set point for the auxiliary heaters, assumed to be electric heaters.
Tank heater capacity (MWt)
The maximum rate at which heat can be added by the auxiliary electric tank heaters to the storage fluid
in the tanks.
Tank heater efficiency
The electrical to thermal conversion efficiency of the auxiliary electric tank heaters.
Hot side HX approach temp (ºC)
Applies to systems with a heat exchanger only (indicated by a heat exchanger derate value of less than
one). The temperature difference on the hot side of the solar-field-to-thermal-storage heat exchanger.
During charge cycles, the temperature is the solar field hot outlet temperature minus the storage hot
tank inlet temperature. During discharge cycles, it is defined as the storage hot tank temperature minus

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the power cycle hot inlet temperature.
Cold side HX approach temp (ºC)
Applies to systems with a heat exchanger only (indicated by a heat exchanger derate value less than
one). The temperature difference on the cold side of the solar field-to-thermal-storage heat exchanger.
During charge cycles, the temperature is the storage cold temperature (storage outlet) minus the heat
exchanger cold temperature. During discharge cycles, it is the heat exchanger cold temperature minus
the storage cold temperature (storage inlet).
Heat exchanger derate
A calculated value indicating the temperature derate caused by the heat exchanger approach
temperatures. The derate factor is for reference only and not used in performance calculations. The
derate is defined as the temperature difference between the hot and the cold field design temperatures
minus the heat exchanger approach temperatures all divided by the difference between the hot and cold
field design temperatures. A derate of one indicates a system that uses the same fluid for the solar field
heat transfer fluid and for the storage fluid and therefore does not require a heat exchanger between the
solar field and storage system.
Initial TES Fluid temp (ºC)
The temperature of the storage fluid in the thermal energy storage system in the first time step of the
simulation.
Storage HTF fluid
The storage fluid used in the thermal energy storage system. When the storage fluid and solar field heat
transfer fluid (HTF) are different, the system is an indirect system with a heat exchanger (heat
exchanger derate is less than one). When the storage fluid and solar field HTF are the same, the
system is a direct system that uses the solar field HTF as the storage medium (heat exchanger derate
equals one).
User-defined HTF fluid
When you choose user-defined from the Storage HTF fluid list, you can specify a table of material
properties of a storage fluid. You must provide values for two temperatures (two rows of data) of specific
heat, density, viscosity, and conductivity values. See Specifying a Custom Heat Transfer Fluid for
details.
Fluid Temperature (ºC)
A reference value indicating the temperature at which the substance properties are evaluated for thermal
storage.
TES fluid density (kg/m 3)
The density of the storage fluid at the fluid temperature, used to calculate the total mass of thermal fluid
required in the storage system.
TES specific heat (kJ/kg-K)
The specific heat of the storage fluid at the fluid temperature, used to calculate the total energy content
of the fluid in the storage system.

Thermal Storage Dispatch Control

The storage dispatch control variables each have six values, one for each of six possible dispatch periods.
They determine how SAM calculates the energy flows between the solar field, thermal energy storage
system, and power block. The fossil-fill fraction is used to calculate the energy from a backup boiler.

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 Parabolic Trough Physical 185

Storage Dispatch Fraction with Solar

The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start
when the solar field energy is greater than zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in
any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage.
Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels.
Storage Dispatch Fraction without Solar
The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start
when the solar field energy is equal to zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in any
hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage. Used
to calculate the storage dispatch levels.
Turbine Output Fraction
The fraction of the power cycle design gross output from the Solar Field page at which energy from the
storage system can drive the power cycle. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for
details.
Fossil Fill Fraction
Determines how much energy the backup boiler delivers during hours when there is insufficient energy
from the solar field (and storage system, if available) to drive the power cycle at its design output
capacity. A value of one for a given dispatch period ensures that the power cycle operates at its design
output for all hours in the period: The boiler "fills in" the energy not delivered by the solar field or storage
system. For a fossil fill fraction less than one, the boiler supplies enough energy to drive the power
cycle at a fraction of its design point. To define a system with no fossil backup, use a value of zero for
all six dispatch periods. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details.
Payment Allocation Factor
The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity
price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in
conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page.
For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that
covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive
payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors.
When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the
payment allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose.

Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods
to one.

Storage and Fossil Dispatch Controls

The thermal storage dispatch controls determine the timing of releases of energy from the thermal energy
storage and fossil backup systems to the power block. When the system includes thermal energy storage
or fossil backup, SAM can use a different dispatch strategy for up to six different dispatch periods.

Storage Dispatch
SAM decides whether or not to operate the power cycle in each hour of the simulation based on how much
energy is available in storage, how much energy is delivered by the solar field, and the values of the thermal

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storage dispatch control parameters. You can define a different dispatch strategy for each of six dispatch
periods for weekdays and weekends. See Defining Dispatch Schedules for details.
For each hour in the simulation, SAM looks at the amount of energy in storage at the beginning of the hour
and decides whether or not to operate the power cycle in that hour. For each dispatch period, there are two
dispatch targets for starting or continuing to run the power cycle: one for periods of sunshine (storage
dispatch fraction w/solar), and one for periods of no sunshine (storage dispatch fraction w/o solar).
The dispatch target for each dispatch period is the product of the storage dispatch fraction for that period
and the thermal storage capacity defined by the TES thermal capacity input variable.
During periods of sunshine when there is insufficient energy from the solar field to drive the power cycle at
its load requirement, the system dispatches energy from storage only when energy in storage is greater
than or equal to the dispatch target.
During periods of no sunshine, the power cycle will not run unless energy in storage is greater than or equal
to the dispatch target.
The turbine output fraction for each dispatch period determines the power cycle output requirement for
hours that fall within the dispatch period. A turbine output fraction of one defines an output requirement
equivalent to the power cycle's design gross output defined on the Power Cycle page. For hours when the
solar field energy is insufficient to drive the power cycle at the output requirement, the power cycle runs on
energy from both the solar field and storage system. For hours when the solar field energy exceeds the
output requirement, the power block runs at the required output level, and any excess energy goes to
storage. If the storage system is at capacity, the collectors in the field defocus as specified on the Solar
Field page to reduce the field's thermal output.
By setting the thermal storage dispatch control parameters, you can simulate a dispatch strategy for clear
days when storage is at capacity that allows the operator to start the plant earlier in the day to avoid
defocusing collectors in the field, for cloudy days that allows the operator to store energy for later use in a
time period when the value of power is higher.

Fossil Dispatch Mode

SAM operates the fossil backup system based on the option you choose for Fossil dispatch mode in the
Storage System parameters.
Minimum Backup Level
In the Minimum Backup Level mode, whenever the fossil fill fraction is greater than zero for any dispatch
period, the system is considered to include a fossil burner that heats the HTF before it is delivered to
the power cycle.
In this mode, the fossil fill fraction defines the fossil backup as a function of the thermal energy from the
solar field (and storage, if applicable) in a given hour and the power cycle design gross output defined
on the Power Cycle page.
For example, for an hour with a fossil fill fraction of 1.0 when solar energy delivered to the power cycle is
less than that needed to run at the power cycle design gross output, the backup heater would supply
enough energy to "fill" the missing heat, and the power cycle would operate at the design gross output.
If, in that scenario, solar energy (from either the field or storage system) is driving the power cycle at full
load, the fossil backup would not operate. For a fossil fill fraction of 0.75, the heater would only be fired
when solar output drops below 75% of the power cycle's design gross output.
Supplemental Operation
In the Supplemental Operation mode, SAM assumes a fossil backup system of a fixed maximum
capacity, for example, capable of supplying 10 MW of thermal energy to the HTF.

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 Parabolic Trough Physical 187

The fossil fill fraction defines the size of the fossil backup as a fraction of the power cycle design gross
output and this energy is added to the input from the solar field and storage system.
Operation of the power block in a given hour is constrained by the Turb out fraction you specify for
each period, and the Max turbine over design operation and Min turbine operation from the Power
Cycle page. For hours that the added fossil energy is insufficient to meet the Min turbine operation
requirement, fossil backup is not dispatched. For hours when the combined fossil and solar
contribution exceeds the Turb out fraction for the hour, the amount of fossil energy dispatched is
reduced until the required turbine output is met.
The boiler LHV efficiency value on the Power Cycle page determines the quantity of fuel used by the
backup boiler. A value of 0.9 is reasonable for a natural gas-fired backup boiler. SAM includes the cost of
fuel for the backup system in the levelized cost of energy and other metrics reported in the results, and
reports the energy equivalent of the hourly fuel consumption in the hourly simulation results. The cost of fuel
for the backup boiler is defined on the Trough System Costs page.

Payment Allocation Factor

The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price
based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with
the assumptions on the Financing page.
For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that
covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive
payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors.
When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the payment
allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose.

Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods
to one.

Defining Dispatch Schedules

The weekday and weekend dispatch schedules determine when each of the six dispatch periods apply
during throughout the year. You can either choose an existing schedule from one of the schedules in the
dispatch schedule library or define a custom schedule. For information about libraries, see Working with
Libraries.
The dispatch schedule library only assigns period numbers to the weekday and weekend schedule
matrices. The dispatch fractions that you specify are not stored in the library.

Note. SAM also uses the dispatch schedules when you choose Hybrid Cooling on the Power Cycle
page to assign hybrid dispatch fractions to the periods specified in the dispatch schedules..

To choose a schedule from the library:

1. Click Dispatch schedule library.
2. Choose a schedule from the list of four schedules. The schedules are based on time-of-use pricing
schedules from four California utilities.
3. Click OK.
You can modify a schedule using the steps described below. Modifying a schedule does not affect

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the schedule stored in the library.
4. For each of the up to six periods used in the schedule, enter values for the dispatch fractions (see
Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls) described above. Use the period number and color
to identify the times in the schedule that each period applies.

To specify a weekday or weekend schedule:

1. Assign values as appropriate to the Storage Dispatch, Turbine Output Fraction, Fossil Fill Fraction,
and Payment Allocation Factor for each of the up to nine periods.
2. Click Dispatch schedule library.
3. Choose a Uniform Dispatch.
4. Click OK.
5. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.

6. Type the number 2.

7. SAM shades displays the period number in the squares that make up the rectangle, and shades
the rectangle to match the color of the period.

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 Parabolic Trough Physical 189

8. Repeat Steps 2-4 for each of the remaining periods that apply to the schedule.

Equations for Calculated Values

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Thermal Storage page. It is currently
under development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.

Storage volume

TES thermal capacity

Tank diameter

Min fluid volume

Estimated heat loss

Heat exchanger derate

Fluid temperature

TES fluid density

TES specific heat

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3.7.6 Parasitics
To view the Parasitics page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
physical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window
must be Concentrating Solar Power - Physical Trough System.

Contents
Overview describes the purpose of the variables on the Parasitics page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables and options on the Parasitics
page.
Equations for Calculated Values describes the equations used to calculate values
on the Parasitics page.

Overview
The variables on the Parasitics page define electrical loads in the system. For each hour of the simulation,
SAM calculates the parasitic load and subtracts it from the power cycle's gross electrical output to
calculate the net electrical output.

Input Variable Reference

Parasitics
Piping thermal loss coefficient (W/m 2-K)
The thermal loss coefficient that is used to calculate thermal losses from piping between receivers,
crossover piping, header piping, and runner piping. The coefficient specifies the number of thermal
watts lost from the system per pipe surface area, square meter of aperture area and temperature
difference between the fluid in the piping and the ambient air (dry bulb temperature). The length of
crossover piping depends on the row spacing variable on the Solar Field page, and the piping distance
between assemblies on the Collectors page.
Tracking power (W per collector)
The amount of electrical power consumed by a single collector tracking mechanism. SAM only
calculates tracking losses during hours when collectors are actively tracking the sun. The total field
tracking power is calculated by multiplying this value by the number of loops in the field and number of
assemblies per loop specified on the Solar Field page.
Required pumping power for HTF through power block (kJ/kg)
A coefficient used to calculate the electric power required to pump heat transfer fluid through the power
cycle. SAM applies the coefficient to all heat transfer fluid flowing through the power cycle. The
coefficient can alternatively be defined as the pumping power divided by the mass flow rate kW/kg-s,
which is equivalent to the units kJ/kg.

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 Parabolic Trough Physical 191

Required pumping power for HTF through storage (kJ/kg)

A coefficient used to calculate the electric power consumed by pumps to move heat transfer fluid
through the storage heat exchanger on both the solar field side and the storage tank side (for cases
where a heat exchanger exists, specified on the Thermal Storage page). This coefficient is applied
separately to the solar field flow and the tank flow.
Fraction of rated gross power consumed at all times
A fixed electric load applied to all hours of the simulation, expressed as a fraction of rated gross power
at design from the Power Cycle page.
Balance of plant parasitic (MWe/MWcap)
A parasitic load that is applied as a function of the thermal input to the power cycle.
Aux heater, boiler parasitic (MWe/MWcap)
A parasitic load that is applied as a function of the thermal output of the auxiliary fossil-fired heaters.
Applies only when the system includes fossil backup. See Modeling a Fossil-fired Backup Boiler for
details.
Design Point Total Tracking (W)
A value displayed for reference indicating what the total tracking parasitic load would be if all collectors
in the field were actively tracking simultaneously.
Design Point Total Fixed (MWe)
The value of the fixed parasitic load applied at all times.
Design Point Total BOP (MWe)
The value of the balance-of-plant parasitic load assuming design-point operation.
Design Point Total Aux (MWe)
The value of the auxiliary heater (for the backup gas boiler) parasitic load assuming the auxiliary heater
is providing 100% of the thermal load required for the power cycle.

Equations for Calculated Values

This section will describe equations for the calculated values on the Parasitics page. It is currently under
development. For general descriptions of the variables, see Input Variable Reference.

Tracking

Fixed

BOP

Aux

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3.8 Generic Solar System

This topic is under construction.

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support:
[Link]@[Link].

This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System pages.

3.8.1 Solar Field

This topic is under construction.

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support:
[Link]@[Link].

This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System Solar Field page.

3.8.2 Power Block

This topic is under construction.

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support:
[Link]@[Link].

This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System Power Block page.

3.8.3 Thermal Storage

This topic is under construction.

If you have questions about this topic, please contact user support:
[Link]@[Link].

This topic will describe the inputs on the Generic Solar System Thermal Storage page.

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 Power Tower 193

3.9 Power Tower

A power tower system (also called a central receiver system) is a type of concentrating solar power (CSP)
system that consists of a heliostat field, tower and receiver, power block, and optional storage system. The
field of flat, sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats focus direct normal solar radiation onto a receiver at the
top of the tower, where a heat-transfer fluid is heated and pumped to the power block. The power block
generates steam that drives a conventional steam turbine and generator to convert the thermal energy to
electricity.
SAM's power tower performance model uses TRNSYS components developed at the University of
Wisconsin and described in Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central
Receiver System Power Plants, Wagner (2008) [Link] (32
MB).
The solar field optimization algorithm is based on the DELSOL3 model developed at Sandia National
Laboratory, and described in A User's Manual for DELSOL3: A Computer Code for Calculating the Optical
Performance and Optimal System Design for Solar Thermal Central Receiver Plants, Kistler (1986),
(SAND86-8018) [Link] (10 MB).
This user guide describes the power tower system input variables and some basic calculations in SAM,
and is intended to be used with the two publications, which describes power tower systems and the model
algorithms in more detail.

To use the power tower model:

1. Start SAM.
2. Under Enter a new project name to begin, type a name for your project. For example, "Power
Tower System."
3. Click Create New File.
4. Under 1. Select a technology, click Concentrating Solar Power.
5. Click Power Tower System.
6. Under 2. Select a financing option, click an appropriate financing option. You may want to start
with the Utility Independent Power Producer (IPP) option.
7. Click OK.
SAM creates a new .zsam file with a single case populated with default input values for a 100 MW
power tower system.
This section describes the system input pages that are available when the technology option in the
Technology and Market window is Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.
Tower System Costs
Heliostat Field
Tower and Receiver
Power Cycle
Thermal Storage
Parasitics
User Variables

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3.9.1 Heliostat Field

To view the Heliostat page, click Heliostat Field on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must
be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.

Contents
Overview describes the Heliostat Field page and explains where to find more
information about the variables on the page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Heliostat Field page.
Specifying the Field describes how to specify the number of heliostats and their
locations in the field using either x-y coordinates, radial sections, or the
optimization wizard.
Working with Heliostat Field Files explains how to import heliostat location data
from a text file, and how to export data to a text file.

Overview
The Heliostat Field page displays the variables that specify the position of the heliostats in the solar field
along with the heliostat geometry and optical properties. Unlike parabolic trough and dish system designs,
which can be based on modular designs of individual components, power tower system designs typically
require optimization of the tower height, receiver geometry, and distribution of heliostats around the receiver
as a complete system.
Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are:
Wagner p 10, 23-42, 49
Kistler p 25-37, 39-47, 74-75
You can define the heliostat field layout in two ways: If you have a field layout in mind, you can enter values
by hand. Or, you can use SAM's optimization wizard to determine the optimal layout for you.

Input Variable Reference

Heliostat Properties
The heliostat properties define the area of a single heliostat mirrored surface, shape of the heliostat, and the
boundaries of the solar field area. Note that SAM assumes that each heliostat employs a two-axis drive
system with a pivot at the center of the mirrored surface.
Heliostat Width (m)
The width of the heliostat surface in meters, including the mirrored surface, edge supports and any
cutouts or [Link] 44
Heliostat Height (m)
The height of the heliostat surface in meters, including the mirrored surface, edge supports and any

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 Power Tower 195

cutouts or slots.
Ratio of Reflective Area to Profile
The fraction of the area defined by the heliostat width and height that actually reflects sunlight. This
value determines the ratio of reflective area on each heliostat to the total projected area of the heliostat
on a plane normal to the heliostat surface. The ratio accounts for non-reflective area on the heliostat
that may cause shading of neighboring heliostats.
Use Round Heliostats (D=W)
Check the box to use round heliostats in place of the standard rectangular shape. For round heliostats,
the heliostat diameter is equal to the value of the Heliostat Width variable.
Heliostat Area (m 2)
The area of the heliostat mirrored area. For rectangular heliostats, the area is the product of the
heliostat width and height (or the product of the square of half the width and pi for round heliostats) and
the ratio of reflective area to heliostat profile.
Mirror Reflectance and Soiling
The mirror reflectance input is the solar weighted specular reflectance. The solar-weighted specular
reflectance is the fraction of incident solar radiation reflected into a given solid angle about the specular
reflection direction. The appropriate choice for the solid angle is that subtended by the receiver as
viewed from the point on the mirror surface from which the ray is being reflected. For parabolic troughs,
typical values for solar mirrors are 0.923 (4-mm glass), 0.945 (1-mm or laminated glass), 0..906
(silvered polymer), 0.836 (enhanced anodized aluminum), and 0.957 (silvered front surface).
Heliostat Availability
An adjustment factor that accounts for reduction in energy output due to downtime of some heliostats in
the field for maintenance and repair. A value of 1 means that each heliostat in the field operates
whenever sufficient solar energy is available. SAM multiplies the solar field output for each hour by the
availability factor.
Image Error (radians)
A measure of the deviation of the actual heliostat image on the receiver from the expected or ideal
image that helps determine the overall shape and distribution of the reflected solar flux on the receiver.
This value specifies the total conical error distribution for each heliostat at one standard deviation in
radians. SAM applies the value to each heliostat in the field regardless of its distance from the tower.
The image error accounts for all error sources, including tracking imprecision, foundation motion, mirror
waviness, panel alignment problems, atmospheric refraction and tower sway.
Heliostat Stow Deploy Angle (degrees)
Solar elevation angle below which the heliostat field will not operate.
Wind Stow Speed (m/s)
Wind velocity from the weather file at which the heliostats defocus and go into stowed position to
protect them from possible wind [Link], 10 and 68. Mentions "ground level."

Circular Field Optimization Wizard

When the you are specifying the heliostat field using radial sections, SAM can find the optimal number of
heliostats for each section automatically. See Optimization Wizard for more information.

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Note. The optimization wizard will not work if you are specifying the solar field using x-y coordinates.

Field Parameters
Total Reflective Area (m 2)
Total mirrored area of the heliostat field, equal to the heliostat reflective area multiplied by the number of
heliostats. SAM uses the total field area to calculate the site improvements and heliostat costs on the
Tower System Costs page.
Number of Heliostats
The total number of individual heliostats in the field. SAM displays the number of heliostats based either
on the results of the optimization wizard, or based on the data in the heliostat layout file when the
heliostat locations are loaded from a text file.
Radial Step Size for Layout (m)
The radial distance between centers of heliostat field zones. The zone centers are indicated by the
symbol + in the zone layout sample diagram shown on the Heliostat Field page.
In the x-y coordinate mode, SAM disables the radial step size variable.
When you define the number of heliostats per zone by entering values in the field layout table by hand
or by loading a file, the radial step size is the difference between the initial maximum distance from the
tower and initial minimum distance from the tower divided by the number of radial zones.
When you use the optimization wizard to specify the field, SAM calculates the radial step size as a
function of the initial minimum and maximum distances from the tower, which it in turn calculates as a
function of the ratio of the optimized tower height to the minimum and maximum tower height specified
on the Receiver/Tower Sizing tab of the optimization wizard.

Solar Field Layout Constraints

Max Heliostat Distance to Tower Height Ratio and Min Heliostat Distance to Tower Height Ratio
The maximum and minimum ratio of the distance from the heliostat furthest and closest from the tower
to the tower height.
Max Distance to Tower and Min Distance from Tower (m)
The maximum and minimum allowable radial distances in meters between the center of the tower base
and heliostats furthest from the tower. Under certain conditions, SAM uses this value to calculate the
radial step size. (See radial step size variable description below.)
Tower Height (m)
The height of the tower in meters. Specify this value on the Tower and Receiver page.

Mirror Washing
SAM reports the water usage of the system in the results based on the mirror washing variables. The
annual water usage is the product of the water usage per wash and 365 (days per year) divided by the
washing frequency.
Water usage per wash
The volume of water in liters per square meter of solar field aperture area required for periodic mirror
washing.

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 Power Tower 197

Washes Per Year

Number of times per year that heliostats mirrors are washed.

Land Area

Note. SAM does not use the land area variables in any calculations. The values are presented for your
reference.

Non-Solar Field Land Area

Land area in acres required for components other than solar field components, such as the power
cycle, storage, buildings, etc.
Solar Field Land Area Multiplier
The ratio of the total solar field land area to land occupied by heliostats.
Calculated Total Land Area
The total land area required for the system.

Specifying the Field

SAM allows the heliostat locations in the field to be specified either by a set of rectangular coordinates (x-y)
or as a number of heliostats per radial section of the field (number of radial and azimuthal zones).

Span Angle
For external receivers the span angle should be 360 degrees. For a cavity receiver, specify a span angle
less than 180 degrees. The default value for cavity receivers is 120 degrees. Specify the receiver type on the
Tower and Receiver page.

Radial and Azimuthal Zones

To specify the field as a number of heliostats per radial zone enter the number of radial zones and azimuthal
zones to divide the heliostat field into radial zones shown in the field diagram. You can then specify the field
manually or automatically. To specify the field manually, either type values in the Number of Heliostats Per
Zone table or import the data as a text file. To specify the field automatically, use the optimization wizard to
specify a set of optimization parameters and allow SAM to optimize the heliostat field design and calculate
the optimal number of heliostats per zone, receiver tower height, receiver height and diameter, and other
variables.
The solar field is divided into evenly distributed sections of a circle called zones, as shown in the sample
diagram on the Heliostat Field page. The rows of the table specify the radial position if each zone relative to
the tower located at the center of the field. The zone closest to the tower is assigned the number one, with
each successively farther zone incrementing by one. The columns specify the position of the zone's center
in degrees east of due north, where zero is north, 90 degrees is east, 180 degrees is south, and 270
degrees is west. The number of heliostats per zone can be a non-integer value because SAM converts the
value to a mirror surface area for each zone that is equivalent to the total mirrored surface of all heliostats in
the zone.

Rectangular (x-y) Coordinates

To specify the field as a set of rectangular coordinates, change the value of Azimuthal Zones to 2, and enter

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the number of heliostats for # of Heliostats. You can then either type the x-y coordinates of each heliostat in
the field, or import a text file of x-y coordinates. SAM displays the location of each heliostat on the field
diagram. It models the system based on the heliostat locations specified by the set of x-y locations, and
based on the values you specify for the tower height, receiver height, receiver diameter, and other input
values. This approach is appropriate for predicting the output of a system with a known design. The
optimization wizard does not work in the x-y coordinate mode.
Each row specifies the position of an individual heliostat relative to the tower. The first column in the table
specifies the x-coordinate along the east-west axis of the field, with negative values indicating positions
west of the tower, and positive values indicating positions east of the tower. The second column specifies
the y-coordinate along the north-south axis, with positive values indicating positions north of the tower, and
negative values indicating positions south of the tower. The tower is assumed to be at 0,0. Note that this
convention also applies to systems in the southern hemisphere. In the x-y coordinate mode, SAM requires
that the field be symmetric about the north-south axis.

Working with Heliostat Field Files

SAM allows you to use text files to save and load field layout data when you specify the field layout by hand
instead of relying on the optimization wizard to calculate the optimal layout.
For radial zone data, each row in the file represents a radial step (distance away from the center of the
circle), and each column represents an azimuthal division (distance clockwise around the circle from the
zero degree line pointing north), as shown on the sample layout diagram. The first row must contain data for
the radial step closest to the center of the field, and subsequent rows should be in consecutive order away
from the center. The first column of each row must contain data for the azimuthal division containing the
north line at zero degrees, and the second column the next division moving counterclockwise from the first
column, and so on. Zones with no heliostats should be indicated by a zero. Each column in the file should
be separated by a space, and each row by a new line. For example, a text file with the following contents
would describe a field with three radial steps and four azimuthal divisions:
9.0 10.0 9.0 10.0
15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5
22.5 18.0 18.5 22.5
For rectangular coordinate data, each row represents an individual heliostat position in the field, with the x
coordinate in the first column and the y coordinate in the second column. A positive x value is east, and a
positive y value is north of the tower. Use negative values for positions west and south of the tower. The
heliostat coordinates do not have to be in a particular order in the file. Each column in the file should be
separated by a space, and each row by a new line. A file with the following contents would describe a solar
field with three heliostats at (x = 0.0, y = 75.0), (x = 7.5, y = 70.0), and (x = 15.0, y = 65.0):
0.0 75.0
7.5 70.0
15.0 65.0

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3.9.2 Optimization Wizard

To start the power tower optimization wizard, first click Heliostat Field on the main window's navigation
menu to view the Heliostat Field page, and then follow the instructions below. Note that for the power tower
input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.

Contents
Overview describes the optimization wizard.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Optimization Wizard
window.
Overview of the Optimization Process explains how SAM searches for the optimal
solution and lists the input variables that are affected by the optimization.
Guidelines for Choosing Variable Ranges for Optimization explains how to choose
values for the variables in the Optimization Wizard window.

Overview
The power tower optimization wizard simplifies the task of choosing values for the relatively large number of
input parameters required to specify the power tower solar field and receiver. Because the heliostat field is
typically the most capital intensive part of a power tower project, often accounting for 30-40% of the total
installation cost, optimizing the heliostat field size is a critical step in minimizing overall project cost.
The optimization wizard searches for a set optimal system parameter values, where the optimal system is
defined as the one that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. Note that the optimization process is
separate from the simulation process. When you run the wizard, it populates some of the input variables in
the SAM input pages (listed below) with optimal values. Before running simulations, you can choose to
either keep the values generated by the wizard or modify them.
The wizard's underlying code is based on the DELSOL3 code from Sandia National Laboratory (Kistler
1986, see References), and is implemented in SAM through the PTGen program described in the thesis
Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver System Power Plants
(Wagner 2008) [Link] (33 MB).

To use the optimization wizard:

1. On the Tower System Costs page, enter values for the capital costs.
2. On the Heliostat Field page, click Start Wizard to start the wizard.
SAM initially populates the variables in the wizard with values from the Heliostat Field, Tower and
Receiver, and Power Cycle pages. SAM assigns values to variables that don't appear elsewhere,
such as Minimum Tower Height and Maximum Tower Height, using either default values or values
based on the last time the wizard ran.
3. Enter values to define the parameters of the optimization.

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4. Click Optimize Solar Field.
5. After the wizard finishes running, click Close.
6. Review the variables on the input pages. Modify any values as needed, and then configure and run
simulations to simulate the system(s) and display annual production, levelized cost of energy, and
other results on the Results page.

Input Variable Reference

Solar Field
Solar Multiple
The ratio of of the receiver's design thermal output to the power block's design thermal input. For
systems with no storage, the solar multiple should be close to or equal to one.
Receiver and Tower
The receiver and tower optimization variables determine the optimization search range and step size for
the receiver and tower dimensions.

External Receiver and Tower

Note. The external receiver and tower variables are active when you specify External Receiver on the
Tower and Receiver page.

Min Receiver Diameter (m)

The minimum value for the range of receiver diameter values that the wizard will search for an optimal
solution.
Max Receiver Diameter (m)
The maximum value for the range of receiver diameter values that the wizard will search for an optimal
solution.
Optimization Levels for Receiver Diameter
The number of receiver diameter values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum
allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
Min Receiver Height / Diameter Ratio
The minimum receiver height to receiver diameter ratio for the range of values that the wizard will search
for the optimal solution.
Max Receiver Height / Diameter Ratio
The maximum receiver height to receiver diameter ratio for the range of values that the wizard will
search for the optimal solution.
Optimization Levels for Receiver H/D Ratio
The number of receiver height to diameter ratio values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution.
The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
Min Tower Height (m)
The minimum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal

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solution.
Max Tower Height (m)
The maximum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal
solution.
Optimization Levels for Tower Height
The number of tower height values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum
allowed number of optimization levels is 10.

Cavity Receiver and Tower

Note. The cavity receiver and tower variables are active when you specify Cavity Receiver on the Tower
and Receiver page.

Min Aperture Width (m)

The minimum value for the range of receiver aperture width values that the wizard will search for an
optimal solution.
Max Aperture Width (m)
The maximum value for the range of receiver aperture width values that the wizard will search for an
optimal solution.
Optimization Levels for Aperture H/W Ratio
The number of aperture height to width ratio to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The
maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
Min Aperture Height / Width Ratio
The minimum aperture height to width ratio for the range of values that the wizard will search for the
optimal solution.
Max Aperture Height / Width Ratio
The maximum aperture height to width ratio for the range of values that the wizard will search for the
optimal solution.
Optimization Levels for Receiver H/D Ratio
The number of receiver height to diameter ratio values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution.
The maximum allowed number of optimization levels is 10.
Min Tower Height (m)
The minimum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal
solution.
Max Tower Height (m)
The maximum value for the range of tower height values that the wizard will search for an optimal
solution.
Optimization Levels for Tower Height
The number of tower height values to evaluate in the search for an optimal solution. The maximum
allowed number of optimization levels is 10.

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Overview of the Optimization Process

For each variable that is specified as a range in the optimization wizard, the wizard searches for the value
within the range that meets the performance requirements at the lowest levelized cost of energy. The wizard
searches discrete combinations of options based on the "optimization level" of each optimized variable. For
example, if the minimum tower height is specified as 150 m and the maximum 250 m, and the tower height
optimization level is 10, the wizard will simulate 10 systems with unique tower heights evenly incremented
between 150 m and 250 m. Be sure to choose reasonable ranges and step sizes to minimize the number of
calculations the wizard must perform.
The solar multiple is the ratio of of the receiver's design thermal output to the power block's design thermal
input. The optimization wizard uses the solar multiple to calculate the receiver's thermal rating, which is
equal to the solar multiple multiplied by the power cycle nameplate electric capacity divided by the rated
cycle conversion efficiency, both of which are on the Power Cycle page.
The wizard holds the following variables constant as it searches for the optimal system:
Solar Multiple on the Optimization Wizard window.
Nameplate Capacity on the Power Cycle page.
Heliostat Width on the Heliostat Field page.
Heliostat Height on the Heliostat Field page.
Maximum Receiver Flux on the Tower and Receiver page.
The wizard searches within the specified ranges to find optimal values of the following variables on the Tower
and Receiver [Link] the wizard finishes running, SAM populates the variables with the optimal values.
Receiver Diameter
Receiver Height (calculated as a function of the receiver height to the receiver diameter ratio)
Tower Height
SAM also populates the following variables on the Heliostat Field page with values from the wizard:
Radial Step Size for Layout
Total Reflective Area
Number of Heliostats
Number of heliostats per radial zone in the field layout table
The optimization wizard uses the following values from the input pages, but does not change their values.
From the Heliostat Field page:
Heliostat Width
Heliostat Height
Ratio of Reflective Area to Profile
Mirror Reflectivity and Soiling
Use Round Heliostats
Max Distance from Tower
Min Distance from tower
Image Error
Number of Radial Zones
Number of Azimuthal Zones
From the Tower and Receiver page:

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Coating Absorptivity
Max Receiver Flux
From the Power Cycle page:
Nameplate Capacity
Rated Cycle Conversion Efficiency
It is possible that the wizard will not find an optimal field layout given a set of values that you provide.
Finding an optimal set of input parameters is often an iterative process that may require you to run the
optimization wizard and adjust input value ranges several times until the wizard finds a reasonable field
layout for your analysis. When the wizard cannot find an optimal layout, it displays a message with
suggestions for adjustments. Typically, the suggestions include adjusting the upper or lower limits of
optimization variables, and ensuring that the minimum and maximum heliostat distance from tower values
are reasonable. Keep in mind that because the wizard uses capital costs from the Tower System Costs
page in the optimization process, unreasonable cost values may also prevent the wizard from finding an
optimal field layout. In some cases, wizard will fail to find an optimal design and exit without notice. When
that happens, check to see if the values of optimized variables shown on the input pages are outside of the
range specified for those variables in the wizard, and try adjusting the ranges you specified and rerunning
the wizard.

Guidelines for Choosing Variable Ranges for Optimization

The optimization wizard does its best to find parameter values for an optimal system within the search
ranges you specify on the wizard input tabs. Because the wizard searches a discrete number of values
within the range for each parameter, defining too broad of a range increases the chances that the optimal
value lies between the values included in the search. On the other hand, defining too narrow a range
increases the chances that the optimal value lies outside of the search range.
The ability of the optimization wizard to find an optimal system is sensitive to the following variable ranges:
Receiver diameter range, defined by Minimum Receiver Diameter and Maximum Receiver Diameter.
Receiver height to diameter ratio range, defined by Minimum Receiver Height/Diameter Ratio and
Maximum Receiver Height/Diameter Ratio.
Tower height range, defined by Minimum Tower Height and Maximum Tower Height.
Heliostat distance from tower range, defined by Maximum Distance from Tower and Minimum Distance
from Tower values on the Heliostat Field page.
The following rules of thumb may be helpful in choosing search ranges for these variables, although they
may not apply to some systems.
Tower height: The tower height typically falls between 15 m for very small systems (5 MWe) and 300 m
for very large systems (150 MWe). For example, a reasonable range for a 30 MWe system with a solar
multiple of 1.0 would be between 40 m and 120 m.
Receiver diameter: The optimization wizard searches for a receiver diameter value that maximizes
absorbed radiation from the heliostat field within the flux limit defined by the maximum value on the
Receiver/Tower page. Like the tower height, the receiver area typically scales with system's design
thermal power. For very small systems, the optimal receiver diameter is typically between 1 m and 3 m,
while very large systems may require a diameter of 25 m.
Receiver height to diameter ratio: This ratio should generally fall between 0.5 and 2.0.

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Heliostat distance from tower: If the minimum distance is too small, the inner zones in the heliostat will
contain no heliostats (the first rows in the field layout table on the Heliostat Field page contain zeros),
which will cause the simulation to fail. If the maximum distance is too large, the outer zones will
contain no heliostats. On the other hand, if the maximum distance is too small, all of the outer zones
will contain heliostats. For very small systems, the maximum distance might be set to 300 m, and for
very large systems, a distance of 2000 m might be appropriate.

3.9.3 Tower and Receiver

To view the Tower and Receiver page, click Tower and Receiver on the main window's navigation menu.
Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and
Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.

Contents
Overview describes the Tower and Receiver page and where to find additional
information about the tower and receiver model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tower and Receiver
page.

Overview
The Tower and Receiver page displays variables that specify the geometry of the heat collection system.
The receiver model uses semi-empirical heat transfer and thermodynamic relationships to determine the
thermal performance of the receiver. This allows the model to represent a wide array of geometries without
deviating from a hypothetical reference system.
Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are:
Wagner p 43-47, 68-71
The model makes several assumptions about the system geometry for external receivers:
The receiver consists of a discrete number of panels.
Each panel in the receiver consists of a set of parallel tubes in thermal contact that share a common
heat transfer fluid (HTF) header.
The panel tubing is vertical and the heat transfer fluid flows through each sequential panel in a
serpentine pattern (up one panel and down the adjacent panel).
The number of tubes per panel is a function of the Number of Panels, Receiver Diameter, and Tube
Outer Diameter variables.
The model varies the heat transfer fluid mass flow rate through the receiver to maintain the required outlet
heat transfer fluid temperature. The model includes several practical safeguards to ensure realistic behavior
in the receiver. For example, the mass flow rate through the receiver is limited to the value of the Max Flow
Rate to Receiver variable, and the maximum receiver heat transfer fluid inlet temperature is kept at a value
below the value of the Max Temp to Receiver variable.

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SAM allows several options for the heat transfer fluid flow patterns through the receiver as indicated by the
diagrams on the Receiver / Tower page. The Flow Pattern variable specifies the path taken by the fluid as it
passes through the receiver. Options include a full circle around the receiver, a split path around the
receiver, and a split pass with a single cross-over.

Input Variable Reference

Receiver Options
SAM models power tower systems with either an external receiver or cavity receiver. When you change the
receiver option, you should run the optimization wizard to optimize the field for the new receiver type.

External Receiver

Note. The external receiver parameters are only active when you select External Receiver.

For analyses involving the optimization wizard to optimize the heliostat field layout, SAM populates these
variables with optimal values. You can change the values after running the optimization wizard, but results
will no longer be for the optimal system.
Receiver Height (m)
Height in meters of the receiver panels.
Receiver Diameter (m)
Total diameter in meters of the [Link] distance from center of the receiver to center of a receiver
panel. The width of a single panel is the circumference of receiver divided by number of panels.
Number of Panels
Number of vertical panels in the receiver.
Coating Emittance
The emissivity of the receiver coating, assumed to be black-body emissivity constant over the range of
wavelengths.
Enable Night Recirculation through Receiver
With night circulation enabled, whenever the radiation incident on the receiver is zero, hot heat transfer
fluid circulates through the receiver to prevent fluid in the receiver from freezing. For systems with
storage, the system pumps heat transfer fluid from hot storage. For systems with no storage, or when
there is insufficient energy in storage, the circulating fluid is heated with an electric heater. The heat
transfer fluid is assumed to enter the receiver at the temperature required for it to exit the receiver at the
required outlet temperature, accounting for thermal losses. SAM ajdusts the heat transfer fluid mass
flow rate accordingly.
Recirculation Heater Efficiency
With night circulation enabled, the electric-to-thermal conversion efficiency of the heater used to supply
thermal energy for preventing the receiver heat transfer fluid from freezing. SAM calculates the heater
electricity based on the required thermal recirculation energy and the heater efficiency, and reports the
hourly electricity required by the heater as Par_recirc_htr in the hourly results.

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Cavity Receiver
SAM assumes that the cavity receiver consists of four panels arranged at the circumference of a semicircle:

Where:
HL: Lip height
HA: Aperture height
HP: Internal panel height
WA: Aperture width

Notes.

The cavity receiver parameters are only active when you select Cavity Receiver.

If you run the optimization wizard, SAM automatically populates the cavity receiver values. If you modify
these values, they will be inconsistent with other values calculated by the wizard.

Aperture Width
The width of the rectangle in the plane of the cavity opening.
Aperture Height To Width Ratio
The ratio of aperture height to aperture width.
Aperture Height
The height of the rectangle in the plane of the cavity opening: Aperture Height = Aperture Width ×
Aperture Height to Width Ratio. Note that the receiver height may be greater than the aperture height.
Lip to Height Ratio
The "lip" is the difference between the aperture height and receiver height.
Internal Panel Height
The internal height of the panel: Internal Height = Aperture Height × (1 + Lip to Height Ratio).

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Aperture Lip Height

The height of the aperture lip: Aperture Lip Height = Internal Panel Height × Lip to Height Ratio

Receiver Thermodynamic Characteristics

Tube Outer Diameter (mm)
The outer diameter in millimeters of the tubing that carries the heat transfer fluid through the receiver
panels. Typical values range from 25 mm to 50 mm.
Tube Wall Thickness (mm)
The thickness in millimeters of the individual receiver panel tube walls.
Required Outlet HTF Temp (°C)
The temperature set point in degrees Celsius for the heat transfer fluid at the receiver outlet.
Max Temp to Receiver (°C)
The maximum allowable temperature of the heat transfer fluid at the receiver inlet.
Coating Absorptance
Absorptance fraction of receiver tube coating. Typical values are 0.91 to 0.95.
Heat Loss Factor
A receiver heat loss adjustment factor that can be used when the calculated heat loss value deviates
from an expected value. The default value is 1, corresponding to no heat loss correction. The calculated
receiver heat loss is the sum of convection and radiation losses from the receiver, reported in the hourly
results as Rec_conv_loss and Rec_rad_loss, respectively.
Max Flow Rate to Receiver (kg/s)
The maximum heat transfer fluid flow rate at the receiver inlet. SAM calculates this value as a function
of the maximum heat transfer fluid velocity in the receiver.
Max Receiver Flux (kW/m 2)
The upper limit of solar radiation incident on the receiver allowed to be reflected from the heliostat field.
SAM ensures that the optimal receiver size and heliostat positions do not result in a receiver flux that
exceeds this value.

Materials and Flow

HTF Type
One of two types of solar salt used for the heat transfer fluid, also called the working fluid. You can also
add a user defined HTF by choosing the user defined option and clicking the Edit button to open the
HTF properties editor.
Property table for user-defined HTF
When the HTF type is "user defined," the Edit button provides access to the HTF properties editor.
Material Type
The material of the receiver panel tubes, typically a stainless-steel alloy. The current version of SAM
allows only one material type.
Flow Pattern
One of eight heat available transfer fluid flow configurations shown in the diagram.

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For an external receiver, the views are from the top of the receiver, assuming that panels are arranged in
a circle around the center of the receiver. Arrows show the direction of heat transfer fluid flow into,
through, and out of the receiver.
For a cavity receiver SAM assumes four panels, and one of eight available flow patterns through the
panels.

Design Operation
Solar Multiple
This value is populated by the optimization wizard, but you can modify it to use a different value than
the one calculated by the wizard. If you modify the solar multiple without running the optimization
wizard, the receiver design thermal power will change, but the solar field will not. The solar multiple is
the ratio of of the receiver's design thermal output to the power block's design thermal input. For
systems with no storage, the solar multiple should be close to or equal to one.
Min receiver turndown fraction
The minimum allowable fraction of the maximum flow rate to receiver.
Max receiver operation fraction
The maximum allowable fraction of the maximum flow rate to receiver. SAM removes heliostats from
operation if the HTF mass flow rate exceeds the maximum allowable value.
Receiver design thermal power
Product of solar multiple and power cycle design thermal power on the Power Cycle page.
Receiver startup delay time
The time in hours required to start the receiver. The receiver starts whenever the radiation incident on
the field in the previous hour is zero, and there is sufficient thermal energy in the current hour to meet
the thermal design requirement. SAM calculates the start up energy as the product of the available
thermal energy, startup delay time, and startup delay energy fraction.
Receiver startup delay energy fraction
Fraction of receiver design thermal power required by the receiver during the startup period.

Tower Dimension
Tower Height (m)
Height in meters of the tower structure from the ground, equal to the vertical distance between the
heliostat pivot points and the vertical center of receiver.

3.9.4 Power Cycle

To view the Power Cycle page, click Power Cycle on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the
power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must
be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.

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Contents
Overview describes the Power Cycle page and where to find additional information
about the power cycle model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Power Cycle page.

Overview
The power cycle converts thermal energy to electric energy. The power cycle is assumed to consist of a
Rankine-cycle steam engine, two open feed-water heaters, and a pre-heater, boiler and super-heater.
The parameters on the Power cycle page describe the steam turbine size and other properties.
Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are:
Wagner 83, 86, 114, 164
Kistler 224
The power cycle page displays variables that specify the design operating conditions for the steam Rankine
cycle used to convert thermal energy to electricity.

Input Variable Reference

Plant Capacity
Design Turbine Gross Output (MWe)
The power cycle's design output, not accounting for parasitic losses.
Estimated Gross to Net Conversion Factor
An estimate of the ratio of the electric energy delivered to the grid to the power cycle's gross output.
SAM uses the factor to calculate the power cycle's nameplate capacity for capacity-related
calculations, including the estimated total cost per net capacity value on the System Costs page, and
the capacity factor reported in the results.
Estimated Net Output design (nameplate) (MWe)
The power cycle's nameplate capacity, calculated as the product of the design gross output and
estimated gross to net conversion factor.

Power Block Design Point

Rated Cycle Conversion Efficiency
The thermal to electric conversion efficiency of the power cycle under design conditions.
Design Thermal Power (MWt)
The turbine's design thermal input. It is the thermal energy required at the power block inlet for it to
operate at its design point, as defined by the value of the nameplate electric capacity and an estimate
of the parasitic losses: Design thermal power = nameplate electric capacity + total parasitic loss
estimate. (See the Parasitics page for a description of the total parasitic loss estimate.)

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Design HTF Inlet Temp (°C)
The design temperature in degrees Celsius of the hot heat transfer fluid at the power block inlet.p 114.
design htf inlet temperature can be different from receiver outlet temperature when power block design
specifications require a different inlet temperature for maximum efficiency. The design values are the
operating conditions at which the power block operates at its nameplate capacity.
Design HTF Outlet Temp (°C)
The design temperature in degrees Celsius of the cold heat transfer fluid at the power block outlet.p 114
The design values are the operating conditions at which the power block operates at its nameplate
capacity.
Boiler Operating Pressure (Bar)
The saturation pressure of the steam as it is converted from liquid to vapor in the boiler or steam
generator. SAM uses this value to determine the steam's saturation temperature and thus the
superheating capability of the heat exchangers. The temperature difference that drives the steam mass
flow rate in the Rankine cycle is the difference between the hot heat transfer fluid inlet temperature and
the saturation temperature of the steam boiler pressure.
Fossil Backup Boiler LHV Efficiency
The backup boiler's lower heating value efficiency, used to calculate the quantity of gas required by the
boiler.
Steam cycle blowdown fraction
The fraction of the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle that is extracted and replaced by fresh
water. This fraction is multiplied by the steam mass flow rate in the power cycle for each hour of plant
operation to determine the total required quantity of power cycle makeup water. The blowdown fraction
accounts for water use related directly to replacement of the steam working fluid. The default value of
0.013 for the wet-cooled case represents makeup due to blowdown quench and steam cycle makeup
during operation and startup. A value of 0.016 is appropriate for dry-cooled systems to account for
additional wet-surface air cooling for critical Rankine cycle components.

Plant Control
Min Required Temp for Startup (°C)
The temperature at which heat transfer fluid circulation through the power cycle heat exchangers
begins, typically near the power block design heat transfer fluid outlet temperature. Default is 500
degrees.
Low-Resource Standby Period (hours)
During periods of insufficient flow from the heat source due to low thermal resource, the power block
may enter standby mode. In standby mode, the cycle can restart quickly without the startup period
required by a cold start. The standby period is the maximum number of hours allowed for standby
mode. This option is only available for systems with thermal storage. Default is 2 hours.
Fraction of Thermal Power Needed for Standby
The fraction of the turbine's design thermal input required from storage to keep the power cycle in
standby mode. This thermal energy is not converted into electric power. Default is 0.2.
Power Block Startup Time (hours)
The time in hours that the system consumes energy at the startup fraction before it begins producing
electricity. If the startup fraction is zero, the system will operate at the design capacity over the startup

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time. Default is 0.5 hours.

Fraction of Thermal Power Needed for Startup
The fraction of the turbine's design thermal input required by the system during startup. This thermal
energy is not converted to electric power. Default is 0.75.
Min Turbine Operation
The fraction of the nameplate electric capacity below which the power block does not generate
electricity. Whenever the power block output is below the minimum load and thermal energy is available
from the solar field, the field is defocused. For systems with storage, solar field energy is delivered to
storage until storage is full. Default is 0.25.
Max Turbine Over Design Operation
The maximum allowable power block output as a fraction of the electric nameplate capacity. Whenever
storage is not available and the solar resource exceeds the design value of 950 W/m2, some heliostats
in the solar field are defocused to limit the power block output to the maximum load. Default is 1.05.

Cooling System
Condenser type
Choose either an air-cooled condenser (dry cooling), evaporative cooling (wet cooling), or hybrid cooling
system.
In hybrid cooling a wet-cooling system and dry-cooling share the heat rejection load. Although there are
many possible theoretical configurations of hybrid cooling systems, SAM only allows a parallel cooling
option.
Hybrid Dispatch
For hybrid cooling, the hybrid dispatch table specifies how much of the cooling load should be handled
by the wet-cooling system for each of 6 period in the year. The periods are specified in the matrices on
the Thermal Storage page. Each value in the table is a fraction of the design cooling load. For example,
if you want 60% of heat rejection load to go to wet cooling in Period 1, type 0.6 for Period 1. Directing
part of the heat rejection load to the wet cooling system reduces the total condenser temperature and
improves performance, but increases the water requirement. SAM sizes the wet-cooling system to
match the maximum fraction that you specify in the hybrid dispatch table, and sizes the air-cooling
system to is sized to meet the full cooling load.
Ambient temp at design (ºC)
The ambient temperature at which the power cycle operates at its design-point-rated cycle conversion
efficiency. For the air-cooled condenser option, use a dry bulb ambient temperature value. For the
evaporative condenser, use the wet bulb temperature.
Ref. Condenser Water dT (ºC)
For the evaporative type only. The temperature rise of the cooling water across the condenser under
design conditions, used to calculate the cooling water mass flow rate at design, and the steam
condensing temperature.
Approach temperature (ºC)
For the evaporative type only. The temperature difference between the circulating water at the
condenser inlet and the wet bulb ambient temperature, used with the ref. condenser water dT value to
determine the condenser saturation temperature and thus the turbine back pressure.

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ITD at design point (ºC)
For the air-cooled type only. Initial temperature difference (ITD), difference between the temperature of
steam at the turbine outlet (condenser inlet) and the ambient dry-bulb temperature.
Condenser pressure ratio
For the air-cooled type only. The pressure-drop ratio across the air-cooled condenser heat exchanger,
used to calculate the pressure drop across the condenser and the corresponding parasitic power
required to maintain the air flow rate.
Min condenser pressure
The minimum condenser pressure in inches if mercury prevents the condenser pressure from dropping
below the level you specify. In a physical system, allowing the pressure to drop below a certain point
can result in physical damage to the system. For evaporative (wet cooling), the default value is 1.25
inches of mercury. For air-cooled (dry cooling), the default is 2 inches of mercury. For hybrid systems,
you can use the dry-cooling value of 2 inches of mercury.
Cooling system part load levels
The cooling system part load levels tells the heat rejection system model how many discrete operating
points there are. A value of 2 means that the system can run at either 100% or 50% rejection. A value
of three means rejection operating points of 100% 66% 33%. The part load levels determine how the
heat rejection operates under part load conditions when the heat load is less than full load. The default
value is 2, and recommended range is between 2 and 10. The value must be an integer.

3.9.5 Thermal Storage

To view the Thermal Storage page, click Thermal Storage on the main window's navigation menu. Note
that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market
window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.

Contents
Overview describes the Thermal Storage page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Thermal Storage
page.
Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls describes the dispatch controls that
determine the timing of energy releases from the storage and fossil back up
systems.
Defining Dispatch Schedules explains how to assign dispatch periods to weekday
and weekend schedules.

Overview
The parameters on the Thermal Storage page describe the properties thermal energy storage system and

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the storage dispatch controls.

The power tower storage model uses storage tank geometry, which requires that the heat transfer fluid
volume, tank loss coefficients, and tank temperatures be specified. SAM calculates the storage tank
geometry to ensure that the storage system can supply energy to the power block at its design thermal
input capacity for the number of hours specified by the Full Load TS Hours variable.

Note. Because the storage capacity is not tied to the solar multiple on the Heliostat Field page, be
careful to choose a storage capacity that is reasonable given the system's thermal capacity.
Mismatched storage and solar thermal capacities will result in high levelized cost of energy values.

Input Variable Reference

Storage System
Storage Type
SAM models only two-tank storage systems for power towers. A two-tank system consists of separate
hot and cold storage tanks.
Full Load Hours of TES (hours)
The storage capacity expressed in hours at full load: The number of hours that the storage system can
supply energy at the power block design turbine input capacity. Note that SAM displays the equivalent
storage capacity in MWht on the Tower System Costs page.
Storage HTF Volume (m 3)
SAM calculates the total heat transfer fluid volume in storage based on the storage hours at full load
and the power block design turbine thermal input capacity. The total heat transfer fluid volume is divided
among the total number of tanks so that all hot tanks contain the same volume of fluid, and all cold
tanks contain the same volume of fluid.
Tank Diameter (m)
The diameter of the cylinder-shaped heat transfer fluid volume in each storage tank.
Tank Height (m)
The height of the cylinder-shaped heat transfer fluid volume in each tank. SAM calculates the height
based on the diameter and storage volume of a single tank.
Tank Fluid Min Height (m)
The minimum allowable height of fluid in the storage tank(s). The mechanical limits of the tank
determine this value.
Parallel Tank Pairs
The number of parallel hot-cold storage tank pairs. Increasing the number of tank-pairs also increases
the volume of the heat transfer fluid exposed to the tank surface, which increases the total tank thermal
losses. SAM divides the total heat transfer fluid volume among all of the tanks, and assumes that each
hot tank contains an equal volume of fluid, and each cold tank contains and equal volume.
Min Fluid Volume (m 3)
The minimum storage heat transfer fluid volume allowed in each storage tank. The usable fluid volume is
equal to the total volume minus the minimum fluid volume. Calculated based on the minimum tank
volume fraction, the total volume, and the number of parallel tank pairs.

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Min Tank Volume Fraction
The minimum allowed fraction of the total storage heat-transfer fluid volume of each storage tank.
Max Fluid Volume (m 3)
The maximum usable heat transfer fluid volume allowed in each storage tank. The maximum volume is
less than the total volume when the minimum tank volume is greater than zero, or the number of parallel
tank pairs is greater than 1.
Wetted Loss Coefficient (W/m 2-K)
The thermal loss coefficient that applies to the portion of the storage tank holding the storage heat
transfer fluid.
Dry Loss Coefficient (W/m 2-K)
The thermal loss coefficient that applies to the portion of the storage tank that contains storage heat
transfer fluid.
Fossil dispatch mode
Choose an option to define how the fossil backup system operates. See Storage and Fossil Dispatch
Controls for details.
Initial Hot HTF Temp (°C)
The temperature of the storage heat transfer fluid in the hot storage tank at the beginning of the
simulation.
Initial Cold HTF Temp (°C)
The temperature of the storage heat transfer fluid in the cold storage tank at the beginning of the
simulation.
Initial Hot HTF Percent (%)
The fraction of the storage heat transfer fluid in the hot storage tank at the beginning of the simulation.
Initial Hot HTF Volume (m 3)
The volume of the storage heat transfer fluid in the hot storage tank at the beginning of the simulation.
Initial Cold HTF Volume (m 3)
The volume of the storage heat transfer fluid in the cold storage tank at the beginning of the simulation.
Cold Tank Heater Temp Set-Point (°C)
The minimum allowed cold tank temperature. Whenever the heat transfer fluid temperature in storage
drops below the set-point value, the system adds sufficient thermal energy from an electric heater to
storage to reach the set-point.
Cold Tank Heater Capacity (MWe)
The maximum electric load of the cold tank electric heater.
Hot Tank Heater Temp Set-Point (°C)
The minimum allowed hot tank temperature. Whenever the heat transfer fluid temperature in storage
drops below the set-point value, the system adds sufficient thermal energy from an electric heater to
storage to reach the set-point.
Hot Tank Heater Capacity (MWe)
The maximum electric load of the hot tank electric heater.

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Tank Heater Efficiency

The electric-to-thermal conversion efficiency of the hot- and cold-tank heaters.
Enable storage bypass valve
When the storage bypass valve is disabled, all of the HTF from the tower is delivered to storage before
being delivered to the power block. Enabling the storage bypass valve allows the HTF to be delivered
from the tower either to the power block or storage system. When the bypass valve is enabled, SAM
only calculates hot HTF storage pumping power losses when the storage system is running. Without
the bypass valve, storage pumping losses apply whenever HTF is circulating in the system.

Thermal Storage Dispatch Control

The storage dispatch control variables each have six values, one for each of six possible dispatch periods.
They determine how SAM calculates the energy flows between the solar field, thermal energy storage
system, and power block. The fossil-fill fraction is used to calculate the energy from a backup boiler.
Storage Dispatch Fraction with Solar
The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start
when the solar field energy is greater than zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in
any hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage.
Used to calculate the storage dispatch levels.
Storage Dispatch Fraction without Solar
The fraction of the maximum storage capacity (TES thermal capacity) required for the system to start
when the solar field energy is equal to zero. A value of zero will always dispatch stored energy in any
hour assigned to the given dispatch period; a value of one will never dispatch energy from storage. Used
to calculate the storage dispatch levels.
Turbine Output Fraction
The fraction of the receiver design thermal power from the Tower and Receiver page at which energy
from the storage system can drive the power cycle. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls
for details.
Fossil Fill Fraction
Determines how much energy the backup boiler delivers during hours when there is insufficient energy
from the solar field (and storage system, if available) to drive the power cycle at its design output
capacity. A value of one for a given dispatch period ensures that the power cycle operates at its design
output for all hours in the period: The boiler "fills in" the energy not delivered by the solar field or storage
system. For a fossil fill fraction less than one, the boiler supplies enough energy to drive the power
cycle at a fraction of its design point. To define a system with no fossil backup, use a value of zero for
all six dispatch periods. See Storage and Fossil Backup Dispatch Controls for details.
Payment Allocation Factor
The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity
price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in
conjunction with the assumptions on the Financing page.
For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that
covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive
payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors.
When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the

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payment allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose.

Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods
to one.

Storage and Fossil Dispatch Controls

The thermal storage dispatch controls determine the timing of releases of energy from the thermal energy
storage and fossil backup systems to the power block. When the system includes thermal energy storage
or fossil backup, SAM can use a different dispatch strategy for up to six different dispatch periods.

Storage Dispatch
SAM decides whether or not to operate the power block in each hour of the simulation based on how much
energy is stored in the TES, how much energy is provided by the solar field, and the values of the thermal
storage dispatch controls parameters. You can define when the power block operates for each of the six
dispatch periods. For each hour in the simulation, if the power block is not already operating, SAM looks at
the amount of energy that is in thermal energy storage at the beginning of the hour and decides whether it
should start the power block. For each period, there are two targets for starting the power block: one for
periods of sunshine (w/solar), and one for period of no sunshine (w/o solar).
The turbine output fraction for each dispatch period determines at what load level the power block runs using
energy from storage during that period. The load level is a function of the turbine output fraction, design
turbine thermal input, and the five turbine part load electric to thermal factors on the Power Cycle page.
For each dispatch period during periods of sunshine, thermal storage is dispatched to meet the power block
load level for that period only when the thermal power from the solar field is insufficient and available storage
is equal to or greater than the product of the storage dispatch fraction (with solar) and maximum energy in
storage. Similarly, during periods of no sunshine when no thermal power is produced by the solar field, the
power block will not run except when the energy available in storage is equal to or greater than the product
of storage dispatch fraction (without solar) and maximum energy in storage.
By setting the thermal storage dispatch controls parameters, you can simulate the effect of a clear day
when the operator may need to start the plant earlier in the day to make sure that the storage is not filled to
capacity and solar energy is dumped, or of a cloudy day when the operator may want to store energy for
later use in a higher value period.

Fossil Dispatch Mode

SAM operates the fossil backup system based on the option you choose for Fossil dispatch mode in the
Storage System parameters.
Minimum Backup Level
In the Minimum Backup Level mode, whenever the fossil fill fraction is greater than zero for any dispatch
period, the system is considered to include a fossil burner that heats the HTF before it is delivered to
the power cycle.
In this mode, the fossil fill fraction defines the fossil backup as a function of the thermal energy from the
solar field (and storage, if applicable) in a given hour and the power cycle design gross output defined
on the Power Cycle page.
For example, for an hour with a fossil fill fraction of 1.0 when solar energy delivered to the power cycle is
less than that needed to run at the power cycle design gross output, the backup heater would supply

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enough energy to "fill" the missing heat, and the power cycle would operate at the design gross output.
If, in that scenario, solar energy (from either the field or storage system) is driving the power cycle at full
load, the fossil backup would not operate. For a fossil fill fraction of 0.75, the heater would only be fired
when solar output drops below 75% of the power cycle's design gross output.
Supplemental Operation
In the Supplemental Operation mode, SAM assumes a fossil backup system of a fixed maximum
capacity, for example, capable of supplying 10 MW of thermal energy to the HTF.
The fossil fill fraction defines the size of the fossil backup as a fraction of the power cycle design gross
output and this energy is added to the input from the solar field and storage system.
Operation of the power block in a given hour is constrained by the Turb out fraction you specify for
each period, and the Max turbine over design operation and Min turbine operation from the Power
Cycle page. For hours that the added fossil energy is insufficient to meet the Min turbine operation
requirement, fossil backup is not dispatched. For hours when the combined fossil and solar
contribution exceeds the Turb out fraction for the hour, the amount of fossil energy dispatched is
reduced until the required turbine output is met.
The tank heater efficiency determines the quantity of fuel used by the fossil backup system. SAM includes
the cost of fuel for the backup system in the levelized cost of energy and other metrics reported in the
results, and reports the energy equivalent of the hourly fuel consumption in the hourly simulation results.
The cost of fuel for the backup system is defined on the Tower System Costs page.

Payment Allocation Factor

The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price
based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with
the assumptions on the Financing page.
For utility dispatch and utility bid price projects, SAM calculates a first year PPA price or bid price that
covers project installation, operating, and financing costs (accounting for any tax credits or incentive
payments), given time-of-use adjustments specified by the payment allocation factors.
When you choose a dispatch schedule from SAM's dispatch schedule library, SAM populates the payment
allocation factors with values appropriate for the schedule you choose.

Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods
to one.

Defining Dispatch Schedules

The storage dispatch schedules determine when each of the six periods apply during weekdays and
weekends throughout the year. You can either choose an existing schedule from one of the schedules in
the CSP Tower TES dispatch library or define a custom schedule. For information about libraries, see
Working with Libraries.
The TES dispatch library only assigns period numbers to the weekday and weekend schedule matrices.
The dispatch fractions assigned to each of the six periods are not stored in the library.

To choose a schedule from the library:

1. Click Dispatch schedule library.
2. Choose a schedule from the list of four schedules. The schedules are based on time-of-use pricing

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schedules from four California utilities.
3. Click OK.
You can modify a schedule using the steps described below. Modifying a schedule does not affect
the schedule stored in the library.
4. For each of the up to six periods used in the schedule, enter values for the dispatch fractions
described above. Use the period number and color to identify the times in the schedule that each
period applies.

To specify a weekday or weekend schedule:

1. Assign values as appropriate to the Storage Dispatch, Turbine Output Fraction, Fossil Fill Fraction,
and Payment Allocation Factor for each of the up to nine periods.
2. Click Dispatch schedule library.
3. Choose a Uniform Dispatch.
4. Click OK.
5. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.

6. Type the number 2.

7. SAM shades displays the period number in the squares that make up the rectangle, and shades

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the rectangle to match the color of the period.

8. Repeat Steps 2-4 for each of the remaining periods that apply to the schedule.

3.9.6 Parasitics
To view the Parasitics page, click Parasitics on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for the power
tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.

Contents
Overview describes the Parasitics page and where to find additional information
about the parasitics model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Parastics page.
Estimated Parasitic Losses explains the parasitic loss estimate SAM uses to
calculate the plant capacity displayed on the Power Cycle page.
Hourly Parasitic Losses describes the hourly parasitic losses reported in hourly
results.

Overview
The parameters on the Parasitics page describe parasitic electrical loads and other losses in the power
tower system.
Page numbers relevant to this section from the Wagner (2008) and Kistler B (1986) references are:
Kistler 224

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The parasitic loss variables are factors that SAM uses to calculate the estimated total parasitic loss and
hourly parasitic losses, which are described in more detail below.
SAM calculates two types parasitic loss values. The first is an estimate of the total parasitic losses used to
calculate the power block design thermal input, and the second are the hourly values calculated during
simulation of the system's performance.

Note. Parasitic losses from components that do not exist in the system should be set to zero.

Input Variable Reference

Parasitic Energy Consumption
Startup Energy of a Single Heliostat (kWe-hr)
The electric energy in kilowatt-hours required to move each heliostat into position. Applies during hours
when the heliostat is starting up.
Tracking Power for a Single Heliostat (kWe)
The electric power in kilowatts required by the tracking mechanism of each heliostat in the field during
hours of operation.
Receiver HTF Pump Efficiency
The electro-mechanical efficiency of the receiver heat transfer fluid pump.
Storage Pump Power (MWe/MWt)
The ratio of the electric power in kilowatts required by the storage pumps to the thermal power passing
through the storage system.
Fraction of rated gross power consumed at all times
Piping Loss Coefficient (Wt/m)
Thermal loss per meter of piping. Includes piping throughout the system.
Piping Length Constant (m)
Piping Length Multiplier
Total Piping Length (m)
Length of piping throughout the system: From the receiver to power block, power block to process heat,
etc. The piping loss varies with output produced by turbine.
Balance of Plant Parasitic (MWe/MWcap)
Losses as a fraction of the power block nameplate capacity that apply in hours when the power block
operates.
Cooling Tower Parasitic Power (MWe/MWcap)
The cooling tower parasitic losses as a fraction of power block nameplate capacity are electrical losses
that occur when the power block operates at part or full load.

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3.10 Solar Water Heating

3.10.1 SWH System

To view the SWH System page, click SWH System on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for
the solar water heating system input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and
Market window must be Solar Water Heating.
SAM's Solar Water Heating model was developed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
The current version of the model represents a two-tank glycol system with an auxiliary electric heater and
storage tank for residential applications. The model allows you to vary the location, hot water load profiles,
and characteristics of the collector, heat exchanger, and solar tanks.

Contents
Overview describes the SWH System page and provides some guidelines for using
the model.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables.
Specifying the Hot Water Draw explains how to define the hourly load profiles for
the hot water draw.

Overview
The SWH system page displays characteristics of the solar water heating system and allows you to define
the hourly hot water draw of the system.
Keep the following in mind as you use SAM's solar water heating model:
SAM calculates the water mains inlet temperature is based on the correlation to local air temperature
used in the Building America Benchmark. The algorithm is described in Burch and Christensen,
"Towards Development of an Algorithm for Mains Water Temperature," see [Link] for a full
citation in the NREL Publications database. SAM reports the calculated hourly water mains
temperatures on tabular data browser on the Results page as Mains Inlet Temp ('C), Hourly, and in
DView as Tmains.
The flow rate is assumed constant over each hour, using values from the hourly hot water draw profile
that you specify. SAM calculates the flow rate in kg/hr as the draw volume in kg for a given hour divided
by one hour.
Collectors are assumed to be flat plate collectors plumbed in parallel, with uniform flow through each
collector at the tested flow rate.
Collectors are characterized by the linear form of the collector efficiency and IAM (incident angle
modifier) equations, with parameters available from test data (e.g., [Link]), or by external
calculation for untested collectors.
The collector loop is assumed to be charged with glycol having Cp = 3.4 kJ/kG-ºC, with no correction to
the collector parameters.
The heat exchanger is external to the solar tank, has no thermal losses, and is assumed to have the

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constant effectiveness that you specify on the SWH system page.
A standard differential controller controls the solar and storage tank loop pumps. Pump power is 40W
for both solar loop and storage loop pumps, and pump energy is assumed totally lost.
Tanks are modeled with a finite difference approach. The solar and auxiliary storage tanks each are
modeled with 3 nodes, accommodating modest stratification. The solar tank loss coefficient is the Tank
U Value specified on the SWH system page. The auxiliary tank loss coefficient is calculated from the
water heater energy factor specified on the SWH system page. The model assumes a single electric
element located at the bottom node of the auxiliary tank, witha maximum capacity of 4.5 kW. A
tempering valve is placed at the outlet of the auxiliary tank, with setpoint equal to the water heater set
temperature on the SWH System page.

Input Variable Reference

Hourly Hot Water Draw
You must specify a set of 8,760 hourly values representing the hot water system's heating load. You can
either import values from a text file, paste values from a spreadsheet or other file using your computer's
clipboard, or type a set of 24-hour load profiles for each of the twelve months of the year, with the option of
specifying separate profiles for weekdays and weekends.
See Specifying the Hot Water Draw for details.
Water Draw (kg/hr)
The mass of hot water drawn over an hour. Click Edit to specify the hot water draw.
The mean, min, and max values displayed in the small box next to the Edit button display the mean,
minimum and maximum values in the current data set.

Solar Array
Number of Collectors
The number of collectors in the system.
Collector Tilt (degrees)
The array's tilt angle in degrees from horizontal, where zero degrees is horizontal, and 90 degrees is
vertical. As a rule of thumb, system designers often use the location's latitude (shown on the Climate
page) as the optimal array tilt angle. The actual tilt angle will vary based on project requirements.
Collector Azimuth (degrees)
The array's east-west orientation in degrees. An azimuth value of zero is facing south in the northern
hemisphere. Positive 90 degrees is facing due west and negative 90 degrees is facing due east. As a
rule of thumb, system designers often use an array azimuth of zero, or facing the equator.
Nameplate Capacity
The system's nominal capacity in thermal kilowatts, used to in capacity based cost and financing
calculations, and to calculate the system capacity factor reported in results:
Nameplate Capacity = Total Collector Area × FRta - FRUL × 30/1000
Total Collector Area (m2)
Total area of all collectors. :
Total Collector Area = Single Collector Area × Number of Collectors

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Collector Specifications
Choose from library
Use this option to choose a collector from the collector library. SAM applies parameters from the library
to model the collector.
The collector library contains parameters for collectors certified by the Solar Rating and Certification
Corporation (SRCC): [Link]
User Specified
Choose this option to specify your own collector parameters.
SRCC#
The collector's SRCC number.
Type
The collector's optic type.
Fluid
The solar system's heat transfer fluid.
Test flow
Fluid flow rate used to generate test data.
The User Specified Collector variables are active for the User Specified option. (SAM ignores the user
specified-values when you use the Choose From Library option.)
Area
Area of a single collector. Choose a value consistent with the area convention used in the collector
efficiency equation. For example, use gross area for all SRCC data.
FRta
Optical gain a in Hottel-Whillier-Bliss (HWB) equation h coll = a – b × dT

FRUL (W/m2-°C)
Thermal loss coefficient b in the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss (HWB) equation h coll = a – b × dT

IAM
The incident angle modifier coefficient: The constant b 0 in the equation IAM = 1 – b 0 × (1/cos(q ) – 1)

The Values Used in Simulation variables show parameters from either the collector library or user-
specified variables that SAM uses to simulate the system's performance:
Single Collector Area
The area of one collector.
FRta
Optical gain
FRUL
Thermal loss coefficient.

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Incident Angle Modifier
Incident angle modifier coefficient.

Solar Tank and Pump

Solar Tank Storage Volume (m³)
The actual volume of the solar storage tank. Note that the actual volume may be different from the rated
volume.
Solar Tank Height/Diameter Ratio
Defines the solar storage tank geometry, and by extension its geometry.
Solar Tank U Value (kJ/h-m²-ºC)
The solar storage tank loss coefficient. Note that 1 kJ/h-m²-ºC = 3.6 W/m²-ºC.

Pump and Heat Exchanger

Circulation Pump Power (W)
The pump's peak power rating in Watts.
Heat Exchanger Efficiency
Heat exchanger effectiveness, where the effectiveness e, is defined as e = (Tcold-out – Tcold-in ) / (Thot-in
- Tcold-in )

Auxiliary Water Heater (Electric Only)

The auxiliary water heater parameters describe properties of the conventional electric water
heater and tank.
Auxiliary Energy Factor
The conventional electric water heater's energy factor.
Auxiliary Volume (m³)
The storage volume of the auxiliary water heater's tank.
Auxiliary Set Temp (ºC)
The set temperature of the auxiliary water heater. The system uses either energy from
the solar collector or electric power to maintain the water temperature at the set
temperature.
Auxiliary Max Power (kW)
The maximum electrical power that the auxiliary water heater's heating element can
consume.

Specifying the Hot Water Draw

The hot water draw represents the solar water heating system's hourly thermal load over the period of one
year.
A load data file is a text file with 8,761 rows: The first row is a text header that SAM ignores, and the
remaining 8,760 rows must contain average hourly electric demand data in kilowatts. The first data element

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represents the hour beginning at midnight and ending at 1 a.m. on January 1.

To import load data from a properly formatted text file:

1. On the SWH System page, click Edit.
2. In the Edit Hourly Data window, click Import.
3. Navigate to the folder containing the load data file and open the file.
SAM displays the data in the data table. Use the scroll bars to see all of the data.
4. Click OK to return to the SWH System page.

To import load data from a spreadsheet or other file:

1. On the SWH System page, click Edit.
2. Open the spreadsheet containing the load data. The data must be in a single column of 8,760 rows,
and expressed in kg.
3. In the spreadsheet, select the load data and copy it.
4. In the Edit Hourly Data window, click Paste.
5. You can also copy data from the Edit Hourly Data window by clicking Copy, or export the data to a
text file by clicking Save.

If you do not have a complete 8,760 set of load data, you can use a set of daily load profiles for each month,
and use SAM to create a set of 8,760 values.

To create a load data set using daily load profiles:

1. On the SWH System page, click Edit.
2. In the Edit Hourly Data window, check Use monthly grid to generate 8760 data.
3. For each month of the year, define a daily load profile by typing a kg hot water draw value for each
of the 24 hours of the day. The first column represents the first hour of the day, beginning at
midnight and ending at 1:00 a.m.
If you want to specify separate load profiles for weekdays and weekends, click Weekend Values to
define profiles that apply to two days each week. SAM arbitrarily assumes that the first day in the
data set is a Monday, and that weekends fall on Saturday and Sunday.
If you do not specify separate weekend profiles, SAM applies the weekday profile to all days of the
week.
4. When you have specified all of the daily load profiles, click To 8760 to transfer the data to the User
Specified data table. You must complete this step for SAM to use the profile data in simulations.
When you define a load with daily load profiles, SAM assumes that all days in a given month have
identical load profiles.
5. If you want to export the 8,760 data to a text file, click Save. You can also copy the data to a
spreadsheet or other file by clicking Copy, and then pasting the data in to the file.

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3.11 Geothermal Power

Note. This topic is still under development.

For more details, about SAM's geothermal model, please refer to the documentation for the U.S.
Department of Energy's Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), which you can
download from [Link]

If you have questions about SAM's geothermal model, please contact [Link]@[Link].
SAM's geothermal power systems model is based on the U.S. Department of Energy's Geothermal
Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), [Link]
The model calculates the annual and lifetime electrical output of a utility-scale geothermal power plant,
and the levelized cost of energy and other economic metrics for the plant.

The geothermal power plant model calculates the output of a power plant that uses heat from below the
surface of the ground to drive a steam electric power generation plant. SAM analyzes the plant's
performance over its lifetime, assuming that changes in the resource and electrical output occur monthly
over a period of years, rather than over hours over a period of one year as in the solar and other technologies
modeled by SAM.
SAM can be used to answer the following kinds of questions:
What is the levelized cost of a geothermal power plant, given a known configuration and resource?
How does changing the design of the plant affect its output and levelized cost of energy?
What plant size is required to meet an electric capacity requirement?
Given a known number of wells, what would the plant's electric capacity be?
SAM models the following types of systems:
Hydrothermal resources, where the underground heat reservoir is sufficiently permeable and contains
sufficient groundwater to make the resource useful without any enhancements.
Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) that pump water or steam underground to collect heat stored in
rock. These systems involve drilling or fracturing the rock to improve heat transfer. Over time (typically
years), as heat is collected from the rock, its the temperature decreases, and more drilling is required.
SAM's recapitalization cost accounts for the cost of these improvements to reach new resources.
Both flash and binary conversion plants.

3.11.1 Resource

Note. This topic is still under development.

For more details, about SAM's geothermal model, please refer to the documentation for the U.S.
Department of Energy's Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), which you can
download from [Link]

If you have questions about SAM's geothermal model, please contact [Link]@[Link].

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Resource Characterization
The resource characterization inputs describe the energy available in the underground geology at the project
site.
Resource Type
For Hydrothermal resources, the rocks have enough permeability, heat, and water to be useful
immediately.
For Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) resources, there is heat, but either water, or permeability,
or both are missing and must be added during the project development and operation.
Total Resource Potential
The total resource potential is an estimate of the total size of the energy available in the underground
thermal reservoir. SAM uses the value to calculate the number of times over the project life that new
drilling would be required to renew the resource based on the reduction of the reservoir's temperature
over time. As the system operates and draws heat from the reservoir, the reservoir temperature drops.
After a number of years, there may be insufficient heat to maintain the steam temperature required to
drive the plant, and new wells may need to be drilled to renew the resource by reaching another section
of the reservoir where there is sufficient heat. Eventually, the reservoir may cool to the point that it is
impossible to find more heat by drilling from the plant location. Total resource potential is meant to be a
measure of how many times the reservoir can be renewed. For example, a 210 MW reservoir divided by
30 MW plant capacity could support up to seven renewals (210 ÷ 30 = 7).
Resource Temperature
The temperature of the reservoir at the depth given by the resource depth.
Resource Depth
The depth below ground at which the temperature specified by the resource temperature exists.
In general, the higher the temperature of the resource, the lower the cost of energy generated by the plant.
That is true to a certain point, but SAM won’t handle the case of the steam being so hot that special
equipment is necessary to deal with it.
For a description of the resource characterization inputs, see page 2 of the "Revisions to GETEM
Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" document available at [Link]
getem_manuals.html.

Reservoir Parameters
The reservoir parameters describe the geologic formation. SAM provides three options for calculating the
change in reservoir pressure. The option you choose affect the plant's overall efficiency, which depend on
the design parameters that SAM displays under Calculated Design. The design value determine the
pumping power or parasitic load required by the plant.
For a description of the reservoir parameters, see page 6 of the "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet (Version
2009-A15)" document available at [Link]

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3.11.2 Plant and Equipment

Note. This topic is still under development.

For more details, about SAM's geothermal model, please refer to the documentation for the U.S.
Department of Energy's Geothermal Electricity Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM), which you can
download from [Link]

If you have questions about SAM's geothermal model, please contact [Link]@[Link].

Plant Configuration
The plant configuration describes the plant's conversion technology and how SAM models it.
Specify plant output
The Specify Plant Output option allows you to specify the plant's electrical capacity in kilowatts. SAM
calculates the plant size required to ensure that the plant's net output meets this output requirement,
with enough extra power to supply parasitic load defined by the Calculated Design values on the
Resource page.
Use exact number of wells
When you choose Use Exact Number of Wells, you specify the number of wells, and SAM, calculates
the plant's gross capacity based on the energy available from the wells, and the plant net output by
subtracting the parasitic load from the gross output. The parasitic load is defined by the Calculated
Design values on the Resource page.
Conversion Plant Type
The Conversion Plant Type determines the plant's steam-to-electricity conversion efficiency, also called
"brine effectiveness.” The plant efficiency is different from the system efficiency, which also accounts for
pumping losses from the parasitic load.
Binary
When you choose the Binary option, you can specify the plant efficiency.
Plant Efficiency
The steam-to-electricity conversion efficiency, expressed as a percentage of the theoretical maximum
conversion efficiency.
Flash
The Flash option allows you to choose from four subtypes that determine the plant efficiency.
For a description of the conversion system inputs see pages 12-16 of the "Revisions to GETEM
Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" document available at [Link]
getem_manuals.html.

Temperature Decline
The temperature decline parameters determine when and how often the project will require that new wells be
drilled, and are related to the total resource potential specified on the Resource page.
For a description of the temperature decline inputs, see page 9 of the "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet

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(Version 2009-A15)" document available at [Link]

Flash Technology
The two flash technology inputs impact the plant conversion efficiency for the flash conversion type.

Pumping Parameters
The Production Well Flow Rate and resource temperature specified on the Resource page dictate how
much energy is available to the plant for conversion into electricity. The higher the flow rate, the more steam
(or hot water) moves through the system, making thermal energy available for conversion, which, in turn,
means fewer wells have to be drilled and therefore a lower capital expense.
The remaining inputs impact the parasitic load for pumping. The Injection Well Diameter applies only
when the resource type on the Resource page is EGS.
For a description of pumping, see Section 5.7 of the GETEM Technical Reference Manual (Volume I)
available at [Link]
For a description of EGS pumping, see Section 6.1.a of the GETEM User's Manual (Volume II), and page 4
of "Revisions to GETEM Spreadsheet (Version 2009-A15)" both available at [Link]
geothermal/getem_manuals.html.

3.12 Geothermal Co-production

3.12.1 Resource and Power Generation

The Co-Production in SAM model estimates power output from co-production resources based on the
resource temperature and flow rate and the power plant model chosen. The power plant model calculates
the plant net power output based on either the thermal efficiency or utilization efficiency assumed for the
power plant.

Thermal Efficiency
The thermal or “First Law” efficiency is defined as the ratio of the net rate of work output of the power plant
to the net rate of heat input into the power plant:

Where,
ηth = thermal efficiency
W dot = rate of net work/power output from power plant, kJ/s
Q dot = rate of net heat input to power plant, kJ/s
The thermal efficiency represents the amount of thermal energy input into the power plant that is converted
to useful work. The rate of heat input to the power plant is calculated from the change in enthalpy of the
resource fluid between the inlet and outlet of the power plant:

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Where,
Q dot= mass flow rate of co-production resource (water from well), kg/s
H(T) = specific enthalpy of fluid at temperature T, kJ/kg
Tin = temperature of resource fluid into power plant in degrees Celsius. SAM assumes that the
temperature into the power plant is the same as the resource temperature entered under the “specify
resource” section
Tout = plant outlet temperature in degrees Celsius.
When calculating enthalpy, SAM assumes that the co-production resource is pure water and pressure
effects are ignored so that enthalpy is a function of temperature only. The correlation for enthalpy is the
same as that used in the Geothermal Energy Technology Evaluation Model (GETEM) ([Link]
[Link]/geothermal/[Link]). The correlation used is a 6th order polynomial of form:

Where,
c6 = 1.0122595469E-14
c5 = -1.8805783302E-11
c4 = 1.4924845946E-08
c3 = -5.9760546933E-06
c2 = 0.0013462856545
c1 = 0.83827719984
c0 = -24.113934502

Utilization Efficiency
The utilization or “Second Law” efficiency is defined as the ratio of the work output of the power plant to the
theoretical maximum power that could be extracted from the resource relative to the ambient or dead state,
defined by its exergy:

Where,
S(T) = specific entropy of fluid at temperature T, kJ/(kg-ºC)
Tambient = ambient temperature, degrees Celsius
The utilization efficiency is then defined as:

Where:
ηu = utilization efficiency
Like with the enthalpy of the fluid, when calculating entropy, SAM assumes that the co-production resource
is pure water and pressure effects are ignored so that entropy is a function of temperature only. The
correlation for enthalpy is the same as that used in the Geothermal Energy Technology Evaluation Model
(GETEM) ([Link] The correlation used is a 6th order
polynomial of form:

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 Geothermal Co-production 231

Where,
c6 = 7.39915E-18
c5 = -1.29452E-14
c4 = 8.84301E-12
c3 = -0.00000000184191
c2 = -0.00000120262
c1 = 0.002032431
c0 = -0.060089552

Choose how to model geothermal production

You can model your system using either a theoretical model or a model based on the performance curves of
existing commercial power plants to calculate the plant power output.

Theoretical Model
Thermal efficiency - MIT Report
Power output is based on the specified resource temperature (assumed to be plant input temperature),
specified plant output temperature, and the thermal efficiency defined in Equation 7.1 of the “Future of
Geothermal Energy” report published in 2006 by MIT:
ηth = 0.0935*T(oC) - 2.3266
This correlation is based on existing binary hydrothermal power plants with operating temperatures
between roughly 100-200 degrees Celsius.
Thermal Efficiency – User Defined
Power output is based on a user defined thermal efficiency curve for the power plant, the specified
resource temperature (assumed to be plant input temperature), and specified plant output temperature.
The user creates the thermal efficiency curve using the “Enter curve efficiency” button to input
temperature/thermal efficiency data. The thermal efficiency curve is created from the data points
entered by using linear interpolation to estimate the curve between points. Performance beyond the
maximum and minimum temperatures is determined by linear extrapolation.
Entering a single temperature/efficiency data point results in a power plant with constant thermal
efficiency at all temperatures. Entering two data points gives a linear thermal efficiency curve similar in
shape to the MIT correlation described above. More complex curves can be created by entering a large
number of data points that approximate the shape of the user defined curve. In this way, the user can
define a curve of any shape desired. Data can be input by cutting and pasting values into the
“Efficiency Curve” columns.
Utilization Efficiency – User Defined
Power output is based on a user defined utilization efficiency curve for the power plant, the specified
resource temperature (assumed to be plant input temperature), and specified ambient temperature. The
user creates the utilization efficiency curve in the same manner as for the thermal efficiency curve
described above.

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Existing Systems
PureCycle
Thermal efficiency curves for the PureCycle system are based on performance curves published by UTC
at ([Link]
20Kit/1%20Static%20Files/pwps_orc_brochure.pdf). The thermal efficiency curves assume a net power
plant output of 260 kW. It is assumed that cooling water is available. The user can specify cooling
water temperatures from 50-80 oF, consistent with the published performance curves.
Size plant based on resource power potential
You can also specify whether you want to use the system design power output of 260 kW, or to size
the power plant specifically to the resource. This is identical to having a power plant that has similar
performance characteristics of the PureCycle system but is sized specifically to the defined resource.
Such systems are hypothetical and are not actually available commercially, but are included to allow
the user to determine how having a system with performance similar to available commercial systems
but more-closely sized to their resource would affect the economics of their projects.
Specify the number of units
Plant output for each unit is assumed to be the same as that advertised for the commercially available
system. If the resource power potential is greater than the design output of the specified units, then the
resource is under-utilized and the power output is limited by the number of units. If the resource power
potential is less than the design output of the specified units, then the power plant is under-utilized and
the power output from the plant will not reach its maximum, but will be limited by the resource. The
capital costs for the project will still be based on the plant’s design power output. In this way, the user
can explore how a power plant vs. resource power potential mismatch affects the economics of the
system.
A similar comparison can be done with theoretical plants by choosing whether to specify the plant design
net output or size it to match the resource power potential.

3.13 Small Scale Wind

3.13.1 Small Scale Wind Overview

The Small Scale Wind system models a wind system with one or more wind turbines for a residential or
commercial project.
The model uses wind speed and direction data from weather files in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format.
Wind Resource
Small Scale Wind Capital Costs
Small Scale Wind System
Electric Load

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 Small Scale Wind 233

3.13.2 Wind Climate

To view the Wind Climate page, click Wind Climate in the main window's navigation menu. The Wind
Climate page is available for the Small Scale Wind model. Note that the Utility Scale Wind model uses a
different set of inputs on the Wind Resource page.
The Wind Resource page allows you to choose a weather file in TMY3, TMY2 or EPW format, download
satellite-derived weather data from the Internet, create your own weather file in TMY3 format, and review
your weather data.

Note. This topic describes the Wind Resource page for small wind power systems. In the current
version of SAM, the page has been adapted from the Climate page for solar power systems, and some
of the variables displayed on the page are not appropriate for wind systems. The page will be updated in
future versions of SAM. Please contact [Link]@[Link] with any questions or comments
about the Wind Resource page.

Contents
Overview of the Wind Resource Page describes the options for choosing weather
data and the variables displayed on the Wind Resource page.
Input Variable Reference describes the variables and buttons on the Wind Resource
page.
Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths explains how to add your own
weather files to the Location list.
Copying Weather Data to a Project explains how to embed weather data in your
project file for sharing with other people.
Creating a Weather File from Your Own Data describes SAM's TMY3 weather file
creator to use your own weather data in SAM.
Using Location Lookup explains how to automatically download satellite-derived
data for any location in the United States using a street address, zip code, or
latitude and longitude.
Downloading Weather Files from the Internet explains how to download TMY3,
EPW, and satellite-derived data from the internet.
Wind Resource Details describes the variables required for modeling small scale
wind systems.

Overview
The Wind Climate page allows you to choose the weather file that SAM uses for simulations in the current
case. The Wind Climate page displays a summary of the weather data, and also allows you to view the
actual data in the time series data viewer (DView). The weather files are text files, so you can also examine
the data using a text editor, a spreadsheet program, or other software.

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Weather Data Guidelines

For U.S. locations, use the Best weather data for the U.S. web link on the Wind Climate page to
download a TMY3 file. If the TMY3 database does not include a file for a location at or very near your
project site, try to find TMY3 files for locations near the site. You can run simulations for the different
locations and compare them to get a sense of what the resource might be at the project site. See
Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for instructions.
SAM comes with the complete set of the 239 TMY2 weather files. To use a TMY2 file, simply choose it
from the Location list. See instructions below.
If no TMY3 or TMY2 data is available for your project site, you can download typical year data from
NREL's Solar Prospector website using SAM's Location Lookup feature. The Solar Prospector website
provides access to satellite-derived weather data for the entire U.S. at a 10-km geographic resolution in
files using the TMY2 format. See Using Location Lookup for details.
For locations outside of the U.S., EPW files are available for over 1000 locations in 100 countries. See
Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for instructions.
If you have weather data from a resource measurement program or from meteorological weather station,
you can use SAM's TMY3 creator to create a TMY3 formatted file with the data. See Creating a
Weather File from Your Own Data for details.
Some companies sell weather data and weather data processing software. For example, see Weather
Analytics TMY Anywhere [Link] or [Link]
pages/en/[Link].

To choose a weather data file from the Location list:

1. Download the weather file from the Internet. See Downloading Weather Files from the Internet for
details
2. Place the file in your weather file folder. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for
details.
Or, you can use one of the TMY2 files included with SAM. See below for a description of file
formats and guidelines for specifying weather data.
3. In the Location list, click the weather file's name.

If you cannot find a file for your project site on the Internet, or have data from another source that is
not in one of the file formats SAM recognizes, See Specifying Weather Data below for a list of
options.

Note. You can compare results for a system using more than one weather file in a single case by using
SAM's parametric simulation option.

File Formats
A SAM weather file is a file that contains hourly data describing the solar resource, wind speed,
temperature, and other weather characteristics at a particular location in one of three text formats:
TMY3 comma-delimited text file format (.csv), [Link]

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 Small Scale Wind 235

tmy3/
TMY2 non-delimited text file format (.tm2), [Link]
EPW comma-delimited text file format (.epw), [Link]
weatherdata_format_def.html
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's typical year data represents average weather data over a
range of years: 1961-1990 for TMY2 data, and 1991-2005 for TMY3 data. Each typical year file may contain
data from different years within the range, for example a TMY3 file might contain 1995 data for the month of
February, 2001 data for March, 1998 data for April, etc. The NREL typical year data is based on analysis of
weather data measured at each location and is appropriate for economic and performance predictions of a
project over a long analysis period. The EPW data was developed for the U.S. Department of Energy's
EnergyPlus building simulation model, and is a source of non-U.S. weather data for SAM. The EPW data
on the EnergyPlus website is also typical year data.
TMY3 files are available for 1020 U.S. locations, and are based on more recent data and better modeling
techniques than the TMY2 data. However, the TMY3 data was developed using data from a shorter time
period than the TMY2 data, so may be less representative of the resource over the long term. (Although the
TMY2 data includes effects from the Mt Pinatubo volcanic eruption, which may distort solar energy output
predictions based on the data.) If both TMY2 and TMY3 files are available for your project site, you may
want to run SAM with both sets of data to compare results.
SAM will read a weather file containing data from any source, as long as it is correctly formatted. You can
create your own weather file with data collected from a resource measurement program, or from
meteorological stations. SAM may not be able to read weather files that contain formatting errors or
erroneous data elements. In some cases, you can use a text editor to compare a problematic file with one
in the same format that works correctly in SAM to find problems with the file. Refer to the documentation
available in the websites listed above for each file format for details.

Single Year Weather Data

Single year data represents the weather at a location for a specific year. Single year data is appropriate for
analysis of a project's economics and performance in a particular year, and for analyses involving time-
dependent electricity pricing or electric loads for a given year. Single-year weather data can be developed
from on-site measurements or from satellite-derived measurements. Single-year data for U.S. locations is
available from NREL's Solar Prospector website, follow the link on the Wind Climate page under Web Links
. The Solar Prospector data is satellite-derived data formatted using the TMY2 file format, so SAM can read
the data directly. NREL also publishes the specific-year data used to develop the TMY2 and TMY3 data
sets on the websites listed above, but that data must be formatted to work with SAM, either using external
software or SAM's TMY3 Creator feature.

Time Convention
The time convention of the weather data determines the time convention of SAM's simulations. For
example, TMY2 and TMY3 data both use local standard time, and the radiation data values represent the
total energy received during the 60 minutes preceding the indicated hour. The global horizontal radiation
shown for hour 1 represents the total radiation incident on a horizontal surface between midnight and 1:00
am of the first hour of the year. Both data sets assume that there are 8,760 hours in one year and do not
account for leap years. SAM assumes that the solar angle at the middle of the hour (at 30 minutes past the
hour) applies to the entire hour.

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Input Variable Reference

Choose Climate/Location
Location
The name of the weather file. A filename preceded by "SAM/" is a standard weather data file included
with SAM and stored in the \exelib\climate_files folder. A filename preceded by "USER/" is a file in a
folder that you have added to the weather file search path list.
Add/Remove
Add or remove a folder on your computer from the list of folders SAM searches for files with the TMY2,
TMY3, or EPW file extension. SAM will list all weather files in folders that you add to the search list in
the location list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details.
Refresh List
Refreshes the list of files in the location list. SAM automatically refreshes the list each time you visit
the Wind Climate page. If you add a weather file to one of the folders in the search list, you may need
to refresh the list for the file to be visible in the location list.
Copy to project
Embeds the data from a weather file to the project (.zsam) file. This useful when you share your project
file with another person and do not want to send the weather file separately. Embedding weather data in
a project increases the size of the project file. When you copy data to a project, SAM indicates the
data with "USER/" in the location list. See Copying Weather Data to a Project for details.
Remove from project
Remove embedded weather data. The button is only active when the active location in the location list is
preceded by "USER/."
Create TMY3 file
Use the TMY3 Creator to convert your own weather data into the TMY3 format. See Creating a TMY3
file From Your Own Data for details.
Location Lookup
Type an address or coordinates for a U.S. location to download specific-year satellite-derived data from
the Solar Prospector website. See Using Location Lookup for details.

Location Information
The location information variables display data from the weather file header that describes the location. An
empty variable indicates that the information does not exist in the weather file's header. The location
information variables cannot be edited.
City
The name of the city.
State
The state abbreviation.
Timezone
The location's time zone, relative to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). A negative number indicates the

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 Small Scale Wind 237

number of time zones west of GMT. A positive number indicates the number of time zones east of
GMT.
Elevation (m)
The location's elevation above sea level in meters.
Latitude (degrees)
The location's latitude in degrees. A positive number indicates a location north of the equator.
Longitude (degrees)
The location's longitude in degrees. A negative number indicates the number of degrees west of the
Prime Meridian.

Weather Data Information (Annual)

SAM calculates and displays the annual totals and averages of four of the hourly data columns from the
weather file in the weather data information variables. Weather data information variables cannot be edited.
Direct Normal (kWh/m 2)
The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the direct normal radiation data in the weather file, expressed in
kilowatt-hours per square meter. Direct normal radiation is solar energy that reaches the ground in a
straight line from the sun.
Diffuse Horizontal (kWh/m 2)
The sum of the 8,760 hourly values of the diffuse horizontal radiation data in the weather file, expressed
in kilowatt-hours per square meter. Diffuse radiation is solar energy that reaches a horizontal plane
along the ground after reflecting from clouds and particles in the atmosphere. Note that the annual
average global horizontal radiation is the sum of the direct normal and diffuse horizontal components.
Dry-bulb Temp (°C)
The annual average of the ambient temperature data in the weather file in degrees Celsius.
Wind Speed (m/s)
The annual average wind speed in meters per second. For NREL TMY2 and TMY3 data, and EPW from
the EnergyPlus website, wind speed data is at 10 meters above the ground.
View hourly data
Displays graphs of data from the weather file in SAM's built-in data viewer, DView. See Viewing Graphs
of Time Series Data (DView) for details.

Web Links
Links to websites with weather files on the internet. Each link opens one of three website in your computer's
default web browser:
Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) takes you to NREL's National
Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB) page for the Typical Meteorological Year 3 data.
Best weather data for international locations (in EPW format) takes you to the EnergyPlus
weather file page.
U.S. satellite-derived weather data (10 km grid cells in TMY2 format) takes you to NREL's Solar
Power Prospector website.

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Wind Resource Details

The wind resource details group only appears if you have specified Small Scale Wind as the technology in
the Technology and Market window. SAM uses these values to estimate the characteristics of the wind at
the turbine's hub height.
Shear Coefficient
The power law coefficient characterizes the wind shear, or relationship between height above the ground
and wind speed. At most locations, the wind speed increases with height above the ground. The default
value of 0.14 is appropriate for flat terrain free of obstructions.
Turbulence Coefficient
The turbulence coefficient characterizes the stability of the air. The default value is 0.1.
Height at which Wind was Measured
The height above the ground in meters of the anemometer used to measure the wind data in the
weather file. For the NREL TMY3, TMY2, and the EPW files, the measurement height is 10 meters.

Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths

SAM allows you to use weather files that you download from the Internet or generate from another source.
Weather files must meet the following requirements:
Be stored in a folder on your computer that you have specified in SAM as containing weather files.
Be in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format.

To specify a folder as containing weather files:

1. On the Wind Climate page, click Add/Remove.
2. In the Library Settings window, click Add.
3. Navigate to the folder on your computer that contains the weather file.
You can add as many file search paths as you wish.
4. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page.
SAM displays the search paths you added in the Location list.
To remove a search path from the list, click Add/Remove to open the Library Settings window,
select the search path and then click Remove. Note that removing a search path does not delete
any weather files.
The default path for the complete set of TMY2 weather files included with SAM is \exelib\climate_files in the
SAM installation folder. SAM can read weather files stored in any folder on your computer. Because the
default location can be difficult to find, if you plan to use weather files other than the default TMY2 files, we
recommend that you create an easy-to-find folder to store your weather files. You can then add the location
to the weather file search path using the instructions below, and SAM will automatically find all weather files
that you add to the folder.

Copying Weather Data to a Project

When you want to share a SAM project with another person, and the project uses one or more weather files
that the other person does not have, you can include a copy of the data from the weather files in the SAM
file. Including weather data in a SAM file increases the size of the file, but also makes it more portable. For

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example, the size of the photovoltaic sample file with no weather files is 35 kB, with one weather file 274
kB, and with two weather files is 503 kB.

To copy data from a weather file to the project file:

1. On the Wind Climate page, choose the weather file from the Location list.
2. Click Copy to project.

SAM adds the file to the location list with the "USER/" prefix, indicating that the data is included in
the SAM project file. To remove a file from the list, select it, and click Remove from project.

Creating a TMY3 File from Your Own Data

If you have hourly weather data that is not in one of the three formats (TMY3, TMY2, EPW) that SAM can
read, you can use the Create TMY3 File feature to create your own weather file in the TMY3 format. TMY3
files are comma-separated text files and use the csv extension, e.g., my_weather_file.csv.

Note. Unless you have a complete set of weather data for your location that you can use with
confidence, using your own data introduces uncertainty into your analysis, and may result in inaccurate
results or simulation errors.

To use the feature, you must have the following:

A "base" TMY3 file, which is an existing file in TMY3 format that SAM modifies by replacing only the
columns that SAM needs for simulations with your data. If you have a complete data set that includes
all of the columns shown in the table below, then you can use any TMY3 file as a base file. If you do not
have data for all of the categories listed in the table below, you may want to use a base file with data for
the same or a nearby location with similar weather characteristics. For a link to the TMY3 website and
documentation, see the link on the Climate page under Web Links.
Hourly data (8,760 rows) for each of the data columns shown in the table below. If you do not have data
for one or more of the columns, you can choose to not replace data for those columns, and instead use
data from the base file. This will result in a data set that SAM can read but with mismatched elements
that may cause inaccurate results or errors in the simulation.

To create a TMY3 weather file:

1. If you do not have a TMY3 file to use as the base file, download a TMY3 file to use at the base file
from the NREL TMY3 website. You can do so by clicking the appropriate link on the Climate page
under Web Links.
2. Open the file or files containing your weather data in a spreadsheet program or any software that
allows you to copy columns of 8,760 rows to your computer's clipboard.
3. On the Climate page, click Create TMY3 file.
4. In the TMY3 Creator window, click Open base TMY3 file, and navigate to the folder containing the
base file.
5. Type values in the header fields as appropriate. See below descriptions of the fields.
6. In your weather data file, copy the column of global horizontal radiation data. Be sure to copy all
8,760 rows of data, but do not include the row header. The column should contain 8,760 rows of
numbers.
7. In the TMY3 Creator window, click the GHI (W/m2) column heading. SAM should highlight the
entire column in dark gray.

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8. Click Paste.
9. Repeat the copy and paste procedure for each column until you have pasted all of your data into
the table.
10. Click Save as TMY3 file (at the bottom of the window).
Save the file in a folder that you have included in the weather file search list, or to a folder that you
plan to add to the list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details.
11. Click Close to return to the Climate page or Wind Climate page.
12. Click Refresh list. SAM may take a moment or two to refresh the location list.
13. In the Location list, select the new TMY3 file. You should find it toward the end of the list.
14. Click View Hourly Data to open the DView data viewer and visually inspect the data. See Viewing
Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.

After creating and loading your weather file, run some test simulations and examine the hourly results in the
tabular data browser or DView to see if there are any problems with the data.

Header Data
Site Identifier Code
A number identifying the location. This element is not required.
Station Name
A text description identifying the location. This element is not required.
Station State
A two-letter text abbreviation for the location's state. This element is not required.
Site Time Zone (GMT)
The location's time zone offset from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) with no daylight savings adjustment.
A positive value indicates a time zone east of the Prime Meridian. Decimals indicate fractions of hours.
A negative value indicates a time zone west of the prime meridian. For example, Chicago is -6; India is
5.5.
Site Latitude (DD)
Location's latitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 90 indicates a latitude north of
the equator. A negative value between 0 and -90 indicates a latitude south of the equator. For example,
Durban (South Africa) is -29.97; New York City is 40.71.
Site Longitude (DD)
Location's longitude in decimal degrees. A positive value between zero and 180 indicates a longitude
east of the Prime Meridian. A negative value between zero and -180 indicates a longitude west of the
Prime Meridian. For example, Durban (South Africa) is 30.95; New York City is -74.01.
Site Elevation (m)
Location's height above sea level in meters.

Hourly Data
GHI (W/m2)
Global horizontal irradiance: Total amount of direct and diffuse solar radiation received on a horizontal
surface for the hour in Watt-hours per square meter.

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 Small Scale Wind 241

DNI (W/m)
Direct normal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour within a limited field of view
centered on the sun in Watt-hours per square meter.
DHI (W/m2)
Diffuse horizontal irradiance: Amount of solar radiation received in one hour from the sky, excluding the
solar disk on a horizontal surface in Watt-hours per square meter.
Dry-bulb (C)
Average dry bulb temperature for the hour in degrees Celsius..
Dew-point (C)
Average dew point temperature for the hour in degrees Celsius.
RHum (%)
Average relative humidity for the hour.
Pressure (mbar)
Station pressure or measured atmospheric pressure in millibars corrected for temperature and humidity
for the hour.
Wspd (m/s)
Average speed of the wind for the hour in meters per second.
Albedo (unitless)
Ratio of reflected solar radiation to global horizontal radiation. Use -99 for null.

Using Location Lookup

SAM's Location Lookup feature allows you to type an address, zip code, or latitude and longitude to
download a typical year data weather file for any location in the United States. Location Lookup uses the
Google Maps API Geocoding Service service to identify the geographic coordinates of a location, and
downloads data from NREL's Solar Power Prospector database. To use the Location Lookup feature, your
computer must be connected to the Internet.

Notes.

Location Lookup downloads typical year data, representing the typical solar resource over the period
1998-2005. To download specific-year data within that range, visit the Solar Power Prospector site at
[Link]

For information about downloading TMY3 and EPW files from the internet, see Downloading Weather
Files from the Internet.

To download data from Solar Power Prospector:

1. On the Wind Climate page, click Location Lookup.
2. Type a street address zip code, or latitude and longitude. Any of the following will return results for
the same location:
1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden CO

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80401
39 44 N 105 09 W
39.75 -105.15
SAM searches the Solar Power Prospector database for a weather file and download it to the weather file
folder specified on the Preferences page.

To change the default weather file folder for downloaded files:

1. On the File menu, Click Preferences.
2. Under Folder for automatically downloaded weather files, type a path name or click to
navigate to the folder.
Note that the folder for automatically downloaded weather files is different from the weather file
search path.
3. On the Wind Climate page click Add/Remove.
4. In the Library Settings window, click Add to add the folder to the weather file search path list.
5. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page.

Downloading Weather Files from the Internet

You can click the links under Web Links to open websites where you can download and find more
information about weather data in TMY3, TMY2, and EPW formats.

NSRDB Typical Meteorological Year 3 (TMY3) data: Best data for U.S. Locations
The NSRDB maintains two sets of TMY data. The TMY2 data represent data from 1961 to 1990. The
complete TMY2 data is included with SAM: To use TMY2 data, you simply select a location from the list on
the Wind Climate page.
The updated TMY3 data set is based on data from 1991 to 2005. To use TMY3 data in SAM, you must
download the data from the NSRDB website. For information about the TMY3 data, see:
[Link]

To download a TMY3 file:

1. Click the Best weather data for the U.S. (1200 + locations in TMY3 format) link to open the
NSRDB TMY3 database page.
2. On the NSRDB website, click the In alphabetical order by state and city link.
3. Scroll to the state and city at or nearest your location.
4. Click the identification code link for the location to download the TMY3 file.
5. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see
Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions.
6. In SAM, on the Wind Climate page, click Refresh.
The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.

EnergyPlus Weather (EPW) Files

You can download weather data in EPW format for locations around the world at no cost from the
EnergyPlus weather data website at the following website:

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[Link]
For information about the EPW weather files, see the following websites:
For a description of the file format: [Link]
weatherdata_format.cfm
For a description of data sources: [Link]
weatherdata_sources.cfm

To download an EPW file:

1. Click Best weather for international locations (in EPW format) and navigate to the region and
location you want to model.
2. Download the EPW file for the location you are modeling.
If there is not an EPW file for the location, download the ZIP file and extract the EPW file.
3. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see
Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions.
4. In SAM, on the Wind Climate page, click Refresh.
The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.
For some regions, you can download an EPW file directly for a location. For example, for Bangladesh, you
can download the data for Dhaka by right-clicking the blue square next to the word EPW for Dhaka. Be sure
to save the file with the .epw extension.

For other regions, you must first download a zip file containing the EPW file and then extract the EPW file.
For example, for Malaysia, you can download the data for Kuala Lumpur by right-clicking the red square
next to the word ZIP for Kuala Lumpur. After downloading the zip file, you can extract the EPW file.

Satellite-derived (NREL Solar Prospector) Weather Data

The NREL Solar Prospector website provides access to satellite-derived data in TMY2 format for specific
years between 1998 and 2005 for locations in the U.S. at a geographical resolution of 10 km.
For information about the Solar Power Prospector website, see:
[Link]
For a description of the data used for the Solar Prospector website, see:
[Link]
20Modeling/Papers%20on%20Resource%20Assessment%20and%20Satellites/A%20New%
20Operational%20Satellite%20irradiance%[Link]
Although the files you download from the Solar Power Prospector website are in TMY2 format, you can
download files containing either specific year data or typical year data from the website.

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The easiest way to use typical year data from Solar Power Prospector in SAM is to use Location Lookup.
To download single year data, you can use the Solar Prospector map at [Link]

To download data from the NREL Solar Prospector Website:

1. Visit the Solar Prospector website at [Link]
2. Use the map to find your location.
3. Click Download in the toolbar above the map.
4. Choose a year for specific year data, or "TDY" for typical year data.
5. Save the file in your SAM weather file folder. If you do not have a SAM weather file folder, see
Adding and Removing Weather Files for instructions.
6. In SAM, on the Wind Climate page, click Refresh.
The weather file should appear in the Location list, toward the bottom of the list.

Specifying Wind Resource Parameters

If you are modeling a small scale wind system, you must specify the three parameters describing additional
characteristics of the wind resource. SAM uses these parameters to calculate the wind speed at the turbine
hub height, assuming that the wind resource data was measured at a different height, typically just 10
meters above the ground.

To specify wind resource parameters:

1. On the Wind Climate page, scroll down to the bottom of the page if the parameters are not visible
on your screen.
2. For Shear Coefficient, type a value between 0 and 1. The default value of 0.14 is appropriate for
turbines on flat land with little vegetation.
3. For Height at which Wind was Measured, type the height above the ground at which the wind
speeds in the weather file were measured. For the NREL TMY3, TMY2, and the EPW data, the
measurement height is 10 meters.

3.13.3 Small Scale Wind System

The Small Scale Wind System page allows you to choose a wind turbine from a list, and to specify the
locations of turbines for a project with more than one wind turbine.

Wind Turbine
The wind turbine parameters specify the turbine power curve and hub height of a single turbine. For a project
with multiple turbines, SAM assumes that the project consists of turbines with the same parameters. It is
not possible to specify turbines with different power curves, cut-in speeds, or hub heights.
Model Name
Choose a turbine from the list.
You can add turbines to the Small Scale Wind Turbine Library list by creating a user library with the
Library Editor.

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Nameplate Capacity
The turbine's rated capacity from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value. SAM uses this value
for capacity-related cost calculations.
Rotor Diameter
The turbine's rotor diameter from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value.
Cut-in Wind Speed
The minimum wind speed at which the turbine generates power.
During simulations, SAM sets the turbine's output to zero for hours with an average wind speed below
the cut in speed.
The default value is 4 m/s, which is appropriate for many of the turbines in the library.
Hub Height
The hub height is distance between the ground and the turbine's hub at the center of the rotor.

System Size
SAM calculates the system size by multiplying the turbine nameplate capacity by the number of turbines in
the project.
Use more than one wind turbine
Check this option if you want to model a project with two or more turbines. SAM assumes that the
project consists of turbines with the same power curve, cut-in speed, and hub height.
To model a project with one turbine, clear the checkbox. SAM disables the Turbine Farm Layout
options when the checkbox is cleared.
Number of Turbines
Number of turbines in the project specified in the Turbine Farm Layout options.
System Nameplate Capacity
Total capacity of the project in AC kilowatts, equal to the product of the number of turbines and the
nameplate capacity of a single turbine.

Turbine Farm Layout

The Turbine Farm Layout options allow you to specify the parameters of a project with two or more turbines.
You must check Use more than one wind turbine to make the parameters active.
The best way to see how the parameters work is to change values and see how the turbine layout map
changes.
Turbine Layout Map
A diagram showing the locations of turbines in the field. Each blue dot in the map represents a turbine.
Shape
Choose the shape defined by a set of lines connecting outermost turbines in the project.
Turbines per Row / Turbines in First Row
For the Square / Rectangle / Parallelogram shape, the number of turbines in each row.
For the Triangle / Trapezoid shape, the number of turbines in the row closest to the bottom of the
turbine layout map.

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Number of Rows
Number of rows of turbines in the field.
Turbines in Layout
Product of turbines per row and number of rows.
Turbine Spacing
Distance in meters between turbines in each row.
Row Spacing
Distance in meters between rows.
Offset for Rows
The distance in meters between a line drawn through a turbine perpendicular to its row, and a similar
line drawn through a turbine in the nearest neighboring row.
Offset Type
Every Other Row applies the offset distance to alternating rows. Each Row applies the distance to
every row.
Row Orientation
The angle west of north of a line perpendicular to the rows of turbines.
You can set the value by either typing a number or dragging the slider with your mouse.
The compass rose indicates the cardinal directions. SAM uses this information with wind direction data
from the weather file and the distance between turbines to estimate the effect of wind shadowing by
neighboring turbines.
Wind Farm Losses
Expected power losses as a percentage of the wind farm's total output due to wake effects and other
losses due to wind farm layout.
Losses per turbine
Losses in kilowatts per turbine. SAM multiplies this value by the number of turbines to calculate the
total turbine losses.

3.14 Utility Scale Wind

3.14.1 Utility Scale Wind Overview

The Utility Scale Wind model is for projects involving one or more large-scale turbines with one of the Utility
Market financing options.
SAM's utility scale wind uses weather data from a database for United States locations.
Wind Resource
Wind Farm Specifications
Wind Farm Costs

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3.14.2 Wind Resource

The Wind Resource page allows you to download a wind resource data file from the internet by typing
location coordinates or an address.
The data is from NREL's Western Wind Dataset, which covers the western United States:

For information about the dataset, see [Link]

html.
The Utility Scale Wind model uses wind resource data from files in the .swrf format, which is a tab-delimited
text format. To see examples of the files, search your computer for "swrf", or look for files with the .swrf
extension in the \exelib\climate_files folder in your SAM installation folder, which is \SAM\2011.4.27 by
default.

To download wind resource data:

1. Click Location Lookup. See Using Location Lookup for details.
2. Type a latitude and longitude, street address, or zip code.
3. Click OK.

Contents
Input Variable Reference describes the variables and buttons on the Wind Resource
page.
Using Location Lookup explains how to automatically download satellite-derived
data for any location in the United States using a street address, zip code, or
latitude and longitude.
Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths explains how to add your own
weather files to the Location list.

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Copying Weather Data to a Project explains how to embed weather data in your
project file for sharing with other people.

Input Variable Reference

Wind Resource Location
Wind Data File
The name of the file downloaded from the database.
Data Source
The URL pointing to the data used to create the wind data file.
Date Created
The date the wind data was downloaded and the weather file created.
Latitude Requested
The latitude requested in Location Lookup.
Longitude Requested
The longitude requested in Location Lookup.
Latitude
The latitude from the database, which may differ from the requested latitude.
Longitude
The longitude from the database, which may differ from the requested longitude.
Distance from request
The distance between the requested point in Location Lookup and the point in the database.
Elevation
The locations height above sea level.
Click here to view map of (R)equested and (A)ctual locations
Displays a map in your browser showing the location of the requested point from Location Lookup and
the actual point in the database.
Location Lookup
Type an address or coordinates for a U.S. location to download specific-year satellite-derived data from
the Solar Prospector website. See Using Location Lookup for details.
Add/Remove
Add or remove a folder on your computer from the list of folders SAM searches for files with the TMY2,
TMY3, or EPW file extension. SAM will list all weather files in folders that you add to the search list in
the location list. See Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths for details.
Refresh List
Refreshes the list of files in the location list. SAM automatically refreshes the list each time you visit
the Wind Climate page. If you add a weather file to one of the folders in the search list, you may need

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to refresh the list for the file to be visible in the location list.
Copy to project
Embeds the data from a weather file to the project (.zsam) file. This useful when you share your project
file with another person and do not want to send the weather file separately. Embedding weather data in
a project increases the size of the project file. When you copy data to a project, SAM indicates the
data with "USER/" in the location list. See Copying Weather Data to a Project for details.
Remove from project
Remove embedded weather data. The button is only active when the active location in the location list is
preceded by "USER/."

Annual Average Data

SAM displays annual averages of the wind speed data in the weather file, which contains data for four
heights above the ground.
SAM also displays the annual average temperature at 10 meters. The weather file contains temperature
data at each wind speed height.
A green check mark indicates the height that SAM will use for simulations, which is based on the turbine's
hub height that you specify on the Wind Farm Specifications page.

Wind Resource Details

The wind resource details group only appears if you have specified Small Scale Wind as the technology in
the Technology and Market window. SAM uses these values to estimate the characteristics of the wind at
the turbine's hub height.
Shear Coefficient
The power law coefficient characterizes the wind shear, or relationship between height above the ground
and wind speed. At most locations, the wind speed increases with height above the ground. The default
value of 0.14 is appropriate for flat terrain free of obstructions.
Turbulence Coefficient
The turbulence coefficient characterizes the stability of the air. The default value is 0.1.
Height at which Wind was Measured
The height above the ground in meters of the anemometer used to measure the wind data in the
weather file. For the NREL TMY3, TMY2, and the EPW files, the measurement height is 10 meters.

Using Location Lookup

SAM's Location Lookup feature allows you to type an address, zip code, or latitude and longitude to
download a wind resource data file. Location Lookup uses the Google Maps API Geocoding Service to
identify the geographic coordinates of a location. To use the Location Lookup feature, your computer must
be connected to the Internet.

To download data from Solar Power Prospector:

1. On the Wind Climate page, click Location Lookup.
2. Type a street address zip code, or latitude and longitude. Any of the following will return results for
the same location:

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1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden CO
80401
39 44 N 105 09 W
39.75 -105.15
SAM searches the Solar Power Prospector database for a weather file and download it to the weather file
folder specified on the Preferences page.

To change the default weather file folder for downloaded files:

1. On the File menu, Click Preferences.
2. Under Folder for automatically downloaded weather files, type a path name or click to
navigate to the folder.
Note that the folder for automatically downloaded weather files is different from the weather file
search path.
3. On the Wind Climate page click Add/Remove.
4. In the Library Settings window, click Add to add the folder to the weather file search path list.
5. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page.

Adding and Removing Weather File Search Paths

SAM allows you to use weather files that you download from the Internet or generate from another source.
Weather files must meet the following requirements:
Be stored in a folder on your computer that you have specified in SAM as containing weather files.
Be in TMY2, TMY3, or EPW format.

To specify a folder as containing weather files:

1. On the Wind Climate page, click Add/Remove.
2. In the Library Settings window, click Add.
3. Navigate to the folder on your computer that contains the weather file.
You can add as many file search paths as you wish.
4. Click Close to return to the Wind Climate page.
SAM displays the search paths you added in the Location list.
To remove a search path from the list, click Add/Remove to open the Library Settings window,
select the search path and then click Remove. Note that removing a search path does not delete
any weather files.
The default path for the complete set of TMY2 weather files included with SAM is \exelib\climate_files in the
SAM installation folder. SAM can read weather files stored in any folder on your computer. Because the
default location can be difficult to find, if you plan to use weather files other than the default TMY2 files, we
recommend that you create an easy-to-find folder to store your weather files. You can then add the location
to the weather file search path using the instructions below, and SAM will automatically find all weather files
that you add to the folder.

Copying Weather Data to a Project

When you want to share a SAM project with another person, and the project uses one or more weather files

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that the other person does not have, you can include a copy of the data from the weather files in the SAM
file. Including weather data in a SAM file increases the size of the file, but also makes it more portable. For
example, the size of the photovoltaic sample file with no weather files is 35 kB, with one weather file 274
kB, and with two weather files is 503 kB.

To copy data from a weather file to the project file:

1. On the Wind Climate page, choose the weather file from the Location list.
2. Click Copy to project.

SAM adds the file to the location list with the "USER/" prefix, indicating that the data is included in
the SAM project file. To remove a file from the list, select it, and click Remove from project.

3.14.3 Wind Farm Specifications

The Wind Farm Specifications page allows you to choose a wind turbine from a list, and to specify the
locations of turbines for a project with more than one wind turbine.

Wind Turbine
The wind turbine parameters specify the turbine power curve and hub height of a single turbine. For a project
with multiple turbines, SAM assumes that the project consists of turbines with the same parameters. It is
not possible to specify turbines with different power curves, cut-in speeds, or hub heights.
Model Name
Choose a turbine from the list.
You can add turbines to the Large Scale Wind Turbine Library list by creating a user library with the
Library Editor.
Nameplate Capacity
The turbine's rated capacity from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value. SAM uses this value
for capacity-related cost calculations.
Rotor Diameter
The turbine's rotor diameter from the turbine database. You cannot edit this value.
IEC Class
The turbine's International Electrotechnical Commission wind turbine classification.
Cut-in Wind Speed
The minimum wind speed at which the turbine generates power.
During simulations, SAM sets the turbine's output to zero for hours with an average wind speed below
the cut in speed.
The default value is 4 m/s, which is appropriate for many of the turbines in the library.
Hub Height
The hub height is distance between the ground and the turbine's hub at the center of the rotor.

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Closest available resource ht
During simulation, SAM uses wind resource data for the height indicated. For example, if the Closest
Available Resource Ht value is 100 m, SAM uses wind resource data measured at 100 m. The annual
average wind speed at this height is indicated by a green check mark under Annual Average Data on
the Wind Resource page.

System Size
SAM calculates the system size by multiplying the turbine nameplate capacity by the number of turbines in
the project.
Use more than one wind turbine
Check this option if you want to model a project with two or more turbines. SAM assumes that the
project consists of turbines with the same power curve, cut-in speed, and hub height.
To model a project with one turbine, clear the checkbox. SAM disables the Turbine Farm Layout
options when the checkbox is cleared.
Number of Turbines
Number of turbines in the project specified under Turbine Farm Layout.
System Nameplate Capacity
Total capacity of the project in AC kilowatts, equal to the product of the number of turbines and the
nameplate capacity of a single turbine.

Turbine Farm Layout

The Turbine Farm Layout options allow you to specify the parameters of a project with two or more turbines.
You must check Use more than one wind turbine to make the parameters active.
The best way to see how the parameters work is to change values and see how the turbine layout map
changes.
Turbine Layout Map
A diagram showing the locations of turbines in the field. Each blue dot in the map represents a turbine.
Shape
Choose the shape defined by a set of lines connecting outermost turbines in the project.
Turbines per Row / Turbines in First Row
For the Square / Rectangle / Parallelogram shape, the number of turbines in each row.
For the Triangle / Trapezoid shape, the number of turbines in the row closest to the bottom of the
turbine layout map.
Number of Rows
Number of rows of turbines in the field.
Turbines in Layout
Product of turbines per row and number of rows.
Turbine Spacing
Distance in meters between turbines in each row.

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Row Spacing
Distance in meters between rows.
Offset for Rows
The distance in meters between a line drawn through a turbine perpendicular to its row, and a similar
line drawn through a turbine in the nearest neighboring row.
Offset Type
Every Other Row applies the offset distance to alternating rows. Each Row applies the distance to
every row.
Row Orientation
The angle west of north of a line perpendicular to the rows of turbines.
You can set the value by either typing a number or dragging the slider with your mouse.
The compass rose indicates the cardinal directions. SAM uses this information with wind direction data
from the weather file and the distance between turbines to estimate the effect of wind shadowing by
neighboring turbines.
Wind Farm Losses
Expected power losses as a percentage of the wind farm's total output due to wake effects and other
losses due to wind farm layout.
Losses per turbine
Losses in kilowatts per turbine. SAM multiplies this value by the number of turbines to calculate the
total turbine losses.

4 Costs and Financing

4.1 Financing Overview

The financial model provides options for projects in the residential, commercial, and utility markets, and
account for a wide range of incentive payments and tax credits.

Tax Credits and Incentive Payments

For all of the financing options in SAM, you can include benefits in the form of tax credits or incentive
payments. SAM assumes that a project may pay both federal and state income taxes, and that incentive
payments may be available from government, utility, or other entities.
Tax credits are reductions in a projects tax payment specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page, and may
include:
Investment tax credits (ITC) based on the cost of installing equipment.
Production tax credits (PTC) based on the amount of electricity generated by the project.

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Incentive payments are cash payments to the project specified on the Payment Incentives page, and may
include:
Investment-based incentives (IBI) based on the cost of installing equipment.
Capacity-based incentives (CBI) based on the size of the system.
Production-based incentives (PBI) based on the amount of electricity generated by the project.
For commercial and utility projects, SAM also models accelerated depreciation (including MACRS),
specified on the Financing page.

Residential and Commercial Projects

In SAM, residential and commercial (excluding Commercial PPA) projects buy and sell power at retail
rates. They may be financed through either a loan or cash payment (0% debt fraction). These projects
recover investment costs by selling electricity at rates established by the electricity service provider.
For residential and commercial projects, SAM calculates the project's levelized cost of energy, which
represents the cost of installing and operating the system, including debt and tax costs, and accounting for
incentives. The model also calculates the net present value of the after tax cash flow and a payback period
representing the number of years required for the cumulative after tax cash flow to cover the initial equity
investment in the project.
Commercial projects may qualify for tax deductions under the Modified Accelerated Depreciation Schedule
(MACRS) described in the United States tax code. SAM provides options for specifying custom
depreciation schedules in addition to the MACRS mid-quarter and half-year schedules on the Financing
page.
Residential and commercial projects are typically smaller than 500 kW, although SAM does not restrict
system sizes, so it is possible to model any size system using either the residential or commercial
financing option.
SAM's Utility Rate page provides a range of options for specifying the utility rate structure for a project. The
rate structure may include any of the following:
Flat buy and sell rates (with or without net metering)
Time-of-use energy charges
Monthly demand charges (either fixed or time-of-use)
Tiered rates
Fixed monthly charges
Adjustment fees
For projects with demand charges and tiered rates, SAM requires electric load data, which is specified on
the Electric Load page.

A Note About the Old and New Financing Options

The old financing options, Commercial PPA and Utility Independent Power Producer, available in the current
version of SAM, are based on the financing options available in SAM 2010.11.9 and older versions. They are
included in the current version to allow for comparison of results with older versions of SAM:
Commercial PPA in the current version is equivalent to Commercial Third Party in previous versions.
Utility Independent Power Producer (Utility IPP) in the current version combines the Independent Power
Producer, Time of Dispatch, and First Year Bid Price options from previous versions into a single model.
The new "advanced" Utility IPP options (All Equity Partnership Flip, Leveraged Partnership Flip, Sale
Leaseback, and Single Owner) are options added since SAM 2011.5.4, and are based on a financial model

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developed for SAM and better represent actual project financing structures for renewable energy projects.
All of these financial options assume that a project sells electricity at a price negotiated determined by a
power purchase agreement (PPA).
The following list summarizes some of the differences between the old and new financing options:
Debt fraction is an input for the old Commercial PPA and Utility IPP options. For the new options that
involve debt (see table below), SAM calculates the debt fraction as a result based on the debt service
coverage requirements you specify as an input on the Financing page, and the available cash in the
project cash flow.
The new financing options include structures with two partners, and report IRRs, NPVs, and cash flows
for each partner. The old financing options report only the total project IRR, NPV, and cash flow.
The new Single Owner and old Utility IPP options model the same financing structure: A project
financed with debt and involving a single entity that develops and operates the project and receives all
project income and benefits. The Single Owner option is more representative of actual projects. The old
Utility IPP option may be suitable for basic preliminary analyses before some of the details required by
the Single Owner option are known.
The new financing options allow you to specify a reserve account for major equipment replacement that
is not available in the old Commercial PPA and Utility IPP options.
The new financing options include options for bonus depreciation and more sophisticated handling of
depreciation with tax credits and payment incentives than the old Commercial PPA and Utility IPP
options.
The Commercial PPA and Utility IPP models have been updated since SAM 2010.11.9. Improvements
include:
You specify whether the PPA price is an input and IRR a result, or IRR is an input and PPA price a
result using the Solution Mode option on the Financing page.
The Utility IPP model allows you to model a PPA price with energy payment allocation factors, where
the negotiated power price varies based on a pre-determined time-of-day schedule. (Energy payment
allocation factors were available for the Time of Dispatch and Bid Price options in previous versions.) For
the concentrating solar power technologies, you specify the energy payment allocation factors on the
Thermal Energy Storage page. For other technologies, see the Energy Payment Dispatch page.
The construction period financing cost includes the option to specify an up-front fee based on the
approach used in the new financing models. See Financing, Construction Period for details.
The property tax calculation allows you to specify the property's assessed value as a percentage of the
total installed cost, and to specify an annual rate of decline in the assessed value. Previous versions
assumed that the assessed value was equal to the total installed cost throughout the analysis period.

Commercial PPA
Commercial PPA projects sell electricity at a price negotiated through a power purchase agreement (PPA).
SAM calculates a power purchase price given a target minimum IRR, with options for optimizing the debt
fraction and PPA escalation rate to minimize the PPA price.
For commercial PPA projects, SAM calculates an electricity sales price (PPA price), and IRR and NPV for
the project as a whole, assuming that a single entity participates in the project and has sufficient tax
liability to absorb tax credits and depreciation benefits.
Commercial PPA projects are typically larger than 500 kW, although SAM does not restrict system sizes,
so it is possible to model any size system using either the residential or commercial financing option.

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Advanced Utility IPP Options

Utility projects sell electricity at a price negotiated through a power purchase agreement (PPA) to meet a
set of equity returns requirements, and and may involve one or two parties.
SAM provides options for calculating a power purchase price given a target internal rate of return, or for
calculating the rate of return given a power purchase price. An optional annual escalation rate allows for
pricing that varies annually, and optional payment allocation factors allow for pricing that varies with time of
day.
For utility projects, SAM calculates an electricity sales price (PPA price), and IRRs and NPVs for the
project as a whole and, as appropriate for each equity participant.
The utility market structures is typically used for large-scale projects because of the costs associated with
financial customization, developers of smaller commercial projects are experimenting with lower cost
approaches, such as using standardized versions of some of the financing structures, financing projects on
an aggregated basis, seeking corporate financing rather than project-level financing, and partering with
community-based lending institutions and investors. Because SAM does not restrict the size of the system,
it is possible to use these financing structures with any size of system.
SAM provides five options for modeling Utility Market projects:

All Equity Partnership Flip and Leveraged Partnership Flip

The All Equity Partnership Flip and Leveraged Partnership Flip options are two-party projects that
involve equity investments by a project developer and a third party tax investor. The tax investor has
sufficient tax liability from its other business operations to utilize any tax benefits (tax credits and
depreciation deductions) fully in the years in which the project generates the benefits. The project sets
up a limited liability entity, and once the project begins generating and selling electricity, all of the
project’s net cash flows and tax benefits are passed through this entity to its owners. The project
allocates a majority of the cash and tax benefits to the tax investor when the project begins operation
and until the tax investor receives a pre-negotiated after-tax IRR, also known as the flip target. Once the
flip target is reached, a majority of the cash and any remaining tax benefits are allocated to the
developer.

Sale Leaseback
The Sale Leaseback option is another two-party structure that involves a tax investor purchasing 100%
of the project from the developer and then leasing it back to the developer. This structure differs from
the partnership flip structures in that the tax investor and the developer do not share the project cash
and tax benefits (or liability). Instead, each party has its own separate cash flow and taxable income.
The purchase price paid by the tax investor is equal to the total project cost, less a lease payment and
the value of working capital reserve accounts. The developer typically funds the reserve accounts to
ensure it has some financial exposure. The tax investor receives lease payments from the developer
and any ownership-related incentives such as the tax credits, incentive payments, and the depreciation
tax deductions. The developer operates the project and keeps any excess cash flow from operations,
after payment of all operating expenses and the lease payments. This provides the developer with an
incentive to operate the project as efficiently as possible.

Note. SAM assumes that the tax investor receives the ITC in the sale leaseback structure. SAM does
not model alternative lease structures that treat the ITC differently.

Single Owner and Independent Power Producer

In the Single Owner and Independent Power Producer options, one entity owns the project and has

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sufficient tax liability to utilize the tax benefits. This structure is less complicated than the Partnership
Flip and Sale Leaseback structures because there is no need to allocate cash and tax benefits to
different partners. The owner may be either the original developer or a third-party tax investor that
purchases the project from the developer. (See above for a discussion of the differences between the
Single Owner and Independent Power Producer options.)
Below is a table summarizing the five structures.
Single Owner /
All Equity Leveraged Independent
Partnership Flip Partnership Flip Sale Leaseback Power Producer
Equity Owners Tax investor Tax investor Tax investor Developer
Developer Developer (Lessor) (third party if sold)

Project Debt No Yes No Optional (owner

choice)

Return Target Tax investor after- Tax investor after- Lessor after-tax IRR Owner after-tax IRR
tax IRR tax IRR
(Flip Target) (Flip Target)
Cash Sharing Pre-Flip: Bifurcated Pre-Flip: Pro rata Lessor: Lease Owner receives
Post-Flip: Primarily Post-Flip: Primarily payment 100% of project
developer developer Lessee: Project cash
margin
Tax Benefit Pre-Flip: Primarily Pre-Flip: Primarily Tax investor and Owner receives
Sharing tax investor tax investor developer have 100% of project tax
Post-Flip: Primarily Post-Flip: Primarily different taxable benefits
developer developer incomes
ITC and
Depreciation goes to
tax investor

4.2 System Summary

To view the System Summary page, click System Summary in the main window's navigation menu.
The System Summary page displays variables that describe the system's capacity and capital costs. SAM
displays the variables so that you can quickly see some key properties of the system.
SAM displays the same set of summary variables for all of the technologies to facilitate quick comparisons
of different cases using different technologies.

Note. The values shown on the System Summary page are copies of values from other input pages as
described below. You cannot change values on the System Summary page.

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System Summary
System Nameplate Capacity (kW)
The nameplate capacity is the system's rated or nominal capacity in kilowatts. It is the value that SAM
uses to calculate cost per kilowatt values displayed on the cost pages and used for economic
modeling.
For photovoltaic systems, the value is equivalent to the total array power in DC kilowatts calculated on
the Array page.
For concentrating solar power systems, the value is equivalent to the power block's rated capacity in
AC kilowatts, which is an input on the Power Block or Power Cycle, Power Cycle, or Stirling Engine
page for trough, tower, or dish systems, respectively.
For wind systems, the value is equal to the product of a single turbine's nameplate capacity in AC
kilowatts the and number of turbines in the system.
For geothermal systems, the value is the the net plant output in AC megawatts on the Plant and
Equipment page converted to AC kilowatts.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The total cost of installation equipment and services, calculated on the system cost page.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The project's total capital cost, including direct and indirect costs, calculated on the system cost page.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/kW)
The total installed cost divided by the system nameplate capacity, also displayed on the system cost
page.
Analysis Period (years)
Number of years covered by the analysis. Typically equivalent to the project or investment life, also
displayed on the Financing page.
Inflation Rate (%/year)
Annual rate of change of prices, typically based on a price index. SAM uses the inflation rate to
calculate costs in the cash flows for years after year one, also displayed on the Financing page.
Real Discount Rate (%/year)
A measure of the time value of money expressed as an annual rate. SAM uses the real discount rate to
calculate the present value (value in year one) of cash flows over the analysis period and to calculate
annualized costs, also displayed on the Financing page.

4.3 Utility Rate

To view the Utility Rate page, open a case with residential or commercial financing, and then click Utility
Rate in the main window's navigation menu.
The Utility Rate page displays options for specifying a wide range of utility rate structures for projects with
Residential and Commercial financing, from flat rates with net metering to complex time-of-use rates with
demand charges and tiered rates.

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Contents
Overview defines the utility rate options and how to view the impact of rates on
results.
Input Variable Reference describes each of the input variables on the Utility Rate
page.
Specifying a Flat Rate with or without Net Metering explains how to set up a rate
structure that uses a single rate for buying and selling electricity that does not vary
with time.
Specifying Time of Use Energy Charges explains how to set up a rate structure
with different buy and sell rates at different times of day and year.
Specifying Peak Demand Charges explains how to assign charges that apply to the
hour of maximum electric demand in each month.
Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure explains how to set up a rate structure with
electricity prices that vary with the amount of electricity purchased over a month.
Importing Rate Structure Data explains how to download rate structure data from
NREL's OpenEI database.
Specifying Escalation Rates describes escalation rates and explains how to
specify them.
Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules explains how to use the weekend and
weekday matrices to define the times when charges apply.

Overview
The Utility Rate page allows you to specify a rate schedule for residential and commercial projects. The rate
schedule defines the prices of electricity purchased and sold by the project under an agreement with an
electric service provider. For some service providers in the United States, you can download the rate
structure from the internet.

Notes.

The Utility Rate page is available only for projects with residential or commercial financing. For projects
with utility or commercial PPA financing, the electricity sales price is a result instead of an input. For
those projects, SAM reports the electricity sales price as the first year power purchase price.

A project's financing type is defined in the Technology and Market window.

You can specify an electric rate structure with any level of complexity, from a simple flat rate with net
metering to a complex schedule with time-of-use rates that change with time, demand charges, and tiered
rates:
Flat rate: A fixed rate in dollars per kilowatt-hour that does not vary with time or with the amount of
electricity the project purchases.
Fixed monthly charge: A fixed amount in dollars that the project pays each month.

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260 SAM Help
Time-of-use (TOU) rate: Rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour that vary with time of day and month of year.
Net metering: The project buys and sells electricity at the same rate. Net metering can apply to flat
rates or time-of-use rates. Note that SAM calculates net metering on an hourly basis, not on a monthly
or annual basis.
Peak demand charges: Monthly fees in dollars per kilowatt paid by the project for the maximum
monthly electric demand. You can specify demand charges as fixed monthly charges or as charges
that vary with time of use.
Tiered rates: Rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour that vary with the amount of electricity purchased by the
project in a month.
You can also specify an escalation rate if you expect electricity prices to increase from year to year at a
rate above inflation.

Utility Rates and Results

After you specify the rate schedule and run simulations, you can see the resulting hourly pricing data in the
tabular data browser on the Results page, and the total annual revenue from electricity sales in the project
cash flow. SAM reports revenues from electricity sales in the metrics table. Note that the electricity buy and
sell rates do not affect the project's levelized cost of energy (LCOE), because for residential and commercial
projects, the LCOE value is independent of project revenue. The electricity rates do affect the project net
present value and payback period.

Input Variable Reference

OpenEI Online Utility Rate Database
NREL's Open Energy Information initiative (OpenEI) hosts a database of electric rate structures for a
selection of U.S. electric service providers. SAM allows you to search the database and upload rate
structures from the database directly from the Utility Rate page.
Search for Rates
Search the OpenEI database for a rate structure and import the structure into SAM. This feature
requires a web connection. See Importing Rate Structure Data for details.
Go to website
Open the OpenEI website ([Link] in your computer's default Web
browser.

Description
These variables help you identify the rate structure. These are optional variables and do not affect results. If
you download rate structure data from the internet, SAM populates the variables automatically.
Name
The name or title of the rate structure.
Description
Text describing the rate structure.
Schedule
The schedule name, often an alphanumeric designation used by the electric service provider.

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Source
A document reference or website link for the rate sheet, tariff book, or other document containing the
rate information.

Rate Escalation
The escalation rate is an annual percentage increase that applies to all of the rates you specify on the
Utility Rates page. SAM uses the sum of the escalation rate and inflation rate specified on the Financing
page to calculate utility rates in years 2 and later of the analysis period (also specified on the Financing
page). If you specify an escalation rate of zero, then SAM will use only the inflation rate to calculate out-
year values. See Specifying Escalation Rates for details.
Out-years escalation rate(s)
SAM adds the escalation rate to the inflation rate specified on the Financing page to calculate values in
the project cash flow for years 2 and later. You can specify the escalation rate as either a single annual
value, or specify a different escalation rate for each year in the project cash flow. See Specifying
Escalation Rates for details.

Net Metering
With net metering, the project purchases and sells electricity at the same price. See Specifying a Simple
Flat Rate with or without Net Metering for details.
Enable net metering (buy=sell)
Check the box for a rate structure with net metering to set the sell rate equal to the buy rate for flat
rates and time-of-use rates. Checking the box disables all Sell input variables in the rate structure.

Fixed Monthly Charges

A fixed charge is a fee that the project pays each month to the electric service provider that does not
depend on the quantity of electricity consumed or generated by the project.
Fixed Charge
A fixed dollar amount that applies to all months. Because SAM tracks project sales and purchases on
an hourly basis, it must assign the monthly fixed charge on an hourly basis. SAM arbitrarily applies the
fixed charge to the final hour of each month. For example, SAM applies the charge for January to hour
744 (for a month with 31 days, 24 hours/day × 31 days/month = 744 hours/month).

Flat Rate
A flat rate is an energy charge in dollars per kilowatt-hour that does not vary with the amount of electricity
purchased or sold by the project. See Specifying a Simple Flat Rate with or without Net Metering for details.

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Notes.

If you specify different buy and sell rates, you should also specify load data on the Electric Load page.
SAM compares the renewable energy system's output to the load data in each hour to determine
whether to buy or sell electricity in that hour.

If you specify both a flat rate and time-of-use rates, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the electricity
price in each hour.

Enable Flat Rates

Check the box for a rate structure with flat rates. If you clear the checkbox, SAM will ignore any flat rate
values that you may have specified.
Flat Buy Rate
The fixed energy charge in dollars per kilowatt-hour for a simple flat rate structure with no time-of-use or
tiered rates. This is the price that the project pays to purchase electricity from the electric service
provider. If you check the Enable net metering (buy=sell) box, SAM assumes that the flat buy rate
and flat sell rates are equal.
Flat Sell Rate
The price in dollars per kilowatt-hour paid by the electric service provider to the project for electricity
delivered to the grid by the project. If you check the Enable net metering (buy=sell) box, SAM
assumes that the flat buy rate and flat sell rates are equal and disables the flat sell rate variable. The
sell rate applies in each hour to the difference between the energy generated by the system and the
load requirement specified on the Electric Loads page.
Flat Fuel Adjustment
A charge in dollars per kilowatt-hour paid by the project to the service provider for a fuel adjustment fee
or any other riders or fees. SAM adds the adjustment charge to the flat buy rate to calculate the total
electricity purchase price.

Time of Use Rate (Energy Charge)

Time of use rates are energy charges in dollars per kilowatt-hour that vary with the time of day, month of
year, or both. See Specifying a Time-of-use Rate Structure for details.

Notes.

If you specify time of use rates, you should also specify load data on the Electric Load page. SAM
compares the renewable energy system's output to the load data in each hour to determine whether to
buy or sell electricity in that hour.

If you specify both a flat rate and time-of-use rates, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the electricity
price in each hour.

Enable TOU Rates

Check the box to apply the time of use rate schedule specified by the time-of-use (TOU) rates for the
periods shown the weekday and weekend schedule matrices. You can disable the TOU rates without

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losing the rate and schedule data by clearing the checkbox.

Period (1-9)
The buy, sell, and adjustment rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour for each of up to nine periods. Assign a
period number to the weekday or weekend matrices by using your mouse to select a block in the
matrix and typing the period number on your keyboard. See Defining Weekday and Weekend
schedules for details.
Buy $/kWh
The price paid by the project in dollars per kilowatt-hour to purchase electricity from the electric service
provider.
Sell $/kWh
The price paid to the project in dollars per kilowatt-hour by the electric service provider for electricity
delivered by the project to the grid. The sell rate applies in each hour to the difference between the
energy generated by the system and the load requirement specified on the Electric Loads page.
Adj. $/kWh
Any additional charge paid by the project in dollars per kilowatt-hour to the service provider for fuel fees
or other fees or riders. SAM adds the adjustment charge to the flat buy rate to calculate the total
electricity purchase price.
Weekday
The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that assigns a period representing set of time-of-use rates to
the five working days of the week: Monday through Friday. SAM assumes that the year begins on
Monday, January 1, in the hour ending at 1:00 a.m. See Defining Weekday and Weekend schedules for
details.
Weekend
The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that assigns time-of-use periods to the two weekend days of
the week: Saturday and Sunday. SAM assumes that the year begins on Monday, January 1, in the
hour ending at 1:00 a.m.

Peak Demand Charges

A peak demand charge is a fee that the project pays to the electric service provider that depends on the
load data you specify on the Electric Load page. The electric demand in a given hour is the difference
between the load in that hour and the electricity generated by the system in that hour. See Specifying Peak
Demand Charges for details.
SAM arbitrarily applies the monthly demand charge to the final hour of each month. For example, SAM
applies the charge for January to hour 744 (for a month with 31 days, 24 hours/day × 31 days/month = 744
hours/month).
Enable Demand Charges
Check the box to apply peak demand charges. You can disable demand charges without losing the rate
and schedule data by clearing the checkbox.
Monthly fixed demand charge ($/kW,peak)
An amount in dollars per kilowatt to be paid by the project each month of the year for the maximum
average hourly electric demand in the month.

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Monthly time-of-use demand charge
An amount in dollars per kilowatt to be paid the project each month for the maximum hourly average
electric demand in each of up to nine periods. See Specifying Peak Demand Charges for details.
Period (1-9)
The amount and adjustment rates in dollars per peak average hourly kilowatt for each of up to nine
periods. See Specifying Peak Demand Charges for details. Assign a period number to the weekday or
weekend matrices by using your mouse to select a block in the matrix and typing the period number on
your keyboard. See Defining Weekday and Weekend schedules for details.
Amount ($/kW,peak)
An amount in dollars per kilowatt that the project pays for the peak average demand in kilowatts over
the period specified in the weekday and weekend schedule matrices.
Adj ($/kW)
An adjustment fee for fuel or other fees and adjustments in dollars per kilowatt that the project pays for
the peak average demand in kilowatts over the period specified in the weekday and weekend schedule
matrices.
Weekday
The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that assigns a set of peak demand charge rates to the five
working days of the week: Monday through Friday. SAM assumes that the year begins on Monday,
January 1, in the hour ending at 1:00 a.m. See Defining Weekday and Weekend schedules for details.
Weekend
The time-of-day and month-of-year matrix that a set of peak demand charge rates to the two weekend
days of the week: Saturday and Sunday. SAM assumes that the year begins on Monday, January 1, in
the hour ending at 1:00 a.m.

Tiered Rates (Energy Charge)

Tiered rates are energy charges in dollars per kilowatt-hour that depend on the amount of electricity the
project purchases over a specified period. See Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure for details.

Notes.

If you specify tiered rates, you should also specify load data on the Electric Load page. SAM uses the
load data to determine the tier rates to apply to a given hour.

In SAM, a "tier structure" is a set of tiered rates. In most cases you will use a single tier structure. For
more complex structures with different tiered rates for different months, you can assign tiered rates to
more than one tier structure. You can define up to six tiers in each tiered structure.

Enable Tiered Rates

Check the box to apply tiered rates. You can disable tiered rates for a model run without losing the rate
data by clearing the checkbox.
Sell at Tiered Sell Rate
Assigns the rate specified by the Tiered Sell Rate variable to the sell rate.

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Tiered Sell Rate

Specify the sell rate only when you choose the "sell at tiered sell rate" option. SAM ignores this value
when you choose either the "sell at tier 1" or "sell at lowest rate" options.
Sell at Tier 1 rate for each Tiered Structure
Assigns the rate specified by the Tier 1 buy rate to the sell rate for each of the up to six tier structures.
Sell at lowest rate for each Tiered Structure
Assigns the minimum of the up to six tier buy rates to the sell rate for each of the tier structures.
kWh Use
The maximum amount of electricity that can be purchased at the electricity charge rate and adjustment
rate for each of the up to six tiers that you can specify for each tier structure. A tier with the default
value of 1e+099 would account for all of the electricity purchased over the amount of the next lowest
tier. For example, for a two-tier structure with one price for all electricity purchased up to 1,000 kWh
and a second price for electricity purchased over 1,000 kWh for a given month, you would specify Tier
1's kWh use at 1,000 kWh and Tier 2's kWh use at 1e+099.
Rate $/kWh
The buy rate in dollars per kilowatt-hour that applies to each of up to six tiers per tier structure.
Adj $/kWh
Any additional fee in dollars per kilowatt-hour that applies to the tier.
Monthly Schedule
Choose the tier structure that applies for each month. If the same tier structure applies to all months of
the year, use Tier Structure 1.

Specifying a Flat Rate with or without Net Metering

The flat rate option is appropriate when a project buys and sells electricity at a fixed price that does not vary
with time of day or month of year.
SAM determines whether the project buys or sells electricity on an hourly basis by comparing the
renewable energy system's output with the load for each hour. This approach does not accurately model net
metering calculated on a monthly or annual basis.
SAM assumes that the electricity price increases from year to year at the rate of inflation specified on the
Financing page. You can specify an additional annual escalation rate if you want the price to increase at a
rate above the inflation rate. See Specifying Escalation Rates for details.

Note. Be sure to express all rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour. Some electricity service providers may
express rates in cents per kilowatt-hour that you will need to convert to dollars.

A flat rate with net metering means that the project buys and sells electricity at the same price through a
net metering agreement with the electric service provider. A flat rate without net metering means that the
project buys electricity at one rate, and sells it at another rate.

Note. If you specify both a flat rate and time-of-use rates, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the
electricity price in each hour.

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To specify a flat rate with net metering:

1. Under Flat Rate, check Enable Flat Rates.
2. Under Net Metering, click Enable net metering (buy=sell). SAM will disable the variables for
specifying electricity sell rates.
3. In Flat Buy Rate, type the electricity purchase price in dollars per kilowatt-hour.
4. If the electricity service provider charges any additional fees in dollars per kilowatt-hour, such as a
fuel adjustment fee, type the value of the fee in Adjustment.
5. SAM assumes that electricity prices increase from year to year at the inflation rate specified on the
Financing page. If you expect the electricity rate to increase at a rate higher than inflation, type the
additional rate of increase in Out-years escalation rate(s). See Specifying Escalation Rates for
details.
6. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as
appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.

To specify a flat rate without net metering:

1. Under Flat Rate, check Enable Flat Rates.
2. Under Net Metering, clear Enable net metering (buy=sell).
3. In Flat Buy Rate, type the price in dollars per kilowatt-hour at which the project will purchase
electricity from the service provider.
4. In Flat Sell Rate, type the price in dollars per kilowatt-hour at which the project will sell electricity
to the service provider.
5. If the electricity service provider charges any additional fees in dollars per kilowatt-hour, such as a
fuel adjustment fee, type the value of the fee in Adjustment. SAM will add this value to the flat buy
rate, but not to the sell rate.
6. SAM assumes that electricity prices increase from year to year at the inflation rate specified on the
Financing page. If you expect the electricity rate to increase at a rate higher than inflation, type the
additional rate of increase in Out-years escalation rate(s). See Specifying Escalation Rates for
details.
7. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as
appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.

Specifying Time of Use Energy Charges

A time-of-use rate (TOU) schedule is appropriate for a project that buys and sells electricity according to a
price schedule that varies with time of day and month of year. A TOU agreement may include net metering,
in which case the project buys and sells electricity at the same price.
If you are modeling a project that has an agreement with a particular electricity service provider in the United
States, you may be able to download the rate schedule from the OpenEI database. Follow the instructions
in Importing Rate Structure Data to see if the database includes rate structures for your provider. The
instructions below explain how to specify a TOU rate structure by hand.
You can specify a buy rate, sell rate, and adjustment rate in dollars per kilowatt-hour for up to nine TOU
periods. You must assign a block defining time of day and month of year to each period in the weekday and
weekend matrices.

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Notes.

If you specify both time-of-use rates and a flat rate, SAM adds the two rates to calculate the electricity
price in each hour.

Be sure to express all rates in dollars per kilowatt-hour. Some electricity service providers may express
rates in cents per kilowatt-hour that you will need to convert to dollars.

To specify a time-of-use schedule:

1. If your project buys and sells electricity at the same price under a net metering agreement, check
Enable net metering (buy=sell) under Net Metering. Otherwise, disable net metering by clearing
the checkbox.
2. Under Time of Use Rate (Energy Charge), check Enable TOU Rates to include the TOU rate
structure in simulations. You can disable the TOU rates without losing the TOU rate data by
clearing the checkbox.
3. Type appropriate prices in dollars per kilowatt-hour in the Buy $/kWh, Sell $/kWh, and Adj $/kWh
columns for each of up to nine periods. If the rate uses net metering, you only need to specify a
buy rate because SAM assumes that the sell rate is equal to the buy rate.
4. In the Weekday matrix, use your mouse to draw a rectangle representing the block of time that
applies to Period 2, and press the 2 key on your keyboard. SAM highlights the block in the color for
Period 2 and displays the number 2 in square the block.
5. Repeat Step 3 for each time block in the rate schedule until the weekday matrix shows all of the
TOU periods you specified with the appropriate time blocks.
6. Repeat Steps 3-5 for the weekend matrix. See Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules for
more detailed instructions.
7. If the rate structure includes peak demand charges, see Specifying Peak Demand Charges.
8. If the rate structure includes tiered rates, see Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure.

9. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as
appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.

Specifying Peak Demand Charges

A peak demand charge is a monthly price paid by the project in dollars per kilowatt for the maximum power
it consumes from the grid over each month of the year.

Note. In SAM, the units for energy quantities such as hourly AC output of the system, hourly electricity
purchased from the grid, and hourly load are all given in kWh and represent a total energy quantity over
the hour. (That is assuming that hourly solar radiation data determined from the weather file represents
the total solar radiation that reaches the solar collector over each hour.) Each hourly quantity is therefore
also effectively a power quantity (rate of generating or consuming energy per unit of time) value in
kilowatt-hours per hour (kWh/h), equivalent to kilowatt (kW).

SAM calculates the peak demand charge for each month by first determining the maximum demand in
kilowatts for the month, and then determining what charge to apply to that kilowatt value based on the
demand charges you specify. (See instructions below.)

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The demand in a given hour is the load in that hour from the load data specified on the Electric Load page
minus the AC output of the system in that hour calculated during simulation. The maximum demand in a
month is the highest demand value that occurs over the period of a month.
f you only specify monthly fixed demand charges, then the demand charge would be the value you specified
for the month in question. For example, if for the month of May, SAM finds that the maximum demand
occurs on the weekday May 12th at 3 pm, SAM would apply the May demand charge specified under
Monthly fixed demand charge. If you specify a monthly time-of-use (TOU) demand charge, then would apply
the weekday TOU demand charge for 3 pm in May specified on the Weekday schedule matrix. Note that
you can specify both a monthly demand charge and a monthly TOU demand charge, SAM simply adds the
two charges to calculate the total demand charge.

Note. The demand charge calculation requires that you specify an electric load for your project. See
Electric Load for details.

To specify peak demand charges:

1. Under Peak Demand Charges, check Enable Demand Charges. You can always disable
demand charges without losing the rate data by clearing the checkbox.
2. If the rate structure includes a fixed monthly demand charge that does not vary with time of day,
under Monthly fixed demand charge ($/kW,peak) type the charge in dollars per kilowatt that
applies to each month.
3. If the demand charge varies with time of day and year, type the demand charge and any additional
adjustment fee in dollars per kilowatt for each of up to nine TOU periods. The total demand charge
for each period is the sum of the values in the Amount and Adj columns.
You can specify both a monthly fixed demand charge and a monthly TOU demand charge if that is
appropriate for your rate schedule. SAM will add the two values when it calculates the total demand
charge.
4. In the Weekday matrix, use your mouse to draw a rectangle representing the block of time that
applies to Period 2, and press the 2 key on your keyboard. SAM highlights the block in the color for
Period 2 and displays the number 2 in square the block.
5. Repeat Steps 3-4 for each time block in the rate schedule until the weekday matrix shows all of the
TOU periods you specified with the appropriate time blocks.
6. Repeat Steps 3-5 for the weekend matrix. See Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules for
more detailed instructions.
7. If the rate structure includes time-of-use energy charges, see Specifying Time of Use Energy
Charges.
8. If the rate structure includes tiered rates, see Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure.

9. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as
appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.

Specifying a Tiered Rate Structure

In a tiered rate structure, different electricity prices apply as the amount of electricity purchases increases
over time in a given month. Each tier represents a monthly quantity of purchased electricity, a purchase
price, and optional adjustment fee. For example, in a three-tier structure, one price might apply to electricity
purchased up 100 kWh (Tier 1) in a given month. If the project purchases more than 100 kWh in that month,

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then a second price might apply for electricity purchased between 100 kWh and up to 150 kWh (Tier 2). If
the project purchases more than 150 kWh, a third price might apply to electricity purchased over 150 kWh
(Tier 3). In this three-tier example, if the project only purchases 75 kWh in a month, then it would purchase
all of its electricity at the Tier 1 rate for that month.
SAM allows you to specify both a buy rate, or price paid by the project to purchase electricity from the
electric service provider, and a sell rate, or price paid to the project for electricity it sells to the provider.
There are three options for defining the sell rate:
As a fixed price that you specify,
as a price equal to the Tier 1 rate you specify, or
as a price equal to the lowest of the up to six tiers that you specify.
SAM also allows you to specify more than one set of tiered rates. Each set of tiered rates is called a tier
structure, and applies to one or months of the year as specified under Monthly Schedule. You might use
more than one tier structures to specify different tiered rates for different seasons of the year.

To specify a tiered rate structure:

1. Under Tiered Rates (Energy Charge), check Enable Tiered Rates. You can always disable
tiered rates without losing rate data by clearing the checkbox.
2. Under Sell Rate, choose one of the three options available for specifying the sell rate. See above
for descriptions.
3. If you specify Sell at Tiered Sell Rate, type a value for Tiered Sell Rate in dollars per kilowatt-
hour. If you choose one of the other two options, SAM ignores this value.
4. Under Tier Structure 1, type the maximum amount of electricity in kilowatt-hours in the kWh Use
column for Tier 1 that the project is allowed to purchase at the Tier 1 rate in a single month.
5. In the Rate $/kWh column, type the purchase price that applies to Tier 1.
6. In the Adj $/kWh column, type the additional fee in dollars per kilowatt-hour that applies to the tier.
SAM adds the rate and adjustment values to calculate the total energy price for the tier.
7. Repeat Steps 4-6 for each of the up to six tiers in Tier Structure 1.
8. Repeat Steps 3-7 for each of the up to six tier structures.
9. Under Monthly Schedule, for each month of the year, choose the tier structure that applies to the
month.
10. Disable any rate options that do not apply to your project by clearing the following checkboxes as
appropriate: Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered Rates.

Importing Rate Structure Data

If your computer is connected to the internet, you can download rate structure data from the OpenEI
database for a selection of electricity service providers in the United States. You can find out more about
the database on the OpenEI website: [Link]

Note. When you import data from the OpenEI website, SAM imports the appropriate rates and schedule
data, but does not check the appropriate boxes to enable the rate options that apply to the rate
structure. Be sure to very that the appropriate options are enabled as described in the instructions
below.

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To import rate structure data:

1. Click Search for rates.
2. In the OpenEI Utility Rate Database window, locate your electric service provider in the list by either
typing some letters in the provider's name and clicking Refresh, or by scrolling through the
alphabetical list.
3. Click the provider's name to populate the Available rate schedules list. If nothing appears in the
list, there is no data available for the service provider in the database.
4. In the Available rate schedules list, click the rate schedule you want to import into SAM. SAM
displays information about the rate schedule under Rate Information. You cannot change this
information.
To see the database entry on the OpenEI website using your computer's web browser, click Go to
rate page on [Link]. You can also right-click the link to copy the URL to your computer's
clipboard.
To open a copy of the database file, click JSON. You can also right-click the link to copy the URL
to your computer's clipboard. The database file is a text file that you can view in a web browser and
edit in a text editor.
5. Click Download and apply utility rate to download the rate structure data into SAM, or click
Close to return to the Utility Rate page without downloading the data.
After you import the data, SAM displays the appropriate rates and schedules on the Utility Rates
page.
6. Verify that the appropriate options for the rate structure are checked: Enable net metering
(buy=sell), Enable Flat Rates, Enable TOU Rates, Enable Demand Charges, Enable Tiered
Rates.

Specifying Escalation Rates

When you specify electricity prices and rates, SAM assumes that those values apply in Year 1 of the
project cash flow. To calculate dollar values in Year 2 and later, SAM increases the Year 1 values using the
inflation rate specified on the Financing page. If you specify an escalation rate, SAM uses the sum of the
escalation rate and inflation rate to calculate the out-year values.
In some cases, it may be useful to assign a different escalation rate to each year in the analysis period
using an annual schedule. (The analysis period is defined on the Financing page.) For example, you could
model an escalation rate that increases every five years by assigning one value to years 1 through 5, a
second one to years 6 through 10, and so on.

To enter the escalation rate as an annual schedule:

1. Under Rate Escalation, look at the grey and blue button next to Out-years escalation rate(s). By
default, the "Value" label is blue indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.

2. Click the button with the "Sched" label to change the mode to schedule and activate the Edit
button.

3. Click Edit. The Edit Schedule window displays a table with each row representing a year in the

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analysis period.
4. If you want to limit the number of values in the schedule, type a number in # Values. Typically, you
should type a number equal to or greater than the analysis period specified on the Financing page.
SAM ignores any data for years greater than the analysis period. For example, if the schedule has
50 rows, but the analysis period is 30 years, SAM ignores any values in rows 31 and above.
5. In the Edit Schedule window, type an escalation rate for each year in the analysis period. Use the
vertical scroll bar to move through the years.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid and display the error message
"Bad numeric format in column xx: Edit canceled."

6. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Defining Weekday and Weekend Schedules

The weekday and weekend matrices allow you to associate a period with a time of day and month of year.
To use the matrices, you draw rectangles on the matrix with your mouse, and type a number with your
keyboard for the period that applies to the times represented by the rectangles.
SAM arbitrarily defines the first day of time series data (the first 24 hours for hourly data) to be Monday on
January 1, and assigns the remaining days of the year accordingly. SAM assumes that weekdays include
Monday through Friday, and that weekends include Saturday and Sunday. SAM does not account for
holidays or other special days. It also does not account for leap years, and does not include a day for
February 29.

To specify a weekday or weekend schedule:

1. Assign values as appropriate to each of the up to nine periods.
2. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.

3. Type the number 2.

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4. SAM shades displays the period number in the squares that make up the rectangle, and shades
the rectangle to match the color of the period.

5. Repeat Steps 2-4 for each of the remaining periods that apply to the schedule.

The following example shows a complete schedule for a TOU rate structure with five periods. In this case,
the schedule only uses Periods 1,2 and 4-6.

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4.4 Financing
The Financing page displays the variables that SAM uses to calculate the project cash flow and other
related financial metrics that appear on the Results [Link] view the Financing page, click Financing in
the main window's navigation menu. The Financing page allows you to specify the analysis period, inflation
and discount rates, and loan parameters for the project. For projects with utility financing, it also allows you
to specify rate-of-return targets.

Note. If the Financing page is not available, check that the No Financials option is not the active option
on the Technology and Market window. The Financials page is available only for projects with an active
financing option.

The input variables that appear on the Financing page depend on the project financing option that you
specify in the Technology and Market window. SAM displays the project financing option in square brackets
directly below the tabs at the top left corner of the Main window. For example, the image below is from a
project with the Residential financing option:

To change the project financing type, click Select Technology and Market, and click a button under the
heading "Select a financing option" in the Technology and Market window.
For a general description of the financing options, see Financing Overview.

General
Applies to: All financing options (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

Analysis Period
Number of years covered by the analysis. Typically equivalent to the project or investment life. The
analysis period determines the number of years in the project cash flow.
Inflation Rate
Annual rate of change of costs, typically based on a price index. SAM uses the inflation rate to
calculate the value of costs in years two and later of the project cash flow. Note that many of the costs
that you specify on the System Costs page, Financing page, Utility Rate page, Tax Credit Incentives, or
Payment Incentives page are in year one dollars.
Real Discount Rate
A measure of the time value of money expressed as an annual rate. SAM uses the real discount rate to
calculate the present value (value in year one) of dollar amounts in the project cash flow over the
analysis period and to calculate annualized costs.
Nominal Discount Rate
SAM calculates the nominal discount based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation

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rate:
Nominal Discount Rate = (1 + Real Discount Rate)(1 + Inflation Rate) - 1

Taxes and Insurance

Applies to: All financing options (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

Federal Tax, State Tax

The annual federal and state income tax rate applies to taxable income and is used to calculate tax
benefits or liabilities. Taxable income can include incentive payments for all projects, if specified by the
user, and incentive payments and revenues from electricity sales for utility and commercial third party
projects. Note that for residential and commercial systems, electricity sales offset payments to the
electric service provider, and are not considered taxable income.
Sales Tax
The sales tax is a one-time tax that SAM includes in the project's total installed cost. SAM calculates
the sales tax amount by multiplying the sales tax rate on the Financing page by the rate you specify
under Indirect Capital Costs and the Total Direct Cost on the System Costs page.
Insurance
The annual insurance rate applies to the total Pre-Financing Installed cost of the project. SAM treats
insurance as an operating cost for each year. The insurance cost in year one of the project cash flow is
the insurance rate multiplied by the Pre-Financing Installed Costs. The first year cost is then increased
by inflation in each subsequent year. For commercial and utility projects, the insurance cost is an
operating expense and therefore reduces federal and state taxable income.

Salvage Value
Applies to: Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

SAM considers the salvage value to be taxable income of the project in the final year of the project cash
flow, and calculates the value as a percentage of the total Pre-Financing Installed cost from the System
Costs page. For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of
2.5% and total installed cost of $1 million, SAM will include income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 ×
0.10 × (1 + 0.025) ^ (30 - 1).
For residential projects, the salvage value has no effect on federal and state income tax. For commercial
and utility projects, the salvage value is treated as a source of pre-tax revenue in the final year of the
analysis period, increasing the federal and state taxable income. For details, see Base Case Cashflow.
Net Salvage Value
The salvage value as a percentage of the project's total Pre-Financing Installed cost.
End of Analysis Period Salvage Value

Property Tax
Applies to: All financing options (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

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Assessed Percent
The assessed value of property subject to property taxes as a percentage of the system total installed
cost specified on the System Costs page. SAM uses this value to calculate the assessed property
value in year one of the project cash flow.
Assessed Value
The assessed property value in year one of the project cash flow. SAM calculates this value as the
product of the Assessed Percent and the total installed cost specified on the System Costs page, and
reports it in the Property Tax Net Assessed Value row of the cash flow.
Assessed Value Decline
The annual decline in the assessed property value. SAM uses this value to calculate the property
assessed value in years two and later of the project cash flow. For an assessed value that does not
decrease annually, specify a value of zero percent per year.
Property Tax
The annual property tax rate applies to the assessed value of the project, which is a user defined
percentage of Pre-Financing Installed Costs. In addition to specifying the property tax rate, the user
also can define an annual change in the assessed value of the project. SAM treats property tax as a
tax-deductible operating expense for each year. In each year of the project cash flow, the property tax
cost is the property tax rate multiplied by the assessed value for that year. For residential projects, the
property tax amount is the only operating cost that can be deducted from state and federal income tax.

Loan Type
Applies to: Residential (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

Standard Loan
For the standard loan option, loan interest payments are not tax deductible.
Mortgage
For the mortgage option, loan interest payments are tax deductible.

Loan or Financing Parameters

Applies to: Residential, Commercial, Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer (see Financing
Overview for descriptions)

Installed Cost (Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer)

The total installed cost from the System Costs page.
Construction Financing Cost (Commercial PPA, Independent Power Producer)
The total construction financing cost shown under Construction Period.
Principal Amount
The loan principal amount. This is a calculated value and cannot be edited. To change the value, either
change the value of the debt fraction, or change the value of cost variables on the System Costs page.
For Residential and Commercial financing:

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Principal Amount ($) = Total Installed Cost ($) × Debt Fraction (%)
For Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer financing:
Principal Amount ($) = (Installed Cost ($) + Construction Financing Cost ($)) × Debt Fraction (%)
Debt Fraction
Percentage of the total installed cost to be borrowed.
For example, specifying a debt fraction of 25% means that the project borrows 25% of the Total
Installed Cost amount shown on the system costs page for a 25/75 debt-equity ratio.

Note. For projects with Independent Power Producer or Commercial PPA financing, if you check Allow
SAM to pick a debt fraction to minimize the LCOE, SAM disables the Debt Fraction input variable.

Loan Term
Number of years required to repay a loan. Note that this value is different than the analysis period.
Loan Rate
Annual loan interest rate.
WACC
The Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) is defined as the minimum return that the project must
earn to cover financing costs. This is calculated value that you cannot directly edit. To change its value,
change one of the parameters described in the following equations:
WACC = Return on Equity × (1 - Debt Fraction) + (1 - Effective Tax Rate) × Loan Rate × Debt
Fraction
The effective tax rate is a single number that includes both the federal income tax rate and state income
tax rate. SAM uses the effective tax rate for several calculations requiring a total income tax value:
Effective Tax Rate = Federal Tax Rate × (1 - State Tax Rate) + State Tax Rate
For residential and commercial projects, the return on equity is equal to the discount rate, which is an
input on the Financials page:
Return on Equity = Real Discount Rate
For Independent Power Producer and Commercial PPA projects, the return on equity is the required
internal rate of return
Return on Equity = Mininimum Required IRR

Note. If you choose the Specify First Year PPA Price solution mode option, SAM uses the Minimum
Require IRR value visible in the inactive variable for the WACC calculation.

Federal Depreciation and State Depreciation

Applies to: Commercial, Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options (see Financing Overview for
descriptions)

No Depreciation
The project does not claim a depreciation tax deduction.

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5-yr MACRS
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System depreciation schedule offered by the Federal government
and some states using a five-year life and half-year convention. This tax deduction, expressed as a
percentage of the total installed cost, applies to the first years of the project life as follows: 20%, 32%,
19.2%, 11.52%, 11.52%, and 5.76%.
Straight Line (specify years)
A depreciation schedule offered by the Federal government and some states. This tax deduction is 20%
of the of total installed cost and applies to the number of years you specify, starting with year one of the
project life.
Custom (specify percentages)
Allows you to assign a depreciation deduction as a percentage of the total installed cost for each year
in the project life. Click Edit to assign the values, and see Editing Annual Schedules for details on
entering the values.

Construction Period
Applies to: Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

SAM allows you to specify parameters for up to five construction loans to approximate interest during
construction (IDC) that SAM considers to be a cost to the project.
SAM assumes that 100% of the construction balance is outstanding for half of the construction period,
which is equivalent to an even monthly draw schedule with an average loan life of half of the construction
period. To approximate a different draw schedule, you could adjust the loan's interest rate accordingly.

Note. To model a project with no construction period loans, set the Percent of Installed Costs value for
each of the five loans to zero.

For the Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer options, SAM includes the total construction
financing cost in the project loan principal amount shown on the Financing page.
For the partnership flip, sale leaseback, and single owner options, SAM includes the total construction
financing cost in the issuance of equity value reported in the project cash flow.
Loan
SAM allows you to specify up to five construction loans. You can type a name describing each loan or
use the default names.
Percent of Installed Costs
The amount borrowed for the construction loan as a percentage of the total installed cost, assuming
that all construction costs are included in the installation costs you specify on the System Costs page.
Specify a non-zero percentage for each construction period loan you want to include in the analysis.
The sum of the up to five percentage values you specify for each construction loan must be 100%.
Up-front Fee
A percentage of the principal amount, typically between 1% and 3% that SAM adds to the interest
amount for each construction loan to calculate the total construction financing cost. Note that no
interest applies to the up-front fee.

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Up-front Fee Amount ($) = Principal Amount ($) × Up-front Fee Percentage (%)
Months Prior to Operation
The loan period for the construction loan in months.
Interest Rate (Annual)
The construction loan interest rate as an annual percentage.
Principal Amount
The amount borrowed for each construction period loan:
Principal Amount ($) = Total Installed Cost ($) × Percent of Installed Costs (%)
Interest
The total interest payment due for each construction period loan, assuming that 100% of the
construction balance is outstanding for half of the construction period.
Interest ($) = Principal Amount ($) × Loan Rate (%/yr) / 12 (mos/yr) × 0.5
Total Construction Financing Cost
SAM includes the total construction financing cost included in the project cost.
Total Construction Financing Cost ($) = Interest ($) + Up-front Fee Amount ($)

Solution Mode
Applies to: Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

The solution mode determines whether SAM calculates a PPA price based on IRR targets that you specify,
or an IRR based on a PPA price that you specify.
SAM uses a different set of equations to calculate the PPA price or IRR for different financing options:
The utility market options (Leveraged Partnership Flip, All Equity Partnership Flip, Sale Leaseback, and
Single Owner) use a new financial model developed for the April 2011 version of SAM.
The Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer options use a simpler financial model that was
used in SAM 2010.11.9 and older versions.
See Financing Overview for a description of the Financing options.

Utility Market Options (except Independent Power Producer)

SAM offers two solution modes for the Leveraged Partnership Flip, All Equity Partnership Flip, Sale
Leaseback, and Single Owner financing options:
Specify First Year PPA Price allows you to specify the PPA price as an input, and SAM calculates the
resulting IRR.
Specify IRR Target allows you to specify the IRR as an input, and SAM uses a search algorithm to find
the PPA price required to meet the target IRR.

Solution Mode 1: Specify First Year PPA Price

The Specify PPA Price option allows you to specify a first year power purchase price and optional annual
escalation rate:

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For All Equity and Leveraged Partnership Flip options, and Sale Leaseback option that involve two
parties, SAM calculates the investor and developer IRR.
For the Single Owner option, SAM calculates the project IRR.
After running simulations, SAM shows the IRR values in the Metrics table.

Note. For the Specify PPA Price option, the IRR target year, IRR target, IRR actual year, and IRR in
target years shown in the Metrics table are not valid results because these values do not apply to the
option.

PPA Price
The power purchase price in cents per kWh.
If an annual escalation rate applies to the power purchase price, enter it under Power Purchase
Agreement.

Note. If you choose the Specify IRR Target option, SAM ignores the value of the PPA Price variable.

Solution Mode 2: Specify Investor IRR Target

The Specify Investor IRR Target option allows you to specify a desired IRR target and the year you would
like the IRR to be achieved. SAM finds the PPA price required to meet the target given the financing
assumptions and system costs you specify.
SAM uses an iterative algorithm to search for the PPA price that meets the IRR target in the year you
specify. If it cannot find a solution, it finds the PPA price that result in an IRR and year as close as possible
to the target values, and reports the IRR and year as "actual" values.

Note. In some cases, the actual values may differ significantly from the target values. If you are not
satisfied with the actual values, you can adjust your assumptions and rerun simulations until the actual
and target values match.

After running simulations, SAM shows both the target values and the actual values in the Metrics table. For
financing options involving both a tax investor and developer, SAM shows the IRR for both partners.
IRR Target
The desired IRR target as a percentage:
For the All Equity and Leveraged Partnership Flip options and Sale Leaseback option, the target IRR
is the tax investor IRR. SAM calculates the developer IRR as a function of the value in excess of the
tax investor IRR.
For the Single Owner option the required IRR is the project IRR.

Tip. SAM assumes a default tax equity return rate of 8.5% for the All Equity Partnership
Flip option and a default rate of 10.5% for the Leveraged Partnership Flip option. In
practice, tax investors may accept lower or require higher returns for specific projects
than these rates, depending on project size, market conditions, and perceived project
[Link] solution mode determines whether SAM calculates a first year PPA price based on an IRR
that you specify or whether SAM calculates IRR values based on a PPA price that you specify.

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IRR Target Year
The year in which the target IRR will be achieved.

Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer

SAM offers two solution modes for the Commercial PPA and Independent Power Producer financing
options:
Specify First Year PPA Price allows you to specify the PPA price as an input, and SAM calculates the
resulting IRR.
Specify IRR Target allows you to specify the IRR as an input, and SAM uses a search algorithm to find
the PPA price required to meet the target IRR.

Solution Mode 1: Specify IRR Target

Choose this option when you have an IRR in mind and want SAM to calculate the PPA price required to
achieve the IRR.
SAM uses an iterative algorithm to search for the PPA price that meets the IRR target. If it cannot find a
solution, it finds the PPA price that results in an IRR as close as possible to the target.
After simulations, SAM shows the first year PPA price that it calculated in the Metrics table and the
project's after-tax IRR required associated with the PPA price.
Minimum Required IRR
The project's minimum internal rate of return target. SAM uses an iterative algorithm to calculate a PPA
price that results in an IRR no less than the target you specify.
PPA Escalation Rate
An escalation rate applied (above inflation) to the first year PPA price to calculate the electricity sales
price in years two and later in the project cash flow. When the financial optimization option is checked,
the PPA escalation rate is a result instead of an input variable.
Constraint: Require a Minimum DSCR
A requirement that the debt-service coverage ratio not be allowed to fall below the specified level.
Minimum Required DSCR
The lowest value of the DSCR required for the project to be financially feasible. The DSCR is the ratio of
operating income to costs in a given year.
Constraint: Require a positive cashflow
A requirement that the annual project cash flow be positive throughout the project life.
The financial optimization options allow you to automatically optimize the debt fraction and PPA escalation
rate to minimize the levelized cost of energy. When you optimize the value of these variables, SAM finds
the debt fraction and PPA escalation rates that result in the lowest levelized cost of energy. This
optimization is often necessary to minimize project costs when you specify constraints on the internal rate
of return (IRR), debt-service coverage ratio (DSCR), and positive cash flow (See Wiser 1996 in References).
Allow SAM to pick a debt fraction to minimize the LCOE
Check this option instead of entering a value for Debt Fraction to allow SAM to find the debt fraction
value that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. When you check this option, SAM disables the
debt fraction input variable and reports it as a result in the Metrics table on the Results page.

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Allow SAM to pick a PPA escalation rate to minimize the LCOE

Check this option instead of entering a value PPA Escalation Rate to allow SAM to find the PPA
escalation rate value that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy. When you check this option,
SAM disables the PPA escalation rate input variable and reports it as a result in the Metrics table on
the Results page.

Solution Mode 2: Specify First Year PPA Price

Choose this option when you want SAM to calculate the IRR based on a PPA price that you specify.
After simulations, SAM shows the project IRR that it calculated in the Metrics table, along with the first year
PPA price you specify.
First Year PPA Price
The first year PPA price in dollars per kilowatt-hour.
PPA Escalation Rate
An optional annual power price escalation rate.

Power Purchase Agreement

Applies to: Commercial PPA, all Utility Market options except Independent Power Producer (see
Financing Overview for descriptions)

For the Utility Independent Power Producer option, the PPA escalation rate variable is under Specify
Minimum Required IRR or Specify First Year PPA Price. See Solution Mode for details.

PPA Escalation Rate

An escalation rate applied to the first year PPA price to calculate the electricity sales price in years two
and later in the project cash flow.

Constraining Assumption
Applies to: Commercial PPA (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

Minimum Required IRR

The project's minimum target internal rate of return. SAM uses an iterative algorithm to calculate a PPA
price that results in an internal rate of return no less than the target you specify.

Reserves
Applies to: All Utility Market options except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for
descriptions)

Interest on Reserves
Annual interest rate earned on funds in reserve accounts. The different financing options have different
reserve accounts, and the interest on reserves rate applies to all of the accounts available for a given

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option:
Working capital reserve account, specified under Cost of Acquiring Financing.
Major equipment reserve account, specified under Major Equipment Replacement Reserves.
Debt service reserve account (Leveraged Partnership Flip, Single Owner), specified under Debt
Service.
Lessee reserve account (Sale Leaseback), specified under Sale Leaseback.

Tax Investor
Applies to: Leveraged Partnership Flip, All Equity Partnership Flip (see Financing Overview for
descriptions)

The Tax Investor parameters determine the tax investor's share of the project investment, revenue, and tax
benefits.
Initial Capital Contribution
The tax investor's share of the project equity requirement as a percentage of:
For Leveraged Partnership Flip, the total installed cost less the debt amount.
For All Equity Partnership Flip, the total installed cost.
Share of Project Cash, Pre-flip
The percentage of annual project cash returns allocated to the tax investor in years before the flip target
is reached.
Share of Project Cash, Post-flip
The percentage of annual project cash returns allocated to the tax investor in years after the flip target
is reached.
Share of Tax Benefits, Pre-flip
The percentage of taxable income and any tax benefits, including depreciation-related tax losses and
ITC-related tax credits, allocated to the tax investor before the flip target is reached.
Share of Tax Benefits, Post-flip
The percentage of taxable income and any tax benefits, including depreciation-related tax losses and
ITC-related tax credits, allocated to the tax investor after the flip target is reached.

Developer
Applies to: All Equity Partnership Flip, Leveraged Partnership Flip (see Financing Overview for
descriptions)

The developer's initial capital contribution and share of cash and tax flows are based on the tax investor
quantities.
SAM calculates these values by subtracting the tax investor quantities from 100%. You cannot directly edit
these values. To change the values, edit values under Tax Investor.

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Developer Capital Recovery

Applies to: All Equity Partnership Flip (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

The Developer Capital Recovery options determine the timing of cash flows to the developer.
During the capital recovery period, the developer cannot receive an amount of cash greater than its initial
investment.
Time
Choose this option to specify the duration of the developer's capital recovery period.
Full Capital Recovery
Choose this option to allocate 100% of the project cash flow to the developer until the developer
recovers its investment. Note that there is no return on investment, just a return of investment.
Duration
The number of years during which the developer receives 100% of the project cash flow. If the number of
years exceeds the time required for full capital recovery the developer only receives 100% of the project
cash for years up to the year the developer recovers its investment.

Debt Terms
Applies to: Leveraged Partnership Flip, Single Owner (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

The Debt Terms input variables determine the quantity and cost of of debt.
SAM calculates the debt fraction as a result based on the debt terms you specify here, the Debt Service
parameters, and the project costs and revenues shown in the cash flow.
All-In Interest Rate
Annual loan interest rate.
Tenor
The loan period in years.

Debt Closing Costs

You can specify debt closing costs as a dollar amount, percentage of the debt amount, or both. Closing
costs are costs associated with securing financing, and may include fees paid to consultants, legal
counsel, or the lender.
SAM considers debt closing costs to be part of the project's total installed cost.
Debt Closing Costs
A dollar amount representing debt closing costs.
Debt Closing Fee
A percentage of the total debt representing debt closing costs.

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Debt Service
Applies to: Leveraged Partnership Flip, Single Owner (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

The Debt Service input variables determine the quantity of cash available to service debt for each year of the
analysis period.
SAM assumes that the debt service coverage ration remains constant over the analysis period.
Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR)
The ratio of annual cash available for debt service to the sum of the annual principal and interest
payment.
Annual cash available for debt service is equal to Earnings Before Interest Taxes Depreciation and
Amortization (EBITDA) shown in the cash flow less cash used to fund the major equipment replacement
reserves.

Tip. DSCRs generally range between 1.40 and 1.50 for proven wind technology. For solar, the ratios are
slightly lower: In the 1.30 to 1.40 range for PV, and perhaps slightly lower for CSP and CPV
technologies.

Debt Service Reserve Account

A debt service reserve account is a fund that may be required by the project debt provider. The account is
funded in Year 0 and earns interest in Years 1 and later at the reserve interest rate specified under Reserves
. Once debt has been repaid, the funds in the account are released to the project cash flow.
Debt Service Reserve Account
The number of months of principal and interest payments in Year 1 whose value is equivalent to the size
of the debt reserve account in Year 0.
SAM calculates the reserve account size in Year 0 based on the principal and interest amounts in Year 1:
Year 0 Debt Service Reserve Amount ($) = [ Year 1 Principal ($/yr) + Year 1 Interest ($/yr) ] × Debt
Service Reserve Account (months) / 12 (months/yr)

Tip. Debt Service Reserve Accounts for utility-scale projects are typically sized to cover 6 to 12 months
of principal and interest payments.

Production Based Incentives (PBI) Available for Debt Service

If you specified one or more production-based incentives on the Payment Incentives page, and the
incentives can be used to service debt, check the box for the incentive.
For example, if you specified a Utility PBI on the Payment Incentives page that can be used to service
debt, check the Utility box.

Sale Leaseback
Applies to: Sale Leaseback (see Financing Overview for descriptions)

The Sale Leaseback input variables determine the developer's operating margin and size of the lease

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payment reserve account. SAM includes the developer's margin as a project expense in the cash flow.
Lessee Operating Margin
The developer's margin in dollars per kilowatt of system nameplate capacity.
Lessee Margin Escalation
An annual escalation rate that applies to the developer's margin. The inflation rate does not apply to the
developer's margin.
Lessor Required Lease Payment Reserve
The size of the lease payment reserve account in months. (In some cases, the tax investor may require
that the developer fund a reserve account.)
Lease Reserve Amount ($) = Lessor Required Lease Payment Reserve (months) / 12 (months/yr) ×
Year 1 Pre-tax Operating Cash Flow ($/yr)
Amount
This amount of the developer's margin.
Amount ($) = Lessee Operating Margin ($/k W) × System Nameplate Capacity (k W)

Cost of Acquiring Financing

Applies to: All Utility Market financing options, except Independent Power Producer (see Financing
Overview for descriptions)

The available variables depend on the financing option as indicated in parentheses below.

The Cost of Acquiring Financing input values represent the cost of securing debt or the participation of tax
investors.
Financing Cost (Single Owner)
The dollar amount associated with acquiring financing.
Development Fee (All options except Single Owner)
A fee paid to the developer in Year 0, specified as a percentage of the total installed cost on the
System Costs page.
Development Fee ($) = Development Fee (%) × Total Installed Cost ($)
Equity Closing Cost (All options except Single Owner)
A dollar amount representing costs associated with securing participation of a tax investor, such as
consulants and legal fees.
Other Financing Costs (All options except Single Owner)
A dollar amount for financing costs not included in the equity closing cost or development fee.
Working Capital Reserve Account Sizing - Months of Operating Costs (All options)
The size of the working capital reserve in months.
Work ing Capital Reserve Amount ($) = Months of Operating Costs (months) / 12 months/yr × Year
1 Total Expenses ($/yr)

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Depreciation
Applies to: All Utility Market options, except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for
descriptions)

The Depreciation options allow you to specify how SAM calculates the depreciation tax deduction and to
specify an optional bonus depreciation.
SAM makes the following simplifying assumptions:
To represent depreciation of assets with different classes or service lives, you can specify an allocation
as a percentage of the total installed cost to each of up to six different depreciation methods.
State and federal depreciable bases are the same, except for bonus depreciation.
Investment-based incentives (IBI) and capacity-based incentives (CBI) reduce the depreciation basis
proportionally.
Depreciation Classes
Each row in the Depreciation Classes box represents a recovery period (5, 15, 20, or 39 years) and
depreciation method (MACRS or Straight Line) based on the guidelines in the United States tax code.
See U.S. Internal Revenue Service Publication 946 for details.
Each depreciation class has an associated value or set of check boxes listed under Federal and State
Allocations, Bonus Depreciation, and ITC Qualification.
Custom Depreciation Schedules
For projects outside of the U.S., or for analyses involving depreciation methods other than IRS methods,
you can specify a custom depreciation schedule. To specify a custom depreciation schedule, click Edit
, and enter a percentage for each year in the depreciation schedule table. (Enter values in the table as
percentages, not decimals: For example type '25' for 25%.)
Federal and State Allocations
For each depreciation class, specify an allocation. SAM assumes that the same depreciation method
and allocations apply to both federal and state taxes.
SAM assumes the half-year convention for all depreciation methods.
To model a project with no depreciation, enter zero for all depreciation methods.

Note. SAM does not prevent you from specifying allocations that total more than 100%. A negative Non-
depreciable value indicates total allocations greater than 100%. Be sure to check that the non-
depreciable value is not negative.

Bonus Depreciation
The bonus depreciation applies in Year 1 as a percentage of the allocations that you specify for the
standard depreciation.
Specify a percentage and check the box for each depreciation allocation that qualifies for the bonus
depreciation.
For example, for a federal bonus depreciation that is 100% of the 5 yr MACRS depreciation class, if you
specified the following depreciation allocations: 80% 5 yr MACRS, 1.5% 15 yr MACRS, and 3% 15 yr
Straight Line, you would enter 100% for Federal, check the 5-yr MACRS box, and clear the remaining
boxes.

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Tip. The Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Jobs Creation Act of 2010 extended
the bonus depreciation incentive through 2010. Projects placed in service in 2011 qualify for 100% bonus
depreciation, while projects placed in service in 2012 qualify for 50% bonus depreciation. Note that
these bonus depreciation provisions are temporary.

ITC Qualification
Check the box for each depreciation allocation that qualifies for investment tax credits (ITC) specified on
the Tax Credit Incentives page.

Major Equipment Replacement Reserves

Applies to: All Utility Market options, except Independent Power Producer (see Financing Overview for
descriptions)

Major equipment replacement reserves are funds that the project sets aside to cover the cost of replacing
equipment during the analysis period. You can specify up to three replacement reserve accounts.
SAM assumes that the cost of each major equipment replacement is capitalized rather than expensed. You
can specify a depreciation schedule for each the major equipment replacement cost.
SAM calculates the inflation-adjusted cost of each major equipment replacement and funds a reserve
account in each of the replacement cycle. At the time of the major equipment replacement, funds are
released from the reserve account in an amount sufficient to cover the expense.
Reserve Account
The name of the reserve account for your reference. SAM reports value associated with each account in
the cash flow and other graphs and tables using the name Reserve Account 1, 2, and 3, regardless of
the name you enter.
Replacement Cost
The cost in Year 1 dollars per kW of nameplate capacity.
Replacement Cost ($) = Replacement Cost (Year 1 $/k W) × Nameplate Capacity
Replacement Frequency
The frequency in years that the replacement cost occurs.
For example, a replacement cost of $10,000 and frequency of 5 years results in an inflation-adjusted
major equipment capital spending amount of $10,000 occurring in Years 5, 10, 15, 20, etc.
Depreciation Treatment For All Capital Expenditure
Specify a federal and state depreciation method for the major equipment replacement cost.

4.5 Tax Credit Incentives

To view the Tax Credit Incentives page, click Tax Credit Incentives in the main windows navigation menu.
The Tax Credit Incentives page allows you to specify parameters of income tax deductions, including
investment tax credits or production tax credits.

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The Tax Credit Incentives page allows you to define the parameters of investment tax credits (ITC) or
production tax credits (PTC) provided by either the federal government, a state government, or both. For
each tax credit that you define, you can specify whether the tax credit amounts are taxable, and how the
tax credits affect the depreciation basis.
A tax credit is an amount that is deducted from the project's income tax. SAM displays tax credits and
income tax payments in the project cash flow and in results graphs and tables.
For a description of tax credits and incentives available to solar and other renewable energy projects in the
United States, see the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at [Link]

Contents
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tax Credit Incentives
page.
Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives explains how to assign incentive
values to individual years instead of using a single value for all years.
Viewing Tax Credits in Results explains where to find results that show the effect of
tax credits on the project metrics and cash flow.

Input Variable Reference

Investment Tax Credit (ITC)
An investment tax credit reduces the project's annual tax liability in year one of the project cash flow. SAM
allows the ITC to be expressed either as a fixed amount or as a percentage of the project's total installed
cost with a maximum limit.
Amount ($)
The fixed dollar amount of the tax credit. A zero indicates no tax credit. A value of zero indicates no tax
credit.
Percentage (%)
The amount of the tax credit expressed as a percentage of the total installed cost displayed on the
system costs page. A value of zero indicates no tax credit.
Maximum ($)
The upper limit of the tax credit in dollars. For tax credits with no limits, type the value 1e+099.
Reduces Depreciation Basis
Applies only to commercial and utility projects when one of the depreciation options is active on the
Financing page.
The check boxes determine whether the basis used to calculate federal depreciation, state
depreciation, or both should be reduced by the tax credit payment amount.
SAM reduces the depreciable base by 50% of the present value of the tax credits over the analysis
period defined on the Financing page.

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Production Tax Credit (PTC)

A production tax credit reduces the project's annual tax liability in year one of the cash flow and subsequent
years up to and including the year specified in the term variable. The PTC is a dollar amount per kilowatt-
hour of annual electric output. If you specify an escalation rate, SAM increases the annual tax credit
amount in years 2 and later in the cash flow by a percentage of the previous year's payment.
Amount ($/kWh)
The amount of the production tax credit as a function of the system's total electrical output in the first
year expressed in dollars per kilowatt-hour of AC output. A zero indicates no tax credit.
Term (years)
The number of years, beginning with year 1 on the project cash flow, that the tax credit applies. For
example, a credit with a 10-year term would apply to years 1 through 10 of the project cash flow. A zero
indicates no tax credit.
Escalation (%/year)
The annual escalation rate that applies to the tax credit. SAM applies the escalation rate to years 2 and
later in the cash flow. For example, for a tax credit with a ten year term and two percent escalation rate,
the tax credit in year 2 would be 2% greater than in year 1, and in year 3, 2% greater than in year 2,
and so on.

Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives

You can specify each incentive as either a single value (amount or percentage) that applies to all years in
the analysis period defined on the Financing page, or you can assign a different value to each year in the
analysis period using an annual schedule.

To specify an incentive using an annual schedule:

1. Note the blue "Value" label on the blue and gray button next to the input variable indicating that the
single value mode is active for the variable.

2. Click the button to change the mode to schedule and activate the Edit button. The button will show
"Sched" in blue indicated that the schedule mode is active for the variable.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, type values for each year in the analysis period. Use the horizontal
scroll bar to move through the years.
SAM will ignore any values for years after the end of the analysis period. You can change the value
in Number of values to a number less than or equal to the analysis period to shorten the length of
the table.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
You can use the Copy and Paste buttons to copy values from the table to your clipboard, or paste
them into the table from the clipboard.

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Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Viewing Tax Credits in Results

The options you select on the Tax Credit Incentives page affect the financial metrics displayed in the
results, including the levelized cost of energy, net present value, and payback.
You can see the tax credit amounts and their impact on income tax and depreciation in graphs on the
Results page and in the project cash flow.

To display tax credit amounts in a graph:

1. After running simulations, click the Graph button.
2. On the Graphing tab, click Add.
3. Choose the simulation for which you want to see tax credit amounts.
4. For X Value, choose Single Value.
5. For Y1 Values, check the name of each tax credit you want to display in the graph.
6. Clear the LCOE check boxes.
SAM displays the graph as you choose graphing options. You can adjust the properties of the
graph as needed.
7. Click Accept to return to return to the main window.

To display tax credit amounts in the project cash flow:

1. After running simulations, click the Graph button.
2. Click the Base Case Cashflow tab to display the cash flow in a table.
3. Either drag the graph area border up or scroll down until the tax credits are visible in the table.
You can also export the base case cash flow to a csv file or to Excel by clicking the Export button.

4.6 Payment Incentives

To view the Payment Incentives page, click Payment Incentives in the main windows navigation menu.
The Payment Incentives page allows you to specify payments made to the project and calculated based on
the total installed cost, system rated capacity, or the system's electricity output.
The Payment Incentives page allows you to define the parameters of investment based incentives (IBI),
capacity based incentives (CBI), or production based incentives (PBI) provided by either the federal or state
government, an electric utility, or other institution.
An incentive payment is an amount paid to the project that contribute's to the projects annual income in one
or more years of the cash flow. SAM displays payment incentives in the project cash flow and in graphs on
the Results page.
For each payment incentive that you define, you can specify whether the incentive payments are taxable,
and how the payments affect the depreciation basis.

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For a description of incentives available to solar and other renewable energy projects in the United States,
see the Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at [Link]

Contents
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tax Credit Incentives
page.
Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives explains how to assign incentive
values to individual years instead of using a single value for all years.
Viewing Tax Credit Incentives in Results explains where to find results that show
the effect of tax credits on the project metrics and cash flow.

Input Variable Reference

Investment Based Incentive (IBI)
An investment-based incentive reduces the project's annual expenditures in year one of the project cash
flow. SAM allows the IBI to be expressed either as a fixed amount or as a percentage of the project's total
installed cost with a maximum limit.
Note that if you specify two incentives from the same source (federal, state, utility, other) as both a fixed
amount and a percentage of the total installed cost, SAM includes both amounts in the total incentive
amount.
Amount ($)
The fixed dollar amount of the incentive. A zero indicates no incentive.
Percentage (%)
The amount of the investment tax credit expressed as a percentage of the total installed cost displayed
on the system costs page. A zero indicates no incentive.
Maximum ($)
The upper limit of the incentive in dollars. For incentives with no limits, type the value 1e+099.

Capacity Based Incentive (CBI)

A capacity-based incentive reduces the project's annual expenditures in year one of the project cash flow.
SAM allows the CBI to be expressed as a function of the system's rated capacity in watts. The system's
rated capacity depends on the technology:
Photovoltaic systems: DC watts of array capacity.
Concentrating solar power systems: AC watts of power block nameplate capacity.
Generic fossil: AC watts of power block nameplate capacity.
Check an option for each capacity based incentive that applies to the project, and enter values to specify
the credit amount, percentage, term, and annual escalation rate as applicable.
Amount ($/W)
The amount of the incentive as a function of the system's nameplate electric capacity expressed in

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dollars per watt. A zero indicates no incentive.
Maximum ($)
The upper limit of the incentive in dollars. For incentives with no limits, type the value 1e+099.

Production Based Incentive (PBI)

A production-based incentive reduces the project's annual tax liability in year one of the cash flow and
subsequent years up to and including the year specified in the term variable. The PBI is a dollar amount per
kilowatt-hour of annual electric output. If you specify an escalation rate, SAM increases the annual incentive
payment amount in years two and later in the cash flow by a percentage of the previous year's payment.
Amount ($/kWh)
The amount of the incentive as a function of the system's total electrical output in the first year
expressed in dollars per kilowatt-hour of AC output. A zero indicates no incentive.
Term (years)
The number of years, beginning with year one of the project cash flow, that the incentive applies. For
example, an incentive with a 10-year term would apply to years one through 10 of the project cash flow.
A zero indicates no incentive.
Escalation (%/year)
The annual escalation rate that applies to the incentive. SAM applies the escalation rate to years two
and later in the cash flow. For example, for an incentive with a ten year term and two percent escalation
rate, the incentive in year two would be two percent greater than in year one, and in year three, two
percent greater than in year two, and so on.

Tax Implications
The check boxes in the Taxable Incentive, Reduces ITC Basis, and Reduces Depreciation Basis columns
determine whether each incentive qualifies as income for tax purposes, reduces the basis used to calculate
the ITC, or reduces the basis used to calculate the depreciation amount, respectively.
Taxable Incentive
Determines whether the incentive payment is subject to federal or state income tax.
When you check a Taxable Incentives check box for an incentive, SAM multiplies the applicable federal
and state tax rate by the incentive amount and adds it to the income tax amount in the appropriate
years of the project cash flow.
The state and federal tax rates are inputs on the Financing page.
Reduces ITC Basis
This option applies only to projects with one or more ITCs specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page.
When you check a Reduces ITC Basis check box for an incentive, SAM subtracts the amount of the
incentive payment from the total installed cost shown on the system costs page before calculating the
ITC amount.
Reduces Depreciation Basis
This option applies only to projects with commercial or utility financing with one or more depreciation
option selected on the financials page.
When you check a Reduces Depreciation Basis check box for an incentive, SAM subtracts 50 percent
of the tax credit amount from the depreciation basis in each applicable year of the project life.

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Using Annual Schedules to Specify Incentives

You can specify each incentive as either a single value (amount or percentage) that applies to all years in
the analysis period defined on the Financing page, or you can assign a different value to each year in the
analysis period using an annual schedule.

To specify an incentive using an annual schedule:

1. Note the blue "Value" label on the blue and gray button next to the input variable indicating that the
single value mode is active for the variable.

2. Click the button to change the mode to schedule and activate the Edit button. The button will show
"Sched" in blue indicated that the schedule mode is active for the variable.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, type values for each year in the analysis period. Use the horizontal
scroll bar to move through the years.
SAM will ignore any values for years after the end of the analysis period. You can change the value
in Number of values to a number less than or equal to the analysis period to shorten the length of
the table.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.
You can use the Copy and Paste buttons to copy values from the table to your clipboard, or paste
them into the table from the clipboard.

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Viewing Incentives in Results

The options you select on the Payment Incentives page affect the financial metrics displayed in the results,
including the levelized cost of energy, net present value, and payback.
You can see the incentive amounts and their impact on income tax and depreciation in graphs on the
Results page and in the project cash flow.

To display incentive amounts in a graph:

1. After running simulations, click the Graph button.
2. On the Graphing tab, click Add.
3. Choose the simulation for which you want to see investment amounts.
4. For X Value, choose Single Value.
5. For Y1 Values, check the name of each incentive you want to display in the graph.
6. Clear the LCOE check boxes.
SAM displays the graph as you choose graphing options. You can adjust the properties of the
graph as needed.

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7. Click Accept to return to return to the main window.

To display incentive amounts in the project cash flow:

1. After running simulations, click the Graph button.
2. Click the Base Case Cashflow tab to display the cash flow in a table.
3. Either drag the graph area border up or scroll down until the incentive payments are visible in the
table.
You can also export the base case cash flow to a csv file or to Excel by clicking the Export button.

4.7 Annual Performance

To view the Annual Performance page, click Annual Performance in the main windows navigation menu.
The Annual Performance page displays input variables that impact the system's total annual electric output.

The two annual performance variables are used by SAM's financial model. The performance model
calculates the hourly system electrical output (thermal output for solar water heating systems) over a single
year and passes the sum of the hourly values to the financial model. The financial model then applies the
availability factor to this total to determine the total annual output for Year one of the project cash flow, and
applies the degradation rate to that value to calculate the Year two output. See below for details.
You can enter the annual performance factors either as a single value, or as a series of values that apply to
each year in the project life. If you assign values to specific years, SAM applies the degradation rate or
availability factor to the year 1 annual output value, not to the previous year's value. See below for details.

Notes.

The simulation output data does not take into consideration the system degradation or availability factor
on the Annual Performance page.

The annual energy quantity value reported in the metrics table and graphs is the Year one value, which
takes the availability factor into account.

Annual System Performance

System Degradation (%)
The system degradation rate can be used to account for annual reduction in electrical output due to
aging system components. SAM applies the degradation rate to the system's total annual electric AC
output in year 2 and later. For example, the default value of 1% for photovoltaic systems results in full
output in year 1, 99% of the year 1 output in year 2, 99% of the year 2 output in year 3, and so on.
If you assign values to specific years using an annual schedule, SAM applies the degradation rate to
the year 1 annual output value, not to the previous year's value.
Availability (%)
The availability factor accounts for downtimes due to forced and scheduled outages. SAM multiplies
each hour's calculated electrical AC output by the system availability factor. The default value of 100%
for photovoltaic systems results in no reduction in output. The default value of 96% for concentrating

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solar power systems results in a 4% reduction in output.

If you assign values to specific years using an annual schedule, SAM applies the availability factor to
the year 1 annual output value. See below for details.
Some input variables allow you to enter either a single value, or a series of values for each year in the
analysis period defined on the Financing page. Examples of these variables are the System Degradation
and Availability variables on the Annual Performance page, operation and maintenance costs on the system
costs pages for each technology, and tax credit and incentives on the Tax Credit Incentives and Payment
Incentives pages.

Annual Schedules
Variables with an annual schedule option have a small Value / Sched button next to the variable label. The
variable's current mode is indicated in blue.
When the word "Value" is highlighted in blue, you define the variable's value as a single number.

You can use an annual schedule to enter annual values either by hand, typing values or pasting values from
a spreadsheet or text file. You can also exchange data from an annual schedule with an Excel worksheet,
see Excel Exchange for details.

Note. When you specify rates using an annual schedule, SAM applies the rate to the year one value.
For example, a degradation rate of 0.5% in year five would result in SAM assigning a value 0.5% greater
than the year one value to year five.

To enter year-by-year values by hand:

1. Click Sched to change the variable's mode from a single value to annual schedule mode. SAM
displays the Edit button.

2. Click Edit to open the Edit Schedule window.

3. In Number of values, type the number of years for which you want to assign values. Typically, this
number should be equal to or less than the number of years in the Analysis Period defined on the
Financing page.

Important Note. If you specify a number greater than the number of years in the analysis period, SAM
ignores any values in the table for years after the end of the analysis period, which does not affect
analysis results. However, if you specify a number less than the analysis period, SAM assigns a zero to
each year after the number of years you specify, which may cause unexpected results.

4. For each year in the schedule, type a value. The value should be in the same units as the variable's
value.
You can also copy a row of values from Excel, or a line of comma separated values from a text file
and click Paste to enter a series of values.
5. Click Accept to return to the Costs page.

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4.8 System Costs

4.8.1 PV System Costs

The PV System Costs page provides access to variables that define the installation and operating costs of
a photovoltaic project. Debt-related and tax costs are specified on the Financing page.
To view the PV System Costs page, select a photovoltaic technology, and click PV System Costs on the
main window's navigation menu. Note that for the PV System Costs page to be available, the technology
option in the Technology and Market window must be Photovoltaics - SAM Performance Models or
Photovoltaics - PVWatts Performance Model, and the financing option must be something other than No
Financials.
SAM uses the variables on the PV System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and annual
operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics.
Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds
contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.
SAM provides the categories under Direct Capital Costs and Indirect Capital Costs for your convenience
to help keep track of project installation costs. Only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow
calculations, so you can assign capital costs to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense
for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of designing the array to the module cost
category or to the engineering category with equivalent results. After you assign costs to the categories,
you should verify that the total installed cost value is what you expect. SAM accounts for the total installed
cost in Year 0 of the project cash flow.
The Operation and Maintenance Costs categories are where you specify recurring project costs. SAM
reports these annual costs in the project cash flow under the Operating Expenses heading.

Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant
to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. For more information see the SAM
website, [Link]

Direct Capital Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Module ($/Wdc or $/Unit)

For the Component-based Photovoltaic model, the module cost is expressed per unit or per DC Watt:
Dollars per DC watt multiplied by Nameplate Capacity (at reference conditions) on the Array
page, or
Dollars per unit multiplied by Total Modules on the Array page.
For the PVWatts System Model, the module cost is expressed per unit or per DC Watt:
Dollars per watt multiplied by Nameplate Capacity on the PVWatts Solar Array page, or

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Dollars per unit, where the number of modules is assumed to be one.

Inverter ($/Wac or $/Unit)
For the Component-based Photovoltaic model, the cost of inverters in the system is expressed in
dollars per AC Watt or dollars per inverter:
Dollars per AC watt multiplied by Total Inverter Capacity on the Array page, or
Dollars per unit multiplied by Number of Inverters in the Actual Layout column on the Array page.
For the PVWatts System Model, the inverter cost is either dollars per watt or dollars per inverter:
Dollars per watt multiplied by the product of DC Rating and DC to AC Derate Factor on the
PVWatts Solar Array page, or
Dollars per unit where the number of inverters is assumed to be one.
The three other direct capital cost categories, Balance of system, equipment, Installation labor, and
Installer margin and overhead can be specified using three units. SAM calculates the total amount for
each category as shown below.
$
A fixed cost in dollars.
$/Wdc
A cost proportional to the system's DC nameplate capacity, equal to the Nameplate Capacity on the
Array page for the component-based model, or the DC Rating on the PVWatts Solar Array page for the
PVWatts model.
$/m2
Applies only to the component-based model. A cost proportional to the total module area of the array in
square meters, equal to the Total Area on the Array page. This option is not active for the PVWatts
model.
Total
For each category, the total is the sum of the three units: Total = $ + $/Wdc × Nameplate Capacity
(Wdc) + $/m2 × Total Area (m2)
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the module, inverter, balance of system, installation labor, and installer
margin and overhead costs that you can use to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost
estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of module, inverter, balance of system, installation labor, installer margin and overhead costs,
and contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

The five indirect cost categories, Permitting, Environmental Studies, Engineering, Grid

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interconnection, Land, and Land preparation are each calculated as the sum of the three values
expressed with the following units:
% of Direct Cost
A percentage of the Total Direct Cost value shown under Direct Capital Costs.
Cost $/Wdc
A cost proportional to the system's DC nameplate capacity, equal to the Nameplate Capacity on the
Array page for the component-based model, or the DC Rating on the PVWatts Solar Array page for the
PVWatts model.
Fixed Cost
A fixed cost in dollars.
Total
For each category, the total is the sum of the three units: Total = % of Direct Cost × Total Direct
Cost ($) + Cost $/Wdc × Nameplate Capacity (Wdc) + Fixed Cost ($).
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)
The sum of the five indirect cost categories and the sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow in Years 1 and
later..
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For

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an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu.
The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems. When the fossil
fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage page is greater than zero, the systems may consume fuel
for backup energy.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion.

Specifying O&M Costs in Specific Years

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the
System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule
of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period.
Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that
do not recur on a regular annual basis.
You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey
and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A
blue highlighted “Value” indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted “Sched”
indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule.
For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category
as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For
a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years
seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you
could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can
see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses.
SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy
and net present value.

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Notes.

If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate
any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates
salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page.

Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and
escalation rates to values in annual schedules.

The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You
can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories.

To assign component replacement costs to particular years:

1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue
indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.

In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow.
2. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with
an Edit button.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and
type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no
annual costs.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Because you must specify an O&M cost category as either an annual cost or annual schedule, to assign
both a recurring annual fixed cost and periodic replacement cost, you must type the recurring cost in each
year of the annual schedule, and for years with replacement costs, type the sum of the recurring and
replacement costs.

4.8.2 Trough System Costs

To view the Trough System Costs page, click Trough System Costs on the main window's navigation
menu. Note that for the empirical trough input pages to be available, the technology option in the
Technology and Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Empirical Trough System.

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Contents
Overview describes the trough system costs.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Trough System Costs
page.
Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual
schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the
project cash flow.
About the Trough System Default Cost Assumptions describes the assumptions
and sources of the default parabolic trough system costs.

Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Trough System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and
annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the
Metrics table on the Results page.
Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs
to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could
assign the cost of designing the solar field to the solar field cost category or to the engineer-procure-
construct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the
different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify
that the total installed costs value is what you expect.
Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds
contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.

Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant
to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending
on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar
markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM
website, [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Direct Capital Costs
A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Site Improvements ($/m 2)

A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to site preparation and other
equipment not included in the solar field cost category.

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Solar Field ($/m 2)
A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to installation of the solar
field, including labor and equipment.
HTF System ($/m 2)
A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to installation of the heat
transfer fluid pumps and piping, including labor and equipment.
Storage ($/kWht)
Cost per thermal megawatt-hour of storage capacity to account for expenses related to installation of
the thermal storage system, including equipment and labor.
Fossil Backup ($/kWe)
Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of a fossil
backup system, including equipment and labor.
Power Plant ($/kWe)
Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of the
power block, including equipment and labor.
Balance of Plant ($/kWe)
Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for additional costs.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, and
power plant costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, power plant costs, and
contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

EPC and Owner Costs (% and $)

EPC (engineer-procure-construct) and owner costs are associated with the design and construction of
the project. SAM calculates the total cost as the sum of the Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Typical costs that may be appropriate to include in the EPC and Owner category are: Permitting,
royalty payments, consulting, management or legal fees, geotechnical and environmental surveys,
interconnection costs, spare parts inventories, commissioning costs, and the owner's engineering and
project development activities.
Use the Land category described below for land costs, and inputs on the Financing page for financing
costs.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).

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 System Costs 303

Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
Land (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a non-fixed cost and a
fixed cost.
SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in
the land cost calculation.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)
The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.

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For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the
System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule
of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period.
Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that
do not recur on a regular annual basis.
You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey
and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A
blue highlighted “Value” indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted “Sched”
indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule.
For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category
as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For
a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years
seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you
could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can
see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses.
SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy
and net present value.

June 2011
 System Costs 305

Notes.

If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate
any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates
salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page.

Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and
escalation rates to values in annual schedules.

The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You
can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories.

To assign component replacement costs to particular years:

1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue
indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.

In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow.
2. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with
an Edit button.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and
type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no
annual costs.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Because you must specify an O&M cost category as either an annual cost or annual schedule, to assign
both a recurring annual fixed cost and periodic replacement cost, you must type the recurring cost in each
year of the annual schedule, and for years with replacement costs, type the sum of the recurring and
replacement costs.

About the Trough System Default Cost Assumptions

The default values on the Trough System Costs page reflect the National Renewable Energy Laboratory's
best estimate of representative system costs for the United States in the second quarter of 2009. The
values are based on a cost study for 100-MWe reference plant cost performed by the WorleyParsons Group
under NREL contract KAXL-9-99205-00, and on conversations with developers and industry insiders. The
costs are composite values and do not represent a specific location or market within the United States.

Note. Always review all of the inputs for your SAM project to determine whether they are appropriate for
your analysis.

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Major points of note include:
Site improvement cost estimates have been increased from earlier estimates to better account for the
cost of access roads, drainage, and land grading.
The HTF System category includes the cost of the heat transfer fluid (HTF) and header piping costs.
The HTF and header piping account for most of the HTF System category.
The Power Plant cost for the dry-cooled case is higher than for the wet-cooled case to account for the
higher cost of an air-cooled condenser compared to a cooling tower.
The Storage cost estimate is based on a two-tank molten salt system, and accounts for the cost of
nitrate salts in 2009
Contingency has been rounded to 10%
The operation and maintenance cost category, Variable Cost by Generation includes the cost of water
for wet-cooled case.

Table 19. Comparison of Trough System Costs in SAM versions 3.0 (June 2009) and 2009
(October 2009).
Parabolic Trough Costs SAM 3.0 SAM 2009 units
Site Improvements 3 20 $/m2
Solar Field 300 350 $/m2
HTF System 150 50
($/kWe) ($/m2)
Storage 40 70 $/kWht
Fossil Backup 0 0 $/kWe
Power Block (wet-cooled) 850 880 $/kWe
Power Block (dry-cooled) 850 960 $/kWe
Contingency 8.85 10 %
Engineer, procure, 16 15 %
construct
Project, land, 3.5 3.5 %
management
Sales tax applies to 80 80 %
Fossil Fuel Cost 0 0 $/MMBTU
O&M Fixed Annual cost 0 0 $/yr
O&M Fixed cost by 50 80 $/kW-yr
capacity
O&M Variable cost by 0.7 3 $/MWh
gen.

Note. SAM does not account for the capacity value of storage. Some utilities apply a capacity credit to
systems with storage that can affect overall project economics.

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 System Costs 307

4.8.3 Tower System Costs

To view the Tower System Costs page, click Tower System Costs on the main window's navigation menu.
Note that for the power tower input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and
Market window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Power Tower System.

Contents
Overview describes the Tower System Costs page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Tower System Costs
page.
Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual
schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the
project cash flow.

Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Tower System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and
annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the
Metrics table on the Results page.
Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs
to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could
assign the cost of designing the solar field to the solar field cost category or to the engineer-procure-
construct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the
different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify
that the total installed costs value is what you expect.
Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds
contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.

Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant
to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending
on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar
markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM
website, [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Direct Capital Costs
A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

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Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Site Improvements ($/m 2)

A cost per square meter of total reflective area from the Heliostat Field page to account for expenses
related to site preparation and other equipment not included in the heliostat field cost category.
Heliostat Field ($/m 2)
A cost per square meter of total reflective area from the Heliostat Field page to account for expenses
related to installation of the heliostats, including heliostat parts, field wiring, drives, labor, and
equipment.
Balance of Plant ($/kWe)
A cost per electric kilowatt of power cycle nameplate capacity from the Power Cycle page expenses
related to installation of the balance-of-plant components and controls, and construction of buildings,
including labor and equipment.
Power Block ($/kWe)
A cost per electric kilowatt of power cycle nameplate capacity from the Power Cycle page expenses
related to installation of the power block components, including labor and equipment. The Power Block
and Balance of Plant costs are rolled together into a single number for calculation purposes.
Fossil Backup ($/kWe)
Cost per electric kilowatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of a fossil
backup system, including equipment and labor.
Storage ($/kWht)
Cost per thermal megawatt-hour of storage capacity from the Thermal Storage page to account for the
installation of a thermal energy storage system, including equipment and labor.
Fixed Solar Field Cost ($)
An additional fixed cost in dollars to include as a direct cost that is not accounted for by any of the
above categories.
Fixed Tower Cost ($)
A fixed cost to account for tower construction, materials and labor costs. The fixed tower cost serves
as the multiplier in the tower cost scaling equation shown below.
Tower Cost Scaling Exponent
SAM uses the tower cost in the optimization calculations. The tower cost scaling exponent defines the
nonlinear relationship between tower cost and tower height. See Total Tower Cost below.
Total Tower Cost ($)
Total Tower Cost = Fixed Tower Costs x exp (Tower Height x Tower Cost Scaling Exponent)
Receiver Reference Cost ($)
The cost per receiver reference area to account for receiver installation costs, including labor and
equipment.
Receiver Reference Area (m 2)
The receiver area on which the receiver reference cost is based.

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 System Costs 309

Receiver Cost Scaling Exponent

SAM uses the receiver cost in the optimization calculations. The receiver cost scaling exponent defines
the nonlinear relationship between receiver cost and receiver area based on the reference cost
conditions provided.
Total Receiver Cost ($)
Receiver Cost = Receiver Reference Cost x (Receiver Area / Receiver Reference Area ) ^ Receiver Cost
Scaling Exponent.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, heliostat field, balance of plant, power block, storage
system, fixed solar field, total tower, and total receiver costs to account for expected uncertainties in
direct cost estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of improvements, site improvements, heliostat field, balance of plant, power block, storage
system, fixed solar field, total tower, total receiver, and contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

EPC and Owner Costs (% and $)

EPC (engineer-procure-construct) and owner costs are associated with the design and construction of
the project. SAM calculates the total cost as the sum of the Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Typical costs that may be appropriate to include in the EPC and Owner category are: Permitting,
royalty payments, consulting, management or legal fees, geotechnical and environmental surveys,
interconnection costs, spare parts inventories, commissioning costs, and the owner's engineering and
project development activities.
Use the Land category described below for land costs, and inputs on the Financing page for financing
costs.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
Land (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a non-fixed cost and a
fixed cost.
SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in
the land cost calculation.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).

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Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)
The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.

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 System Costs 311

Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)

A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

Note. For information on water consumption and other operation and maintenance costs and
requirements for concentrating parabolic trough systems, see the Troughnet website: [Link]
gov/csp/troughnet/power_plant_systems.html. For information on operation and maintenance costs for
photovoltaic systems, see the California Energy Commission's online Distributed Energy Resource
guide [Link]

Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the
System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule
of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period.
Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that
do not recur on a regular annual basis.
You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey
and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A
blue highlighted “Value” indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted “Sched”
indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule.
For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category
as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For
a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years
seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you
could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can
see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses.
SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy
and net present value.

Notes.

If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate
any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates
salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page.

Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and
escalation rates to values in annual schedules.

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The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You
can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories.

To assign component replacement costs to particular years:

1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue
indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.

In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow.
2. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with
an Edit button.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and
type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no
annual costs.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Because you must specify an O&M cost category as either an annual cost or annual schedule, to assign
both a recurring annual fixed cost and periodic replacement cost, you must type the recurring cost in each
year of the annual schedule, and for years with replacement costs, type the sum of the recurring and
replacement costs.

4.8.4 Dish System Costs

To view the Dish System Costs page, click Dish System Costs on the main window's navigation menu.
Note that for the dish input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market
window must be Concentrating Solar Power - Dish Stirling System.

Contents
Overview describes the Dish System Costs page.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Dish System Costs
page.
Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual
schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the
project cash flow.

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 System Costs 313

Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Dish System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and
annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the
Metrics table on the Results page.
Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs
to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could
assign the cost of designing the solar field to the site improvements cost category or to the engineer-
procure-construct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the
different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify
that the total installed costs value is what you expect.
Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds
contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.

Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant
to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending
on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar
markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM
website, [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Direct Capital Costs
A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Site Improvements ($/m2)

A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to site preparation and other
equipment not included in the solar field cost category.
Collector Cost (Projected Area) ($/m2)
A cost per square meter of projected mirror area from the Collector page to account for expenses
related to installation of the collectors, including labor and equipment.
Receiver Cost ($/kW)
A cost per kW of engine rated capacity from the Stirling Engine page to account for expenses related to
installation of the receiver, including labor and equipment.
Engine Cost ($/kW)
Cost per kW of engine rated capacity from the Stirling Engine page to account for expenses related to
installation of the Stirling engine components, including labor and equipment.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, and

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power plant costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of site improvements, collector cost, receiver cost, engine cost, and contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

EPC and Owner Costs (% and $)

EPC (engineer-procure-construct) and owner costs are associated with the design and construction of
the project. SAM calculates the total cost as the sum of the Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Typical costs that may be appropriate to include in the EPC and Owner category are: Permitting,
royalty payments, consulting, management or legal fees, geotechnical and environmental surveys,
interconnection costs, spare parts inventories, commissioning costs, and the owner's engineering and
project development activities.
Use the Land category described below for land costs, and inputs on the Financing page for financing
costs.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
Land (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a non-fixed cost and a
fixed cost.
SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in
the land cost calculation.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.

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 System Costs 315

Total Indirect Cost ( $)

The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

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Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the
System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule
of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period.
Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that
do not recur on a regular annual basis.
You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey
and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A
blue highlighted “Value” indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted “Sched”
indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule.
For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category
as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For
a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years
seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you
could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can
see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses.
SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy
and net present value.

Notes.

If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate
any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates
salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page.

Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and
escalation rates to values in annual schedules.

The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You
can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories.

To assign component replacement costs to particular years:

1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue
indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.

In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow.
2. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with
an Edit button.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and
type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.

June 2011
 System Costs 317

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no
annual costs.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Because you must specify an O&M cost category as either an annual cost or annual schedule, to assign
both a recurring annual fixed cost and periodic replacement cost, you must type the recurring cost in each
year of the annual schedule, and for years with replacement costs, type the sum of the recurring and
replacement costs.

4.8.5 Generic Solar System Costs

Direct Capital Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Site Improvements ($/m 2)

A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to site preparation and other
equipment not included in the solar field cost category.
Solar Field ($/m 2)
A cost per square meter of solar field area to account for expenses related to installation of the solar
field, including labor and equipment.
Storage ($/kWht)
Cost per thermal megawatt-hour of storage capacity to account for expenses related to installation of
the thermal storage system, including equipment and labor.
Fossil Backup ($/kWe)
Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of a fossil
backup system, including equipment and labor.
Power Plant ($/kWe)
Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for the installation of the
power block, including equipment and labor.
Balance of Plant ($/kWe)
Cost per electric megawatt of power block nameplate capacity to account for additional costs.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the site improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, and
power plant costs to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates.

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Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of improvements, solar field, HTF system, storage, fossil backup, power plant costs, and
contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

EPC and Owner Costs (% and $)

EPC (engineer-procure-construct) and owner costs are associated with the design and construction of
the project. SAM calculates the total cost as the sum of the Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Typical costs that may be appropriate to include in the EPC and Owner category are: Permitting,
royalty payments, consulting, management or legal fees, geotechnical and environmental surveys,
interconnection costs, spare parts inventories, commissioning costs, and the owner's engineering and
project development activities.
Use the Land category described below for land costs, and inputs on the Financing page for financing
costs.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
Land (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, which SAM calculates as the sum of a non-fixed cost and a
fixed cost.
SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in
the land cost calculation.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.

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 System Costs 319

Total Indirect Cost ( $)

The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

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4.8.6 Generic System Costs

To view the Fossil System Costs page, click Fossil System Costs on the main window's navigation menu.
Note that for the generic fossil system input pages to be available, the technology option in the Technology
and Market window must be Generic Fossil System.

Contents
Overview describes the Fossil System Costs page and explains where to find more
information.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Fossil System Costs
page.
Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs explains how to use annual
schedules to assign operation and maintenance costs to particular years in the
project cash flow.

Overview
SAM uses the variables on the Fossil System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and
annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics reported in the
Metrics table on the Results page.
Because only the Total Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs
to the different cost categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could
assign the cost of designing the power plant to the direct plant cost category or to the engineer-procure-
construct category with equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the
different costs, but do not affect the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify
that the total installed costs value is what you expect.
Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds
contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.

Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant
to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will vary depending
on the market, technology and geographic location of a project. Because of price volatility in solar
markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date. For more information see the SAM
website, [Link]

Input Variable Reference

Direct Capital Costs
A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

June 2011
 System Costs 321

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

System size (kW)

The Nameplate Capacity from the Generic Plant page.
Cost per watt ($/W)
A cost per Watt of nameplate capacity.
Fixed Plant Cost ($)
A fixed dollar amount.
Non-fixed System Cost ($)
The product of the Cost per Watt cost category and the nameplate capacity.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the fixed plant cost and non-fixed system cost to account for expected uncertainties in
direct cost estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of fixed plant cost, non-fixed system cost, and contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $)

Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the
design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a
fixed cost.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Project, Land, Miscellaneous (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum
of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.

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The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)
The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,

June 2011
 System Costs 323

depending on the option chosen.

Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

Entering Periodic Operation and Maintenance Costs

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the
System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule
of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period.
Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that
do not recur on a regular annual basis.
You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey
and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A
blue highlighted “Value” indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted “Sched”
indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule.
For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category
as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For
a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years
seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you
could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can
see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses.
SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy
and net present value.

Notes.

If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate
any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates
salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page.

Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and
escalation rates to values in annual schedules.

The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You
can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories.

To assign component replacement costs to particular years:

1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue
indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.

In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow.
2. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with

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an Edit button.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and
type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no
annual costs.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Because you must specify an O&M cost category as either an annual cost or annual schedule, to assign
both a recurring annual fixed cost and periodic replacement cost, you must type the recurring cost in each
year of the annual schedule, and for years with replacement costs, type the sum of the recurring and
replacement costs.

4.8.7 SWH System Costs

To view the SWH System Costs page, click SWH System Costs on the main window's navigation menu.
Note that for the solar water heating system input pages to be available, the technology option in the
Technology and Market window must be Solar Water Heating.

Contents
Overview describes the purpose of the SWH System Costs page and the cost
variable categories.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the SWH System Costs
page.
Entering Periodic Costs explains how to use annual schedules to assign operation
and maintenance costs to particular years in the project cash flow.

Overview
SAM uses the variables on the SWH System Costs page to calculate the project investment cost and
annual operating costs reported in the project cash flow and used to calculate cost metrics.
Variable values in boxes with white backgrounds are values that you can edit. Boxes with blue backgrounds
contain calculated values or values from other pages that SAM displays for your information.
The SWH System Costs page is divided into four main categories. The first two, Direct Capital Costs and
Indirect Capital Costs, are summed in the third category, Total Installed Costs. Because only the Total
Installed Cost value affects the cash flow calculations, you can assign capital costs to the different cost
categories in whatever way makes sense for your analysis. For example, you could assign the cost of

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designing the collector to the collector cost category or to the engineer-procure-construct category with
equivalent results. The categories are provided to help you keep track of the different costs, but do not affect
the economic calculations. After assigning costs to the categories, verify that the total installed costs value
is what you expect. The fourth category of costs covers Operation and Maintenance.

Note: The cost values in the sample files are intended to illustrate SAM's use. The cost data are meant
to be realistic, but not to represent actual costs for a specific project. Actual costs will, of course, vary.
Because of price volatility in solar markets, the cost data in the sample files is likely to be out of date.

Input Variable Reference

Direct Capital Costs
A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Collector Cost ($/m 2, $/Unit, or $/W)

The cost of collectors in the system. You can either include labor costs for collector installation in the
collector cost, or account for it separately using the installation cost category. The total collector cost
is calculated as either:
Dollars per square meter multiplied by collector area on the SWH System page, or
Dollars per unit, representing the total collector cost, or
Dollars per thermal watt of collector capacity multiplied by the nameplate capacity on the SWH
System page.
Storage Cost ($/m 3 or $/Unit)
The cost of the solar storage tanks. The total storage cost is either:
Dollars per cubic meters multiplied by the storage volume on the SWH System page, or
Dollars per unit, representing the total storage cost.
Balance of System ($)
A fixed cost that can be used to account for costs not included in the collector and storage cost
categories, for example, the mounting racks and piping.
Installation Cost ($)
A fixed cost that can be used to account for labor or other costs not included in the other cost
categories.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the collector, storage, balance of system, and installation costs to account
for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of collector, storage, balance of system, installation, and contingency costs.

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Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $)

Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the
design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a
fixed cost.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Project, Land, Maintenance (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum
of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost.
SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in
the land cost calculation.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)
The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits

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and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

Entering Periodic Costs

SAM allows you to specify any of the four operation and maintenance (O&M) cost categories on the
System Costs page either as a single annual cost, or using a table of values to specify an annual schedule
of costs. An annual schedule makes it possible to assign costs to particular years in the analysis period.
Annual schedules can be used to account for component replacement costs and other periodic costs that
do not recur on a regular annual basis.
You choose whether to specify an O&M cost as a single annual value or an annual schedule with the grey

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and blue button next to each variable. SAM uses the option indicated by the blue highlight on the button: A
blue highlighted “Value” indicates a single, regularly occurring annual value. A blue highlighted “Sched”
indicates that the value is specified as an annual schedule.
For example, to account for component replacement costs, you can specify the fixed annual cost category
as an annual schedule, and assign the cost of replacing or rebuilding the component to particular years. For
a 30-year project using a component with a seven-year life, you would assign a replacement cost to years
seven, 14, and 21. Or, to account for expected improvements in the component's reliability in the future, you
could assign component replacement costs in years seven, 17, and 27. After running simulations, you can
see the replacement costs in the project cash flow in the appropriate column under Operating Expenses.
SAM accounts for the operating costs in the other economic metrics including the levelized cost of energy
and net present value.

Notes.

If you use the annual schedule option to specify equipment replacement costs, SAM does not calculate
any residual or salvage value of system components based on the annual schedule. SAM calculates
salvage value separately, using the salvage value you specify on the Financing page.

Dollar values in the annual schedule are in nominal or current dollars. SAM does not apply inflation and
escalation rates to values in annual schedules.

The following procedure describes how to define the fixed annual cost category as an annual schedule. You
can use the same procedure for any of the other operation and maintenance cost categories.

To assign component replacement costs to particular years:

1. In the Fixed Annual Cost category, note that the "Value" label of the grey and blue button is blue
indicating that the single value mode is active for the variable.

In this case, SAM would assign an annual cost of $284 to each year in the project cash flow.
2. Click the button so that "Sched" label is highlighted in blue. SAM replaces the variable's value with
an Edit button.

3. Click Edit.
4. In the Edit Schedule window, use the vertical scroll bar to find the year of the first replacement, and
type the replacement cost in current or constant dollars for that year.
To delete a value, select it and press the Delete key on your keyboard.

Note. You must type a value for each year. If you delete a value, SAM will clear the cell, and you must
type a number in the cell or SAM will consider the schedule to be invalid. Type a zero for years with no
annual costs.

5. When you have finished editing the schedule, click Accept.

Because you must specify an O&M cost category as either an annual cost or annual schedule, to assign
both a recurring annual fixed cost and periodic replacement cost, you must type the recurring cost in each
year of the annual schedule, and for years with replacement costs, type the sum of the recurring and
replacement costs.

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4.8.8 Small Scale Wind Capital Costs

Direct Capital Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Cost of all Turbines

The number of turbines from the Small Scale Wind System page multiplied by the single turbine cost.
Installation
Installation labor or other costs calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in dollars
per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost in
dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Small
Scale Wind System page.
Balance of System
Costs not included in other categories calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in
dollars per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost
in dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Small
Scale Wind System page.

Single Turbine Cost

The cost of a single turbine. SAM uses this value to calculate the cost of all turbines.
Fixed Cost per Turbine
A cost specified in dollars per unit of a single turbine.
Cost by Capacity
A cost specified in dollars per kilowatt of rated capacity.
Single Turbine Cost
Sum of the cost per turbine and cost by capacity values, assuming the turbine capacity is the value
shown as the nameplate capacity on the Small Scale Wind System page.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the cost of all turbines, installation, and balance of system costs that you
can use to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of cost of all turbines, installation, balance of system, and contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

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Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $)

Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the
design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a
fixed cost.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Project, Land, Miscellaneous (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum
of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost.
SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in
the land cost calculation.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)
The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.

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 System Costs 331

Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)

Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for
inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

4.8.9 Wind Farm Costs

Direct Capital Costs

A direct capital cost represents an expense for a specific piece of equipment or installation service that
applies in year zero of the cash flow.

Note: Because SAM uses only the Total Installed Cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different direct capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

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Cost of all Turbines
The number of turbines from the Wind Farm Specifications page multiplied by the single turbine cost.
Installation
Installation labor or other costs calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in dollars
per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost in
dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Wind
Farm Specifications page.
Balance of System
Costs not included in other categories calculated as the sum costs specified as a cost per unit cost in
dollars per turbine, cost per capacity cost in dollars per kilowatt of total rated capacity, and a fixed cost
in dollars. SAM assumes that the capacity is the value specified as the nameplate capacity on Wind
Farm Specifications page.

Single Turbine Cost

The cost of a single turbine. SAM uses this value to calculate the cost of all turbines.
Fixed Cost per Turbine
A cost specified in dollars per unit of a single turbine.
Cost by Capacity
A cost specified in dollars per kilowatt of rated capacity.
Single Turbine Cost
Sum of the cost per turbine and cost by capacity values, assuming the turbine capacity is the value
shown as the nameplate capacity on the Wind Farm Specifications page.
Contingency (%)
A percentage of the sum of the cost of all turbines, installation, and balance of system costs that you
can use to account for expected uncertainties in direct cost estimates.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of cost of all turbines, installation, balance of system, and contingency costs.

Indirect Capital Costs

An indirect cost is typically one that cannot be identified with a specific piece of equipment or installation
service.

Note: Because SAM uses only the total installed cost value in cash flow calculations, how you
distribute costs among the different indirect capital cost categories does not affect the final results.

Engineer, Procure, Construct (% and $)

Engineer-procure-construct costs, sometimes abbreviated as EPC costs, are costs associated with the
design and construction of the project, which SAM calculates as the sum of a "non-fixed cost" and a
fixed cost.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.

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Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.

The total engineer-procure-construct cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Project, Land, Miscellaneous (% and $)
Costs associated with land purchases, permitting, and other costs which SAM calculates as the sum
of a "non-fixed cost" and a fixed cost.
SAM does not use the land area value shown on the solar field page for trough and tower systems in
the land cost calculation.
% of Direct Cost is a value that you type as a percentage of Total Direct Cost (under Direct Capital
Cost).
Non-fixed Cost is the product of % of Direct Cost and Total Direct Cost.
Fixed Cost is a value that you type as a fixed amount in dollars.
The total project-land-miscellaneous cost is the sum of Non-fixed Cost and Fixed Cost.
Sales Tax (%)
The sales tax percentage is the percentage of the total direct cost that is subjected to sales tax.
SAM calculates the total sales tax by multiplying the sales tax rate specified on the Financing page by
the percentage of direct costs you specify on the System Costs page: Total Sales Tax = Sales Tax
Rate × Percentage of Direct Cost × Direct Cost.
The total sales tax is a cost included in the total installed cost, which applies in Year 0 of the project
cash flow. For projects with commercial and utility financing, the sales tax amount is deducted from
federal and state income tax in Year 1.
Total Indirect Cost ( $)
The sum of engineer-procure-construct costs, project-land-miscellaneous costs, and sales tax.

Total Installed Cost

The total installed cost is the project's investment cost that applies in year zero of the project cash flow.
SAM uses this value to calculate loan amounts and debt interest payments based on inputs on the
Financing page, and to calculate tax credit and incentive payment amounts for incentive based tax credits
and incentives defined on the Tax Credit Incentives page and Payment Incentives pages.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of total direct cost and total indirect cost.
Total Installed Cost per Capacity ($/Wdc or $/kW)
Total installed cost divided by the total system rated or nameplate capacity. This value is provided for
reference only. SAM does not use it in cash flow calculations.

Operation and Maintenance Costs

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs represent annual expenditures on equipment and services that
occur after the system is installed. SAM allows you to enter O&M costs in three ways: Fixed annual, fixed
by capacity, and variable by generation. O&M costs are reported on the project cash flow.
For each O&M cost category, you can specify an optional annual Escalation Rate to represent an
expected annual increase in O&M cost above the annual inflation rate specified on the Financing page. For
an escalation rate of zero, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for inflation.
For a non-zero escalation rate, the O&M cost in years two and later is the year one cost adjusted for

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inflation plus escalation.
For expenses such as component replacements that occur in particular years, you can use an annual
schedule to assign costs to individual years. See below for details.
Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr)
A fixed annual cost that applied to each year in the project cash flow.
Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/kW-yr)
A fixed annual cost proportional to the system's rated or nameplate capacity.
Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh)
A variable annual cost proportional to the system's total annual electrical output in AC megawatt-hours.
The annual energy output depends on either the performance model's calculated first year value and the
degradation rate specified on the Annual Performance page, or on an annual schedule of costs,
depending on the option chosen.
Fossil Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu)
The cost per million British thermal units for fuel. SAM uses the conversion factor 1 MWh = 3.413
MMBtu. The fuel cost only applies to generic fossil, parabolic trough, and power tower systems.
Although the photovoltaic and dish-Stirling models ignore the fuel cost input variable, you should specify
a value of zero for the variable to avoid confusion. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for either of the parabolic trough models or the power tower model is greater than zero,
the systems may consume fuel for backup energy.)

4.8.10 Geothermal System Costs

For descriptions of how geothermal system costs are specified in the GETEM model, see the following
sections of the GETEM User's Manual (Volume II), available at [Link]
getem_manuals.html:
Binary
Section 4.1.c on page A-11
Section 4.1.g on page A-15
Flash
Section 5.2.a on page A-20

4.8.11 Co-Production Costs

For questions about the Co-Production model please email SAM support at [Link]@[Link].

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4.9 Energy Payment Dispatch

The Energy Payment Dispatch page allows you to specify a set of energy payment allocation factors for
projects with Independent Power Producer financing.
The energy payment allocation factors are a set of multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the electricity price
based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. The allocation factors work in conjunction with
the assumptions on the Financing page.

Energy Dispatch Schedule

You can either choose a pre-defined set of energy payment allocation factors from SAM's library of factors,
or specify your own.
Current dispatch schedule
When you choose a set of factors from the library, the current dispatch schedule shows the name of
the set of factors.
When you specify your own set of factors, it shows "No library match."
Dispatch schedule library
Click Dispatch schedule library to choose a set of energy payment allocation factors from SAM's
library of factors.
Payment Allocation Factor
The energy payment allocation factors are a set of up to nine multipliers that SAM uses to adjust the
electricity price based on time of day and month of year for utility projects. Each factor is associated
with a period number, which represents a time periods indicated on the weekday and weekend
schedule matrices.

Note. For utility bid price projects with no energy payment allocation factors, set the value for all periods
to one.

Weekday Schedule, Weekend Schedule

The weekday and weekend matrices allow you to associate a period with a time of day and month of
year. To use the matrices, you draw rectangles on the matrix with your mouse, and type a number with
your keyboard for the period that applies to the times represented by the rectangles.
SAM arbitrarily defines the first day of time series data (the first 24 hours for hourly data) to be Monday
on January 1, and assigns the remaining days of the year accordingly. SAM assumes that weekdays
include Monday through Friday, and that weekends include Saturday and Sunday. SAM does not
account for holidays or other special days. It also does not account for leap years, and does not include
a day for February 29.

To specify a weekday or weekend schedule:

1. Assign values as appropriate to each of the up to nine periods.
2. Use your mouse to draw a rectangle in the matrix for the first block of time that applies to period 2.

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3. Type the number 2.

4. SAM shades displays the period number in the squares that make up the rectangle, and shades
the rectangle to match the color of the period.

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5. Repeat Steps 2-4 for each of the remaining periods that apply to the schedule.

4.10 Electric Load

The Electric Load page allows you to specify the electric load for systems with either the Residential or
Commercial financing option. You only need to specify an electric load if you are modeling a residential or
commercial system with tiered rates or demand charges specified on the Utility Rate page.
To view the Electric Load page, click Electric Load on the main window's navigation menu. Note that for
the Electric Load page to be available, the technology option in the Technology and Market window must be
Photovoltaics - Component-based Models, Photovoltaics - PVWatts Performance Model, or Small Scale
Wind.

Contents
Overview describes options for specifying the electric load.
Input Variable Reference describes the input variables on the Electric Load page.
Working with Time Series Load Data explains how to import load data from a
properly formatted text file, or how to paste load data from your computer's
clipboard.
Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles explains how to define daily load profiles for
each month of the year and use SAM to convert them to an 8,760 load data set.

Overview
The Electric Load page allows you to specify the electric demand, or expected electricity consumption for a

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grid-connected power system. The load data represents the electric demand of a building or other load
center over the period of a single year.

Note. You should only specify electric load data for residential or commercial projects that include
demand charges or tiered rates on the Utility Rate page. If your project does not use these rate
structures, choose the No load data option on the Electric Load page.

Energy values represent the electric energy required over a single time step and are expressed in kilowatt-
hours. Peak load values represent the maximum electric power required in either a month or year and are
expressed in kilowatts.
If you have load data stored in a text file, spreadsheet file, or other file that allows you to copy columns
of data to your computer's clipboard, you can paste the data into SAM using the Edit Data window. See
Working with Time Series Load Data for details.
You can also import load data from a properly formatted text file. See Working with Time Series Load
Data for details.
You can specify load data using an hourly time step or sub-hourly time step. The load data time step
can be different from the weather data time step. For example, you can use 10-minute load data with
hourly weather data. See Working with Time Series Load Data for details.
If you do not have time series load data, SAM allows you to specify load data by typing a values for
twelve monthly 24-hour load profiles. See Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles for details.
You can scale the load upwards or downwards, or specify a load that increases from year to year. See
Input Variable Reference for details.
SAM displays a load data summary table and allows you to view graphs of hourly load data. See Input
Variable Reference for details.
SAM reports load data in the hourly results. See Tabular Data Browser for details.

Input Variable Reference

Electric Load Data
No load data
Choose No load data for an analysis that does not require load data. You should choose this option
unless you are modeling a residential or commercial project with demand charges or tiered rates.
Monthly schedule
Choose Monthly schedule to specify the load using a set of monthly 24-hour load profiles. See
Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles for details.
User entered data
Choose User entered data to specify the load by either cutting and pasting load data from an external
program, or by importing load data from a properly formatted text file. See Working with Time Series
Load Data for details.
Edit monthly schedule
Click Edit monthly schedule to specify 24-hour load profiles when you chose the monthly schedule
option. Edit monthly schedule is inactive when you choose No load data or User entered data.
Edit data
Click Edit data to either cut and paste load data from another program or to import data from a properly

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formatted text file. Edit data is inactive when you choose No load data or Monthly schedule.

Adjustments
The load adjustment factors allow you to uniformly scale the load up or down, and to model a load profile
that increases from year to year. Scaling the load can be useful for scenario analyses where you want to
investigate the effect of a higher or lower load than expected loads.
Escalation
The load escalation scales the load in years two an later by the percentage you specify. For example,
if you specify a load escalation rate of 0.5% per year, for each year in the analysis period specified on
the Financing page, SAM would increase the load value in each time step by 0.5% of the previous
year's load value for the same time step.
You can also assign load escalation values to specific years using the annual schedule. When you
specify
Scaling factor
To calculate the load value during simulation, SAM multiplies the load value in each time step by the
scaling factor that you specify. For example, if you specify a scaling factor of 1.5, and the hourly
average load at 2 p.m. on March 18th is 1.2 kWh, SAM would use a load value of 1.5 × 1.2 = 1.8 kWh
for that hour.
To see the effect of the scaling factor, try changing the value from the default of 1 to another value, and
look at how the values under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data change.
Offset value
To calculate the load value during simulation, for each time step, SAM adds the offset value you specify
to the load value. For example, if you specify an offset value of 0.5 kWh, and the hourly average load at
2 p.m. on March 18th is 1.2 kWh, SAM would use a load value of 1.2 + 0.5 = 1.7 kWh for that hour.
To see the effect of the offset value, try changing the value from the default of 1 to another value, and
look at how the values under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data change.

Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data

SAM displays the table of monthly and annual averages to help you verify that the load data is correct. SAM
also allows you to view also graphs of the time series load data using the built-in data viewer.
Energy (kWh)
The Energy column displays the total amount of electricity required by the load for each month. SAM
calculates the value by adding the average hourly values for each month, or if you specify a different
time step for the load data, the sum of average values over each time step for the month.
Peak (kW)
The maximum load value that occurs in each month. If you specify hourly load data, the monthly peak
is equal to the maximum hourly load value in kWh/h. If you specify sub-hourly load data, the monthly
peak is equal to the maximum load value that occurs in the sub-hourly data.
Annual Total
The total amount of electricity required by the load over an entire year. SAM calculates the value by
adding the average hourly values for the year, or if you specify a different time step for the load data, the
sum of average values over each time step for the year.

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The annual total applies to year one of the analysis period. If you specify a load escalation rate under
Adjustments, the annual total does not reflect load data in years two and later.
Annual Peak
The maximum load value that occurs in the year. If you specify hourly load data, the annual peak is
equal to the maximum hourly load value in kWh/h. If you specify sub-hourly load data, the annual peak
is equal to the maximum load value that occurs in the sub-hourly data.
Visualize load data
Click Visualize load data to display the time series data in SAM's built-in data viewer, DView. See
Viewing Graphs of Time Series Data (DView) for details.

Calculate Load Profiles

EnergyPlus is a building simulation model developed for the Department of Energy. You can use the
EnergyPlus Example File Generator to generate a text file containing hourly load data for different building
types and configurations for some locations in the United States. SAM includes a set of residential load
profiles created by this web application in the \samples\Residential Load Data folder.
The EnergyPlus load data generator uses weather data from the TMY2 data set to generate the load data. If
you model a system in SAM using this load data, you may want to use the same weather file to ensure that
the energy model results are consistent with the load data. Choose the weather file on the Climate page.
To visit the EnergyPlus file generator website, click EERE Building Technologies Program EnergyPlus
Load Calculator. The websites URL is [Link]

Working with Time Series Load Data

If you have load data for an entire year in either hourly or sub-hourly time steps you can either import the
data from a properly formatted text file, or copy and paste the data from a spreadsheet program or other
software.

Data Sources
The following examples are some sources of electric load data:
Electrical measurements from a building or other load center. Some electricity service providers make
load data available to their customers.
Data generated by a building simulation model, such as the EnergyPlus Example File Generator, http://
[Link]/buildings/energyplus/cfm/inputs/.
Some electric service area operators provide system-wide load data on their websites. For examples,
see California ISO and Midwest ISO websites.
Sample residential load data generated by the EnergyPlus load data generator supplied with SAM in
\samples\Residential Load Data folder.

Time Step and Convention

SAM requires load data in a single column of average kilowatt per time step values. The number of data
rows depends on the time step.
For hourly data, SAM requires a column of 8,760 rows, where each row contains a value in kilowatts
representing the average power required by the load over the hour. For sub-hourly data, SAM requires a
column of 8,760 ÷ Number of Times Steps per Hour rows, with kilowatt values representing the average

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electric power over the period of a single time step.

The time convention must follow the time convention of the weather data specified on the Climate page. For
NREL typical meteorological year data (TMY2 and TMY3), the first row of data represents the time step
beginning at midnight on January 1. SAM assumes that January first is a Monday.
When you use sub-hourly load data with hourly weather data, SAM uses hourly average load values to for
the energy charge calculations, and the sub-hourly data to determine the peak load for demand charges.

Importing Data from a File

SAM can import data from a text file that contains a single column of values representing the load in a
single year. SAM ignores the first row, so you can use that row to store text describing the data. The
number of rows depends on the number of time steps. For hourly data, the file should contain a total of
8,761 rows: The first row for header information, and the remaining rows for the load data.

To import load data from a properly formatted text file:

1. Under Electric Load Data, click User entered data.
2. Click Edit Data.
3. In the Edit Data window, click Import.
4. Navigate to the folder containing the load data file and open the file.
SAM displays the data in the data table. Use the scroll bar to see all of the data.
5. Click OK to return to the Electric Load page.
SAM displays monthly and annual load data under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data.

Pasting Load Data from your Computer's Clipboard

If you have load data in a spreadsheet or other program that allows you to copy columns of data to your
computer's clipboard, you can paste the data into SAM. The data should be a single column of values in
kilowatt-hours representing the load in a single year. The number of rows depends on the number of time
steps. For hourly data, the column should contain 8,760 rows of load data.

To paste load data from your computer's clipboard:

1. Under Electric Load Data, click User entered data.
2. Click Edit Data.
3. Open the spreadsheet or other program containing the load data. The data must be in a single
column with the appropriate number of rows for the data's time step.
4. Select the entire column of data and copy it.
5. In SAM's Edit Data window, click Paste.
SAM displays the data in the data table. Use the scroll bar to see all of the data.
6. Click OK to return to the Electric Load page.
SAM displays monthly and annual load data under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data.

Creating Load Data from Daily Profiles

If you do not have a complete 8,760 set of load data, you specify the load using a set of daily load profiles
for each month. SAM creates a set of 8,760 values representing the load for an entire year. When you
define a load with daily load profiles, SAM assumes that the load for all days in a given month is identical.

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To create a load data set using daily load profiles:

1. Under Electric Load Data, click Monthly schedule.
2. Click Edit monthly schedule.
3. In the Edit Monthly Schedule window, click Weekday Values.
4. For each month of the year, define a daily load profile by typing a value in kilowatt-hours for each of
the 24 hours of the day. The first column represents the first hour of the day, beginning at midnight
and ending at 1:00 a.m. SAM assumes that January 1st is a Monday.
5. Click Weekend Values.
6. Repeat Step 4 to define the daily load profile for Saturdays and Sundays. SAM assumes that
January 6 is a Saturday.
7. Click OK to return to the Electric Load page.
SAM displays monthly and annual load data under Hourly Simulation Load Profile Data..

5 Results

5.1 Metrics Table

The Metrics table displays a set of output variables for each case in the project file. SAM displays the
Metrics table under the navigation menu when results are available for a case. The variables that appear in
the metrics table depend on the technology and financing options, which are defined in the Technology and
Market window.

Note. The annual energy quantity reported in the metrics table and graphs on the Results page
accounts for the availability factor on the Annual Performance page, while the data reported in the hourly
simulation results and case summary workbook does not. The annual energy quantity in the metrics
table is equal to the total annual energy output reported in the hourly results multiplied by the availability
factor.

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 Metrics Table 343

Table 20. Variables in the Metrics table for different financing types.
Com
Metric Res Com IPP LPF AEPF SL SO
PPA
Annual Energy • • • • • • • •
Nominal LCOE • • • •
Real LCOE • • • •
Year 1 Revenue without System • •
Year 1 Revenue with System • •
Year 1 Net Revenue • •
Net Present Value • • •
Payback Period • •
First year PPA price • • •
Internal Rate of Return •
Minimum DSCR •
PPA Escalation •
Debt Fraction •
IRR target year • • • • •
IRR target • • • • •
IRR actual year • • • • •
IRR in target year • • • • •
After-tax IRR • • •
After-tax NPV • • •
After-tax tax investor IRR • • •
After-tax tax investor NPV • • •
After-tax developer IRR • • •
After-tax developer NPV • • •
PPA price escalation • • • • • •
Debt fraction • • •
Direct Cost • • • •
Indirect Cost • • • •
Financing Cost • • • •
Total project cost • • • •
Total debt • •
Total equity • • • •

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For certain simulation configurations, SAM displays two columns of values for each output variable:
For model runs involving the Multiple Systems simulation configuration, SAM displays output variables
for the active case in the Base column of the Metrics table, and output variables for the combined
system in the Combined column.
For model runs involving the Statistical simulation configuration, the values of mu, sigma are displayed
in the second column of the Metrics table.

5.1.1 Annual Energy

SAM calculates and reports three annual energy values.
Annual Energy
The total annual AC electric output of the system in kWh, not accounting for the availability factor from
the Annual Performance page.
Net Annual Energy
The total annual AC electric output of the system in kWh, accounting for the availability factor from the
Annual Performance page.
Energy (in the cash flow table)
The total annual AC electric output of the system in kWh, accounting for both the availability and the
degradation factor from the Annual Performance page.

Note. If you run simulations with no financing by choosing the No Financials option in the Technology
and Market window, SAM reports the annual energy value in the metrics table. If your analysis includes
financing, then SAM reports the net annual energy value in the Metrics table.

5.1.2 Annual Water Usage

For CSP systems, the total annual water consumption in cubic meters for cooling and mirror washing. The
value is determined based on the cooling system options specified on the Power Block page, and the mirror
washing options specified on the Solar Field page.

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5.1.3 Capacity Factor

The capacity factor is the ratio of the system's predicted electrical output in the first year of operation to the
output had the system operated at its nameplate capacity.

Note. SAM only displays the capacity factor metric when you run simulations with a financing option.
The metric is not available when you choose No Financials in the Technology and Market window.

Capacity Factor = Net Annual Energy (k Wh) / System Capacity (k W) / 8760 (h/yr)
For PV systems, the capacity factor is an AC-to-DC value. For CSP systems, the capacity is an AC-to-AC
value.
Net Annual Energy
The total annual electric generation in the first year of operation, accounting for the availability factor
from the Annual Performance page.
System Capacity
The system's nameplate capacity (see table below). For PV systems the capacity is in DC kW, for
CSP systems, the capacity is in AC kW.
The system capacity depends on technology being modeled. Note that SAM converts the capacity value to
kW before using it in the calculation.

Table 21. Rated system capacity values for each technology.

Technology System Capacity Input Page
PV SAM Performance Models Total Array Power (Wdc) Array
PV PVWatts DC Rating (kW) PVWatts Solar Array
CSP Parabolic Trough Rated Turbine Net Capacity (MWe) Power Block
CSP Power Tower Nameplate Capacity (MWe) Power Cycle
CSP Dish Stirling Total Capacity (kW) Solar Field
Generic Fossil Nameplate Capacity (kWe) Fossil Plant

5.1.4 Costs
Enter topic text here.

5.1.5 Debt Fraction

The debt fraction is the percentage of the project total installed cost that is financed through a loan. The
value is reported as a result only for projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-Party Ownership financing as
defined in the Technology and Market window.

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For these types of projects, depending on the financial optimization option on the Financing page, the debt
fraction is either a user-defined input on the Financing page, or a value that SAM calculates. When the
Automatically minimize LCOE with respect to Debt Fraction option is checked, SAM finds the debt fraction
that results in the lowest levelized cost of energy.
SAM uses the debt fraction to calculate the principal and interest payments shown in the project cash flow,
and used in the iterative search algorithm described in 1st Year PPA Price.

5.1.6 First year kWhac/kWdc

For PV systems, SAM reports the ratio of the system's annual AC electric output in Year one to it's
nameplate DC capacity.

Note. SAM only displays the First year kWhac/kWdc metric when you run simulations with a financing
option. The metric is not available when you choose No Financials in the Technology and Market window
.

First year k Whac/k Wdc = Net Annual Energy / Nameplate Capacity

Net Annual Energy
The total annual electric generation in the first year of operation, accounting for the availability factor
from the Annual Performance page.
Nameplate Capacity
The system's DC nameplate capacity from the Array page for component-based model and the
PVWatts Solar Array page for the PVWatts model.

5.1.7 First Year PPA Price

The first year PPA price is the electricity sales price for projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-Party
Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window. SAM assumes that such projects
sell electricity through a power purchase agreement (PPA) at a fixed price over the life of the project with an
optional annual escalation rate.
The first year PPA Price and annual escalation rate (PPA Escalation rate on the Financing page) determine
the project's annual revenues. SAM calculates the annual revenues to meet the minimum requirements of
the internal rate of return (IRR), debt service coverage ratio (DSCR), and positive cash flow, which are
defined as constraining assumptions on the Financing page. Because of the way the first year PPA price,
IRR, and minimum DSCR interact, SAM uses an iterative algorithm to determine the values of these
variables.
For projects with utility financing, the constraining assumptions defined on the Financing page are the
Minimum Required IRR and the Minimum Required DSCR, and a positive cash flow requirement:
Find First Year PPA such that
IRR >= Minimum Required IRR, and

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Min DSCR >= Minimum Required DSCR, and

Cash Flow in Year n > 0 (when the cash flow requirement is positive)
For projects with Third-Party Ownership financing, there is a single constraining assumption defined on the
Financing page, the Minimum Required IRR:
Find First Year PPA such that
Actual IRR >= Minimum Required IRR
The following equations show the calculations used in the iterative algorithm to determine the IRR and
minimum DSCR, which are both reported as results with the 1st Year PPA Price in the Metrics table on the
Results page.
The internal rate of return is the discount rate, IRR in the equation below, that corresponds to a project net
present value, NPV, of zero:

Where,
NPV ($) The net present value of the project over its life.
N The number of years in the project life, defined by the analysis period on the Financing
page.
Rn ($) The required revenue in year n , shown in the Revenues row of the cash flow. The revenue
in year 1 (Rn=1 ) is equal to the first year PPA price. The revenue is subsequent years (R

1<n<=N
) is equal to the first year PPA price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate defined
on the Financing page.
CAfterTax,n ($) The after tax cash flow in year n , equal to State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings + PBI
Incentives - Operating Costs - Debt Total Payment + Revenues in the project cash flow.
IRR Internal rate of return, calculated by systematically trying different values until the NPV is
equal to zero.
The debt service coverage ratio in each analysis year (DSCRn ) is the ratio of operating income to expenses
in that year:

Where,
DSCRn Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio
row of the cash flow.
Rn ($) The required revenue in year n , shown in the Revenues row of the cash flow table, equal to
the product of the electric output and electricity sales price in year n. Note that the
electricity sales price in year 1 is equal to the first year PPA price, and in subsequent
years (R1<n<=N) is equal to the first year PPA price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate
defined on the Financing page.
COperating,n ($) The total operating costs in year n , shown in the Operating Costs row of the cash flow.

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CInterest,n ($) The loan interest payment in year n, shown in the Debt Interest Payment row of the cash
flow.
CPrincipal,n ($) The loan principal payment in year n, shown in the Debt Repayment row of the cash flow.

The minimum DSCR is the lowest value of the project's debt-service coverage ratio that occurs in the life of
the project:

Where,
minimum DSCR The minimum debt service coverage ratio, reported as a result in the Metrics table.
DSCRn Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage
Ratio row of the cash flow. (The symbol min represents the function that searches for
the minimum value of the DSCR in the cash flow.)

5.1.8 Gross to Net Conv Factor

For CSP systems, SAM displays the ratio of the system's annual AC electric output to the power block's
gross electric output. The difference between the two is due to parasitic losses from electric loads in the
solar field and power block for pumps, cooling equipment, etc.
Gross to Net Conv Factor = Annual Energy (k Wh) / Gross Electric Output (k Wh)
Annual Energy (kWh)
The system's total AC electrical output in year one, not accounting for the availability factor on the
Annual Performance page.
Gross Electric Output (kWh)
The power block's gross electrical output, reported under Metrics in the tabular data browser.

5.1.9 Internal Rate of Return

The internal rate of return is the discount rate that corresponds to a project net present value of zero for
projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-Party Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and
Market window.

Where Revenues and After Tax Cash Flow are rows in the project cash flow.
SAM calculates the internal rate of return using an iterative search algorithm described in 1st Year PPA
Price.

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5.1.10 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)

Contents
Overview defines the levelized cost of energy in general terms.
LCOE for Residential and Commercial Projects describes how SAM calculates the
levelized cost of energy for systems with either residential market or commercial
Market financing.
LCOE for Commercial Third Party and Independent Power Producer Projects
describes the calculation of the levelized required revenue for projects with either
commercial market - third-party ownership or utiltity and IPP financing.
Real and Nominal LCOE describes the difference between the two forms of LCOE.
Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel explains how to use data from the cash
flow table to calculate the LCOE valeus with Excel formulas.
LCOE without Incentives explains the two LCOE "w/o incentives" variables that
appear in some graphs.

Overview
The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) in cents per kilowatt-hour accounts for a project's installation,
financing, tax, and operating costs and the quantity of electricity it produces over its life. The LCOE makes
it possible to compare alternatives with different project lifetimes and performance characteristics. Analysts
can use the LCOE to compare the option of installing a residential or commercial project to purchasing
electricity from an electric service provider, or to compare utility and third-party ownership projects with
investments in energy efficiency, other renewable energy projects, or conventional fossil fuel projects. The
LCOE captures the trade-off between typically higher-capital-cost, lower-operating-cost renewable energy
projects, and lower-capital-cost, higher-operating-cost fossil fuel-based projects.
SAM calculates the LCOE for residential and commercial projects differently than it does for utility and
commercial third-party ownership projects as described below. You can specify the project's financing type
(residential, commercial, commercial third-party, and utility) in the Technology and Market window. SAM
displays the financing type on the main window in the toolbar directly below the case tabs in the main
window.
For all projects, SAM calculates both a real and nominal LCOE value. The real LCOE accounts for the effect
of inflation over the life of the project. The nominal LCOE excludes inflation from the calculation.

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Notes.

You can verify the SAM's LCOE calculation by exporting the cash flow table on the Results page to
Excel and using the formulas described for each form of the LCOE below. See Replicating LCOE
Calculations in Excel for details.

You can also explore the LCOE methodology by downloading the spreadsheets on the Support page of
the SAM website. Each of the five spreadsheets duplicates SAM's cash flow equations using Excel
formulas.

For more information about the levelized cost of energy and other economic metrics for renewable
energy projects, see Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Technologies. (Short 1995) [Link]

LCOE for Residential and Commercial Projects

For a project using one of the Residential Mark et or Commercial Mark et (except Commercial Third-Party
Ownership) financing options defined in the Technology and Market window, the LCOE is the cost of
financing, installing, and operating a system per unit of electricity it generates over the analysis period,
accounting for tax credits and incentive payments.
SAM assumes that projects with residential or commercial financing are installed on a residential or
commercial property, and sell electricity at retail electricity rates specified on the Utility Rate page.
You specify the installation and operating costs on the System Costs page, financing assumptions on the
Financing page, tax credits on the Tax Credit Incentives page, and other incentives on the Payment
Incentives page.
For these projects, you you can compare a project's LCOE to the electricity rate that the residence or
commercial entity would pay to an electric service provider if the project were not installed.
SAM uses the real discount rate on the Financing page to calculate the present worth of future costs. The
discount rate accounts for the time value of money and the relative degree of risk for alternative investments.
SAM uses the inflation rate on the Financing page to calculate year two and later costs in the cash flow
based on the cost input values that you specify in year one dollar values on the System Costs and other
input pages. The inflation rate accounts for expected price increases over the project life for future operating
costs.
SAM assumes that the project generates electricity in year one of the analysis period. It assigns capital
costs to year zero of the project cash flow.

Note. You can calculate the real and nominal values of the LCOE yourself by exporting the cash flow
table to Excel. See Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel for details.

For the real LCOE, the real discount rate appears in the denominator's total energy output term:

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Similarly, for the nominal LCOE, the nominal discount rate appears in the denominator's total energy output
term:

Qn (kWh) Electricity generated by the project in year n , calculated by the performance model based
on weather data and system performance parameters. The first year annual energy is
reported in the Metrics table and in the year one column of the Energy row in the project
cash flow. Year two and subsequent output is the first year output reduced by the amount
specified for the degradation rate on the Annual Performance page.
N Analysis period in years as defined on the Financing page.
CAfterTax,n ($) The after tax cash flow in year n , equal to State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings +
PBI Incentives - Operating Costs - Debt Total Payment + Energy Value in the project
cash flow. The after tax cash flow in year zero is the equity portion of total installed cost
less any capital based incentives specified on the Payment Incentives page. The equity
portion of the total installed cost is the total installed cost shown on the System Costs
page minus the principal amount from the Financing page.
d real The real discount rate defined on the Financing page. This is the discount rate without
inflation.
d nominal The nominal discount rate, calculated as described below. This is the discount rate with
inflation.
The nominal discount rate can be calculated based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation
rate on the Financing page:
d nominal = (1 + d real)(1 + e) - 1
Where,
d nominal Nominal discount rate expressed as a fraction.
d real Real discount rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.
e Inflation rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.

LCOE for Utility and Commercial Third Party Projects

For a project using either a Utility or Commercial Mark et - Third-Party Ownership financing option in the
Technology and Market window, the LCOE is the amount that the project must receive for each unit of
electricity it sells to cover financing, installation, and operating costs, and to meet the financial constraints
on the Financing page.
SAM assumes that utility and commercial third-party ownership projects are power generation projects
installed on the utility side of consumer power meters. These projects sell electricity at a price negotiated
by the project and electricity purchaser.
For these projects, the LCOE is effectively a levelized price of electricity because it is based on the present
worth of the project's revenue stream (which you can see in the Energy Value row of the project cash flow).
SAM reports the revenue for each year of the analysis period as the Energy Value in the project cash flow,

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and the average annual electricity price in the Energy Price row. The Energy Price in year one is equal to
the first year power purchase price, which SAM reports as 1st Year PPA Price in the Metrics table.

Note. Because the LCOE for utility and commercial third party projects depends on the PPA price, it
can be very sensitive to the values that you specify for the minimum IRR, minimum DSCR, and positive
cash flow. In some cases, it is possible to specify constraints that make the project capital investment a
relatively insignificant factor in the LCOE calculation. For details on how SAM calculates the first year
PPA price, see 1st Year PPA Price.

SAM uses the real discount rate and inflation rate on the Financing page to calculate the present worth of
future costs. The discount rate accounts for the time value of money and the relative degree of risk for
alternative investments.
SAM uses the inflation rate on the Financing page to calculate year two and later costs in the cash flow
based on the cost input values that you specify in year one dollar values on the System Costs and other
input pages. The inflation rate accounts for expected price increases over the project life for future operating
costs.

Note. You can calculate the real and nominal values of the LCOE yourself by exporting the cash flow
table to Excel. See Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel for details.

For the real LCOE, the real discount rate appears in the denominator's total energy output term:

Similarly, for the nominal LCOE, the nominal discount rate appears in the total energy output term:

Where,
Qn (kWh) Electricity generated by the project in year n , calculated by the performance model based on
weather data and system performance parameters. The first year output is reported in the
Metrics table on the Results page and in the year one column of the project cash flow. Year
two and subsequent output is the first year output reduced by the amount specified for the
degradation rate on the Annual Performance page.
N Analysis period in years as defined on the Financing page.
Rn Project revenue from electricity sales in year n , equal to the annual electric output multiplied
by the annual electricity sales price. The required revenue in year one is equal to the product of
the first year PPA price and Annual Energy values reported in the results. The required revenue
in subsequent years is equal to the first year PPA price escalated by the PPA Escalation Rate
shown on the Metrics table.
d real The real discount rate defined on the Financing page. This is the discount rate without inflation.

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d nominal The nominal discount rate, calculated as described below. This is the discount rate with
inflation.
The nominal discount rate can be calculated based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation
rate on the Financing page:
d nominal = (1 + d real)(1 + e) - 1
Where,
d nominal Nominal discount rate expressed as a fraction.
d real Real discount rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.
e Inflation rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.

Real and Nominal LCOE

SAM reports both a real LCOE and a nominal LCOE value in the Metrics table on the Results page. The
form of the discount rate used in the denominator's total energy output term of the equations described
above determines the form of the LCOE.
The real LCOE is a constant dollar value that is adjusted for inflation. The real LCOE is less
than the nominal LCOE whenever the inflation rate on the Financing page is greater than
zero. Because the nominal discount rate used to compute the nominal LCOE includes
inflation, inflation is effectively factored out of the nominal LCOE. The nominal LCOE is a
current dollar value. If the inflation rate on the Financing page is zero, the real and nominal
LCOE are equal.
The choice of real or nominal LCOE depends on the analysis. Most long-term analyses are conducted in
real (constant) dollars to account for many years of inflation over the project life, whereas most short term
analyses use nominal (current) dollars. Some industries prefer to use one form over the other. For example,
when discussing LCOE for parabolic trough projects, analysts tend to use the nominal LCOE, while the U.
S. Department of Energy uses the real LCOE in its comparative analysis of photovoltaic project costs. Be
sure to use the same form of the LCOE when comparing costs for different alternatives: Never compare a
real LCOE of one alternative with a nominal LCOE of another.
The nominal discount rate can be calculated based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation
rate on the Financing page:
d nominal = (1 + d real)(1 + e) - 1
Where,
d nominal Nominal discount rate expressed as a fraction.
d real Real discount rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.
e Inflation rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.

Replicating LCOE Calculations in Excel

If you would like to better understand SAM's LCOE calculations, you can follow the procedures described
below to replicate the calculations using a spreadsheet program.

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Note for Mac users. SAM can not exchange data with Microsoft Excel on Mac computers. This means
that the Excel Exchange feature is disabled on Mac versions of the software, and that SAM cannot
directly export data to Excel workbooks.

To use the SAM data in Excel or another spreadsheet program, you can export the data to a comma-
separated text file (CSV), and then import the CSV file to the spreadsheet program.

To replicate the residential or commercial LCOE calculation in Excel:

1. On the Results page, click Base Case Cashflow to display the project cash flow.
2. Click Send to Excel to export the cash flow table to an Excel worksheet, or click Save as CSV to
save the data as a text file then open it in Excel.
3. Type the project's discount rate and inflation rates as percentages into two blank cells in the
worksheet. You can find these values on SAM's Financing page.
4. Type the following formula into a third empty cell to calculate the nominal discount rate:
=(1+[inflation rate])*(1+[real discount rate])-1
Replace the words in brackets with cell references to the appropriate values in the worksheet.
5. Type the following formula into a blank cell to calculate the real LCOE:
=(-[year zero after tax cost]-NPV([nominal discount rate],[after tax cost]))/NPV([real discount rate],
[energy])
The year zero after tax cost flow is the value in the year zero column in the after tax cost row
toward the bottom of the table. The after tax cost and energy are series of values from year 1 to the
final year in the analysis period. The energy row is at the top of the table.
6. Use the following formula to calculate the nominal LCOE:
=(-[year zero after tax cost]-NPV([nominal discount rate],[after tax cost]))/NPV([nominal discount
rate],[energy])

To replicate the utility or commercial third party LCOE calculation in Excel:

1. On the Results page, click Base Case Cashflow to display the project cash flow.
2. Click Send to Excel to export the cash flow table to an Excel worksheet, or click Save as CSV to save
the data as a text file then open it in Excel.
3. Type the project's discount rate and inflation rates as percentages into two blank cells in the worksheet.
You can find these values on SAM's Financing page.
4. Type the following formula into a third empty cell to calculate the nominal discount rate:
=(1+[inflation rate])*(1+[real discount rate])-1
Replace the words in brackets with cell references to the appropriate values in the worksheet.
5. Type the following formula into a blank cell to calculate the real LCOE:
=NPV([nominal discount rate],[energy value])/NPV([real discount rate],[energy])
The energy value and energy are series of values from year 1 to the final year in the analysis period.
Energy is in the first row at the top of the table, and energy value is in the third row.
6. Use the following formula to calculate the nominal LCOE:
=NPV([nominal discount rate],[energy value])/NPV([nominal discount rate],[energy])

Note. You can also replicate the calculations in Excel using the summations shown in the equations
above in place of the NPV formulas.

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LCOE without Incentives

SAM displays a value labeled LCOE (real-w/o incentives) on some graphs. This value of the LCOE is
calculated in the same way as the other forms of the LCOE, but excludes any tax credit incentives or
payment incentives that you specified on the Tax Credit Incentives page or Payment Incentives page.
If you remove all tax credits and payment incentives from your analysis, then the LCOE values with and
without incentives are identical.

5.1.11 Minimum DSCR

The minimum DSCR is the minimum debt-service coverage ratio that SAM calculates for projects with Utility
or Commercial - Third-Party Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window.
The debt-service coverage ratio in each year n is the ratio of operating income to expenses in that year
(SAM displays these values in the cash flow table):

Where,
DSCRn Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio
row of the cash flow.
Rn ($) The required revenue in year n , shown in the Revenues row of the cash flow table, equal to
the product of the electric output and electricity sales price in year n. Note that the
electricity sales price in year 1 is equal to the first year PPA price, and in subsequent
years (R1<n<=N) is equal to the first year PPA price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate
defined on the Financing page.
COperating,n ($) The total operating costs in year n , shown in the Operating Costs row of the cash flow.
CInterest,n ($) The loan interest payment in year n, shown in the Debt Interest Payment row of the cash
flow.
CPrincipal,n ($) The loan principal payment in year n, shown in the Debt Repayment row of the cash flow.
In SAM, the project's debt service coverage ratio (reported in results as the Minimum DSCR) is the lowest
value of the DSCR that occurs in the life of the project N, equivalent to the Analysis Period on the Financing
page.

Where,
minimum The minimum debt service coverage ratio, reported as a result in the Metrics table.
DSCR
DSCRn Debt service coverage ratio in year n shown in the PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio row
of the cash flow. (The symbol min represents the function that searches for the minimum
value of the DSCR in the cash flow.)

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SAM calculates the minimum debt-service coverage ratio to be greater than or equal to the minimum
required DSCR target defined on the Financing page. The iterative algorithm used for the calculation is
described in 1st Year PPA Price.

5.1.12 Net Present Value

A project's net present value is a measure of a project's economic feasibility that includes both revenue and
cost. In general, a positive net present value indicates an economically feasible project, while a negative net
present value indicates an economically infeasible project, although this may not be true for all analyses.
For more information about using the net present value and other economic metrics to evaluate renewable
energy projects, see Short W et al, 1995. Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy Technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-462-5173. [Link]
[Link]/docs/legosti/old/[Link]
SAM only calculates the net present value for projects with residential or commercial (except third-party
ownership) financing. These projects earn revenue through electricity sales at the retail rate specified as an
input on the Utility Rate page. For project with utility or commercial third-party ownership financing, SAM
calculates the electricity sales price as a result, and the project's levelized cost of energy accounts for both
revenue and costs.
The net present value is the present value of the after tax cash flow discounted to year one using the
nominal discount rate, plus the after-tax cash flow in year zero. The net cash flow for each year is the
difference between the revenue and cost in that year:

Where,
NPV ($) The net present value of the project over its life.
N The number of years in the project life, defined by the analysis period on the Financing
page.
CAfterTax,n ($) The after tax cash flow in year n , equal to State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings + PBI
Incentives - Operating Costs - Debt Total Payment + Revenues in the project cash flow.
The after tax cash flow in year zero is the equity portion of total installed cost less any
capital based incentives specified on the Payment Incentives page. The equity portion of
the total installed cost is the total installed cost shown on the System Costs page
multiplied by 100% minus the debt fraction from the Financing page.
d nominal The nominal discount rate, calculated as shown below.

The nominal discount rate can be calculated based on the values of the real discount rate and the inflation
rate on the Financing page:
d nominal = (1 + d real)(1 + e) - 1
Where,
d nominal Nominal discount rate expressed as a fraction.

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 Metrics Table 357

d real Real discount rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.
e Inflation rate defined on the Financing page expressed as a fraction.

5.1.13 Payback Period

The payback period is a measure of the time it takes for project income from electricity sales, incentive
payments, and tax credits to "pay back" the initial project investment.

Note. SAM calculates the payback period for commercial and residential projects only.

For more information about using the net present value and other economic metrics to evaluate renewable
energy projects, see Short W et al, 1995. Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy Technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-462-5173. [Link]
[Link]/docs/legosti/old/[Link]
SAM calculates the payback period by determining the number of years that it takes for the values in the
Cumulative Payback Expenses Included row of the cash flow to switch from negative to positive.
If the cumulative payback cash flow amount is negative for all years in the cash flow, SAM displays the
value 1e+99 for the payback, indicating that the payback period is greater than the analysis period.
Payback expenses included = After Tax Cashflow + Debt Interest Payment × (1 - Effective Tax
Rate) + Debt Repayment
Payback expenses excluded = Payback expenses included + Operating Costs + Deductible
Expenses × Effective Tax Rate
The cumulative cash flow for each year is the sum of the current year's payback amount and the previous
year's amount.
For a description of the cash flow calculations, see the residential and commercial cash flow details.

5.1.14 PPA Escalation

The PPA escalation rate is an annual escalation rate that SAM uses to calculate future electricity sales
prices based on the first year PPA price. The value applies to projects with Utility or Commercial - Third-
Party Ownership financing as defined in the Technology and Market window.
Depending on the financial optimization option on the Financing page, the PPA escalation rate is either a
user-defined input on the Financing page, or a value that SAM calculates. When the Automatically minimize
LCOE with respect to PPA Escalation Rate option is checked, SAM finds the PPA escalation rate that
results in the lowest levelized cost of energy.
SAM uses the PPA escalation rate in the iterative search algorithm described in 1st Year PPA Price.

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5.1.15 System Performance Factor

The system performance factor is a measure of a photovoltaic system's annual electric generation output in
AC kWh compared to its nameplate rated capacity in DC kW, taking into account the solar resource at the
system's location.

Note. SAM only calculates the system performance factor for the component-based photovoltaic model.
It does not calculate the value for the PVWatts model or other technologies.

System Performance Factor = Annual Energy (k Wh) / ( Nameplate Capacity (k W) × Incident

Radiation (k W/m2) / 1 Peak Sun Hour (h × k W/m2) )
Annual Energy
The system's total AC output in Year 1 in kWh reported in the Metrics table.
Nameplate Capacity
The system's DC rated capacity in kW from the Array page.
Incident Radiation
For flat-plate PV modules, the total (direct + diffuse) radiation incident on the array. This value is
equivalent to the sum of the Radiation Total (kW/m2), Hourly values available on the tabular data
browser.
For concentrating PV (CPV) modules the direct radiation incident on the array. This value is equivalent
to the sum of the Incident Beam, Shaded (kW/m2), Hourly values available on the tabular data
browser.
Peak Sun Hour
The equivalent number of hours in a year that the array receives 1 kW/m2.

5.1.16 Total Land Area

For the PV component-based and CSP models, the land area required for the project. SAM calculates the
value based on the Land Area values you specify, and the array and collector area SAM calculates on the
Array and Solar Field pages.

Note. SAM displays the total land area value for reference only. The value does not affect cost
calculations, and is not affected by the land costs you specify on the System Costs page.

5.1.17 Year 1 Revenues

Enter topic text here.

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5.2 Graphs and Charts

SAM displays graphs on the Results page after running simulations. The standard graphs that appear by
default show summaries of results from both the performance model and financial model. You can edit the
standard graphs and create your own graphs.

Related topics:
For detailed graphs of hourly results, see Time Series Data Viewer (DView).
For a description of how to use sliders with graphs, see Sliders.
To view the project cash flow, click Base Case Cashflow. See Base Case Cashflow for details.
To view a tables of results data, click Tabular Data Browser. See Tabular Data Browser for
details.

To show and hide graphs:

1. Click View Graphs and Charts at the top of the Results page.

SAM displays a thumbnail of all of the graphs defined for the case. Some graphs are default
graphs, and others are graphs that you may have added or edited.
2. Click a thumbnail at the bottom of the page to display a graph. Hold down the Ctrl key and click up
to four graphs to display multiple graphs on the page.
To hide a graph, hold down the Ctrl key and click its thumbnail on the Graphing tab.

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Manage Graphs

To create or modify graphs:

1. To add a graph to the list of available graphs, click Add a new graph.
To modify an existing graph, select the graph name in the available graphs and click Edit. You can
also modify a visible graph by right-clicking it.
2. In the Edit Graph window, choose data to graph and other graph properties.

Use the Properties options to assign graph labels, adjust line thickness, show and hide the legend,
and change other properties.

To remove graphs:
1. Click the thumbnail for up to four graphs that you want to remove.
2. Click Remove.
To remove all graphs, including default graphs, click Remove All.

Data Tables for Graphs

You can view tables of data for graphs visible on the Results page and export the data to text files.

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To view the data tables:

1. On the Results page, click View Graphs and Charts.
2. Click the thumbnails at the bottom of the page to show up to four graphs. (Hold down the ctrl key
while clicking the thumbnails to show more than one graph.)
3. Click Show Graph Data.

To export graph data:

To export data from a graph, right-click the graph and choose an export option:

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Tips for working with graphs

Use sliders to see the effect of changing input variables on the graph without changing input variable
values on the input pages. See Working with Sliders for details.
Right-click a graph to hide the legend, change line thickness and colors, edit graph legends, and modify
other graph properties.
Click the Notes button above the top right corner of the Results page to display an editable text box to
make notes about a graph.

5.3 Base Case Cash Flow

The base case cash flow table displays the project cash flow calculated by the financial model. The cash
flow table only displays data from the base case, which is the set of results calculated from the input
variable values that are visible on the input pages. Use the tabular data browser to see cash flow data for
results from that involve multiple simulation runs for parametric, sensitivity, optimization, or statistical
analyses.
For detailed descriptions of the cash flow for the different financing options, see:
Residential and Commercial
IPP and Commercial PPA
Leveraged Partnership Flip
All Equity Partnership Flip
Sale Leaseback
Single Owner

Related Topics:
You can also see the cash flow table in the tabular data browser and case summary workbook.

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If you want to see cash flow data for analyses involving multiple runs such as parametric analyses,
use the Tabular Data Browser to display the cash flow.

To view the cash flow table:

On the Results page, click Base Case Cashflow at the top of the page.
If you have trouble seeing values in columns at the far right of the table, click a cell in the table and
use the right-arrow key to display the columns.

SAM offers three options for exporting the cash flow table:
Copy to clipboard copies the table to your clipboard. You can paste the entire table into a word
processing document, spreadsheet, presentation or other software.
Save as CSV saves the table in a comma-delimited text file that you can open in a spreadsheet
program or text editor.
Send to Excel (Windows only) saves the table in an Excel file.

Note. When you export cash flow data to Excel, the worksheet contains values from the cash flow table
but no formulas. This is because SAM calculates the values internally and does not rely on Excel to
make the calculations.

5.3.1 Residential and Commercial

Cash Flow Year

The cash flow year is displayed in the top row of the cash flow table. In the descriptions below, the letter n
indicates the cash flow year, where n = 0 is Year zero of the cash flow, n = 1 is year one, n = 2 is year two,

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etc.

Energy (kWh)
For systems that generate electricity, Energy is the total amount of electricity generated by the system in
AC kilowatt-hours for each year.
For solar water heating systems, Energy is the amount of electricity saved by the solar water heating
system in AC kilowatt-hours for each year.
For Year 1, the energy value is equal to the sum of the hourly values calculated by the performance model
multiplied by the availability factor from the Annual Performance page.
For Years 2 and later, the energy value is the previous year's energy value adjusted by the annual
degradation rate (System Degradation) from the Annual Performance page:
Energy in Year n = Energy in Year n-1 * (1 - Degradation Rate)

Note. Some of the annual electric energy values reported elsewhere in the results are performance
model results, and do not account for the availability factor and degradation rate.

Energy Value ($)

The energy value is the value of electricity that the project avoids purchasing because of the renewable
energy system.
SAM assumes that the project sells electricity only in hours when the renewable energy system's output is
greater than the electric load specified on the Electric Load page, and at the sell rate for each hour defined
by the rate structure on the Utility Rate page.
The project buys electricity in hours when the electric load is less than the renewable energy system's
output at the buy rate for each hour specified in the rate structure.
To determine the annual energy value, SAM calculates two "revenue" values:
"Revenue with system" represents the net value of electricity bought and sold (revenue = sales -
purchases) by the project with the renewable energy system.
"Revenue without system" shows what it would cost to meet the load entirely with electricity purchased
from the utility at the buy rates specified in the rate structure.
The energy value is the difference between the two:
Energy Value ($) = Revenues with System ($) - Revenues without System ($)
The tabular data browser shows hourly values of revenues and other related values.
For a simple utility rate structure with net metering at a flat rate, the project buys and sells electricity at the
same rate (equal to the flat rate from the Utility Rate page), and the energy value is equivalent to the value of
the energy from the renewable energy system:
Energy Value in Year n ($) = Energy in Year n ($) * Flat Rate ($/k Wh)

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Costs

The operation and maintenance (O&M) costs are defined on the system costs page and escalated in each
year after year one using both the escalation rate for each O&M category on the system costs page and
the inflation rate value on the Financials page.
Fixed O&M Annual in Year n = Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate) ^ n-

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 Base Case Cash Flow 365

1
Fixed O&M in Year n = Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/k W-yr) * System Capacity * (1 + Inflation Rate +
Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Variable O&M in Year n = Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) / 1000 (k Wh/MWh) * Annual
Output in Year n (MWh) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
The system capacity depends on technology being modeled. Note that SAM converts the capacity value to
kW before using it in the calculation.

Table 22. Rated system capacity values for each technology.

Technology System Capacity Input Page
PV SAM Performance Models Total Array Power (Wdc) Array
PV PVWatts DC Rating (kW) PVWatts Solar Array
CSP Parabolic Trough Rated Turbine Net Capacity (MWe) Power Block
CSP Power Tower Nameplate Capacity (MWe) Power Cycle
CSP Dish Stirling Total Capacity (kW) Solar Field
Generic Fossil Nameplate Capacity (kWe) Fossil Plant

Fuel O&M
Parabolic trough, power tower, and generic fossil systems include an annual cost of fuel for the fossil
backup system in the total operating expense. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage
page for troughs or towers is greater than zero, the systems consume fuel for backup energy.) For
photovoltaic and CSP dish systems, the fuel cost is always zero.
SAM reports the annual fuel usage in the hourly results. The total annual fuel usage in year 1 is reported on
the Annual Data spreadsheet in the Spreadsheet summary table.
Fuel O&M in Year n = Annual Fuel Usage in Year 1 (k Wh) * 0.003413 MMBtu/k Wh * Fossil Fuel
Cost ($/MMBtu) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)

Insurance
The insurance cost applies in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depends on the insurance rate specified
on the Financing page and the total installed costs on the System Costs page.
Insurance in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) * Insurance (%) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation
Rate)^(n-1)

Property Assessed Value

The property assessed value is the value SAM uses as a basis to calculate the annual property tax
payment. The value depends on the property tax variables on the Financing page.
The assessed value in Year 1 is shown on the Financing page, and is the product of the assessed percent
and total installed cost from the System Costs page.
In Years 2 and later, the property assessed value is the Year 1 value adjusted by the assessed value
decline value from the Financing page:
Property Assessed Value in Year n = Assessed Value ($) * (1 - Assessed Value Decline)^(n-1)

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Property Taxes
Property taxes apply in Year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depend on the property tax rate specified on
the Financing page, and on the property assessed value:
Property Taxes in Year n = Property Assessed Value in Year n ($) * Property Tax (%)

Net Salvage Value

SAM calculates the net salvage value using the percentage you specify on the Financing page and the total
installed cost from the System Costs page. The salvage value applies in the final year of the project cash
flow.
For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of 2.5% and total
installed cost of $1 million, SAM includes income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 × 0.10 × (1 +
0.025) ^ (30 - 1).
SAM adds the salvage value as income (a negative value) to the operating expenses in the cash flow in the
final year of the analysis period. The salvage value therefore reduces the operating expenses in the final
year of the analysis period
For residential projects, the salvage value has no effect on federal and state income tax because operating
expenses are not taxable.
For commercial projects, because the salvage value reduces the operating expenses in the final year of the
analysis period, it increases the federal and state income tax payment because operating expenses are
deductible from federal and state income tax.

Operating Costs
The total operating expenses include operation and maintenance costs, and insurance and property tax
payments:
Operating Costs = Fixed O&M Annual + Fixed O&M + Variable O&M + Fuel O&M + Insurance +
Property Taxes - Salvage Value

Deductible Expenses
The deductible expenses are project costs that can be deducted from federal and state income taxes.
For residential projects, the deductible expense amount equals the property tax amount:
Deductible Expenses = - Property Taxes
For commercial projects, all operating costs are deductible:
Deductible Expenses = - Operating Costs

Debt Balance
The debt balance in Year 1 represents the debt portion of the capital costs, adjusted for any investment-
based incentives (IBI). The total installed cost is from the System Costs page, and total IBI is the sum of all
IBIs specified on the Payment Incentives page, and debt fraction is the value specified on the Financing
page:
Debt Balance in Year 1 = (-Total Installed Costs + Total IBI) * Debt Fraction
In Years 2 and later, the debt balance is calculated from the previous year's debt balance and debt

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 Base Case Cash Flow 367

repayment amounts:
Debt Balance in Year n = Debt Balance in Year n-1 + Debt Repayment in Year n-1

Debt Interest Payment

The debt interest payment is the debt balance multiplied by the loan interest rate on the Financing page:
Debt Interest Payment in Year n = - Debt Balance in Year n * Loan Rate

Debt Repayment
The debt repayment amount is the annual payment on principal amount assuming constant payments over
the loan term defined on the Financials page and at the constant annual interest rate defined on the
Financials page. SAM calculates the amount using a methodology equivalent to Excel's PPMT function:
Debt Repayment in Year n = -PPMT(Loan Rate,n,Loan Term,Principal Amount,0,0)

Debt Total Payment

The total debt payment is the sum of interest and principal payments:
Debt Total Payment = Debt Interest Payment + Debt Repayment

Investment Based Incentives (IBI)

Each IBI applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow. SAM calculates the value of each investment-based
incentive (IBI) as either a fixed amount or percentage of the total installed cost that you specify on the
Payment Incentives page. The total installed cost is from the System Costs page:
IBI in Year 0 = Amount ($)
IBI in Year 0 = Total Installed Cost ($) * Percentage (%), up to maximum value

Note. The IBI reduces the debt balance in Year 1.

Capacity Based Incentives (CBI)

Each CBI applies in Year 0 of the project cash flow, and is calculated based on the system's rated capacity
and the incentive rate (Amount) from the Payment Incentives page. The rated capacity depends on the
system type, as described above under "Operation and Maintenance Costs:"
CBI in Year 0 = System Capacty (W) * Amount ($/W), up to maximum value

Production Based Incentives (PBI)

The PBI apply in Years 1 and later of the project cash flow, up to the number of years specified by the Term
variable on the Payment Incentives page. The PBIs are calculated based on each year's annual output
displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table and the incentive rate (Amount) from the Payment
Incentives page. The amount, term, and escalation rate are specified on the Payment Incentives page:
PBI in Year n = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation)^(n-1)

Note. If you specify a PBI amount on the Payment Incentives page, be sure to also specify the incentive
term. If you specify a term of zero, the incentive will not appear in the cash flow table.

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Federal PTC and State PTC

The PTC apply in Year 1 and later of the project cash flow, up to the number of years specified by the Term
variable on the Tax Credit Incentives page. The PTC are calculated based on each year's annual electrical
output, displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table, and the amount specified on the Tax Credit
Incentives page:
PTC in Year n = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation)^(n-1)

Federal ITC and State ITC

The ITC apply only in Year 1 of the project cash flow. The ITC can be specified on the Tax Credit Incentives
page as a fixed amount, or as a percentage of the total installed cost with a maximum value. The
checkboxes in the "Reduces Depreciation Basis" column determines whether the basis used to calculate
accelerated depreciation is reduced by the ITC amount.
ITC in Year 1 = Amount
ITC in Year 1 = ( Total Installed Cost ($) - Basis Reduction ($) ) * Percentage (%), up to maximum
value
The "Basis Reduction" amount depends on whether the project includes any investment-based incentives
(IBI) or capacity-based incentives (CBI) specified on the Payment Incentives page with checked boxes in
the "Reduces ITC Basis." For each checked incentive, SAM subtracts the IBI or CBI amount from the total
installed cost to calculate the ITC.

Sales Tax Deduction (Commercial Only)

SAM calculates the sales tax amount by multiplying the sales tax rate on the Financing page by the
"percent of direct cost" rate from the System Costs page.
The sales tax amount is included the total installation cost and accounted for in the Year 0 after tax cost
value of the cash flow.
For commercial projects, SAM also deducts the sales tax amount from federal and state income tax
payment in Year 1. The sales tax deduction amount depends on the sales tax rate specified on the
Financing page, and the percentage of direct cost and total direct cost specified on the System Costs
page:
Sales Tax Deduction = Sales Tax (%) * Percent of Direct Cost (%) * Total Direct Cost ($)

Depreciation Schedule (% ) -- State and Federal (Commercial Only)

For commercial projects with a depreciation option defined on the Financing page, SAM displays the
depreciation percentage in the State Depreciation Schedule and Federal Depreciation Schedule rows of the
cash flow table. SAM determines the depreciation schedule (percentage and applicable years) based on the
options specified on the Financing page.

Depreciation -- State and Federal (Commercial Only)

The depreciation amount is the product of the percentage and the total installed costs on the System Costs
page:
Depreciation = Depreciation Schedule (%) * Total Installed Costs

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Income Taxes -- State and Federal

The state and federal income tax amount is the taxable income multiplied by the tax rate on the Financing
page for the applicable tax:
Income Taxes = (Deductible Expenses + IBI + CBI + PBI - Interest Payment) × Tax Rate

Tax Savings -- State and Federal

For both federal and state taxes, a positive value of Tax Savings indicates a tax savings or cash inflow. A
negative value indicates a tax liability or cash outflow.
The tax savings amount is the income tax less PTC and ITC tax credit amounts:
Tax Savings = Income Taxes - PTC - ITC
The PTC and ITC are the production tax credit and investment tax credit, respectively:
The PTC, if it applies, is calculated for each year by multiplying the tax credit percentage from the Tax
Credit Incentives page by the value electric output amount for that year.
When an ITC applies, it is subtracted only in year one of the project; it is not subtracted in year two and
subsequent years. The ITC is either equal to the fixed amount on the Payment Incentives page, or
calculated by multiplying the ITC percentage on the Incentives page by the applicable basis.

A note about incentives. Some incentives have caps that limit their maximum value, while others have
escalation rates that increase their value from year to year. Others have term limits that end payments
after a given number of years. In some cases the incentive income is taxable at the federal or state level,
and in other cases it is not. Finally, investment and capacity based incentives may or may not reduce
the basis on which the investment tax credit (ITC) is calculated. All of these factors are defined on the
Payment Incentives page.

After Tax Cost

Year zero of the cash flows represents the project capital cost. The capital cost is equal to the total
installed cost displayed on the system costs page minus the loan principal amount from the Financing page
, and any investment based incentives.
Year one is the first year that the project generates electricity. The cash flow for year one and subsequent
years accounts for project expenses, income from electricity sales, taxes, and incentive payments.
The after tax cost row represents the net income of the project after tax and debt payments are made,
operating costs are paid, and any incentive payments are received. The after tax cost in year one and
subsequent years is:
After Tax Cost = State Tax Savings + Federal Tax Savings + PBI Incentives - Operating Costs -
Debt Total Payment

Note. The cash flow table for utility projects does not include a row for the After Tax Cost flow.

After Tax Cashflow

The after tax cash flow for year one and subsequent years is given by:
After Tax Cashflow = After Tax Cost +

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Residential Offset Electricity Payments
Commercial Offset Electricity Payments - Offset Electricity Payments × Effective Tax Rate

The effective tax rate is a single number that includes both the federal income tax rate and state income tax
rate. SAM uses the effective tax rate for several calculations requiring a total income tax value.
The effective tax rate calculation is:

The federal and state tax rates are input variables on the Financing page.

Payback Cash Flows

SAM uses the payback cash flows to calculate the project payback period displayed in the Metrics table on
the Results page.
The payback period is the number of years that it takes for the cumulative payback expenses included cash
flow to switch from negative to positive. If the cumulative payback cash flow amount is negative for all years
in the cash flow, SAM displays the value 1e+99 for the payback, indicating that the payback period is
greater than the analysis period.
For Year 0, the payback cash flow is equal to the total installed cost from the System Costs page. A
negative value indicates an expenditure.
For Years 1 and later, the payback cash flow is:
Payback expenses included = After Tax Cashflow + Debt Interest Payment × (1 - Effective Tax
Rate) + Debt Repayment
Payback expenses excluded = Payback expenses included + Operating Costs + Deductible
Expenses × Effective Tax Rate
The cumulative payback cash flow for each year is the sum of the current year's payback amount and the
previous year's amount.

5.3.2 IPP and Commercial PPA

Cash Flow Year

The cash flow year is displayed in the top row of the cash flow table. In the descriptions below, the letter n
indicates the cash flow year, where n = 0 is year zero of the cash flow, n = 1 is year one, n = 2 is year two,
etc.

Energy (kWh)
The energy quantity reported for year one is equal to the Annual Energy value displayed in the Metrics table
on the Results page. The quantities in year two and subsequent years is based on the year one value
adjusted for the degradation rate on the Annual Performance page:
Energy in Year n = Energy in Year One * (1 - Degradation Rate) ^ n-1

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Energy Price ($/kWh)

For residential and commercial projects, the energy price is determined by the rate structure you specify on
the Utility Rate page and does not appear in the cash flow table.
For utility and commercial third party projects, the energy price in year one is the 1st Year PPA price,
which is a result displayed in the Metrics table on the Results page. The energy price represents the
average annual electricity sales price.
For utility projects, the energy price in years two and later is the first year price adjusted by the PPA
escalation rate displayed on the Metrics table.
Energy Price in Year n = Energy Price in Year n-1 * (1 + PPA Escalation Rate)^(n-1)

Energy Value ($)

For residential and commercial projects, the energy value represents total annual value of electricity
generated by the system, assuming that the electricity is sold at prices specified by the rate structure
specified on the Utility Rate page. For solar hot water systems, the value represents the value of the
thermal energy delivered to the thermal load.
For utility and commercial third party projects, the energy value represents annual income earned by the
project through electricity sales:
Energy Value = Energy (k Wh) * Energy Price ($/k Wh)

Recapitalization
The recapitalization cost applies only to geothermal projects and represents the cost required to drill new
wells when the reservoir temperature drops below a certain level. The recapitalization cost is specified on
the Geothermal System Costs page.

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Costs

The operation and maintenance (O&M) costs are defined on the system costs page and escalated in each
year after year one using both the escalation rate for each O&M category on the system costs page and
the inflation rate value on the Financials page.
Fixed O&M Annual in Year n = Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate) ^ n-
1
Fixed O&M in Year n = Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/k W-yr) * System Rated Capacity * (1 + Inflation
Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Variable O&M in Year n = Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) * Annual Output in Year n (MWh) *
(1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)

Fuel O&M
Parabolic trough, power tower, and generic fossil systems include an annual cost of fuel for the fossil
backup system in the total operating expense. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal Storage
page for troughs or towers is greater than zero, the systems consume fuel for backup energy.) For
photovoltaic and CSP dish systems, the fuel cost is always zero.
SAM reports the annual fuel usage in the hourly results. The total annual fuel usage in year 1 is reported on
the Annual Data spreadsheet in the Spreadsheet summary table.

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Fuel O&M in Year n = Annual Fuel Usage in Year 1 (k Wh) * 0.003413 MMBtu/k Wh * Fossil Fuel
Cost ($/MMBtu) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)

Insurance
The insurance cost applies in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depends on the insurance rate specified
on the Financing page and the total installed costs on the System Costs page.
Insurance in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) * Insurance (%) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation
Rate)^(n-1)

Property Taxes
Property taxes apply in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depend on the property tax rate specified on
the Financing page, and on the total installed costs on the System Costs page:
Property Taxes in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) * Property Tax (%) * (1 + Inflation Rate +
Escalation Rate)^(n-1)

Net Salvage Value

SAM calculates the net salvage value using the percentage you specify on the Financing page and the total
installed cost from the System Costs page. The salvage value applies in the final year of the project cash
flow.
For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of 2.5% and total
installed cost of $1 million, SAM includes income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 × 0.10 × (1 +
0.025) ^ (30 - 1).
SAM adds the salvage value as income (a negative value) to the operating expenses in the cash flow in the
final year of the analysis period.
For residential projects, the salvage value has no effect on federal and state income tax because operating
expenses are not taxable.
For commercial and utility projects, the salvage value reduces the operating expenses in the final year of
the analysis period, which effectively increases the federal and state income tax payment because
operating expenses are deductible from federal and state income tax.

Total Operating Expenses

The total operating expenses include operation and maintenance costs, and insurance and property tax
payments:
Total Operating Expenses = Fixed O&M Annual + Fixed O&M + Variable O&M + Fuel O&M +
Insurance + Property Taxes - Salvage Value

Operating Income
For utility projects, the operating income is the difference between revenues and operating costs:
Operating Income = Energy Value - Operating Costs

Debt Balance
The debt balance in year one represents the debt portion of the capital costs, adjusted for any investment-
based incentives (IBI). The total installed cost is from the System Costs page, total investment-based

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incentives is the sum of all IBIs specified on the Payment Incentives page, and debt fraction is the value
specified on the Financing page:
Debt Balance = (-Total Installed Costs + Total Investment Based Incentives) * Debt Fraction
In years two and later, the debt balance is calculated from the previous year's debt balance and debt
repayment amounts:
Debt Balance = - Debt Balance (previous year) - Debt Repayment (previous year)

Debt Interest Payment

The debt interest payment is the debt balance multiplied by the loan interest rate on the Financing page:
Debt Interest Payment = Debt Balance * Loan Rate

Debt Repayment
The debt repayment amount is the annual payment on principal amount assuming constant payments over
the loan term defined on the Financials page and at the constant annual interest rate defined on the
Financials page. SAM calculates the amount using a methodology equivalent to Excel's PPMT function.

Debt Total Payment

The total debt payment is the sum of interest and principal payments:
Debt Total Payment = Debt Interest Payment + Debt Repayment

Investment Based Incentives (IBI)

Each IBI applies in year one of the project cash flow. SAM calculates the value of each investment-based
incentive (IBI) as either a fixed amount that you specify, or as a percentage of the total installed cost from
the System Costs page:
IBI = Amount ($)
IBI = Total Installed Cost ($) * Percentage (%), up to maximum value

Capacity Based Incentives (CBI)

The CBI also apply in year one of the project cash flow, and are calculated based on the system's rated
capacity. The rated capacity depends on the system type, as described in the capacity factor description:
CBI = System Rated Capacty (W) * Amount, up to maximum value

Production Based Incentives (PBI)

The PBI apply in years 1 and later of the project cash flow. The PBIs are calculated based on each year's
annual output, displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table. The amount and escalation rate are
specified on the Payment Incentives page:
PBI = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation) ^(n-1)

Federal PTC and State PTC

The PTC apply in year 1 and later of the project cash flow, up to the number of years specified by the Term
variable on the Tax Credit Incentives page. The PTC are calculated based on each year's annual electrical
output, displayed in the Energy row of the cash flow table, and the amount specified on the Tax Credit

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Incentives page:
PTC = Amount ($/k Wh) * Energy in Year n (k Wh) * (1 + Escalation) ^ n-1

Federal ITC and State ITC

The ITC apply only in year 1 of the project cash flow. The ITC can be specified on the Tax Credit Incentives
page as a fixed amount, or as a percentage of the total installed cost with a maximum value. The
checkboxes in the "Reduces Depreciation Basis" column determines whether the basis used to calculate
accelerated depreciation is reduced by the ITC amount.
ITC = Amount
ITC = ( Total Installed Cost ($) - Basis Reduction ($) )* Percentage (%), up to maximum value
The "Basis Reduction" amount depends on whether the project includes any investment-based incentives
(IBI) or capacity-based incentives (CBI) specified on the Payment Incentives page with checked boxes in
the "Reduces ITC Basis." For each checked incentive, SAM subtracts the IBI or CBI amount from the total
installed cost to calculate the ITC.

Sales Tax Deduction

SAM calculates the sales tax amount by multiplying the sales tax rate on the Financing page by the
"percent of direct cost" rate you specify under Indirect Capital Costs and the Total Direct Cost on the
System Costs page. The sales tax amount is therefore included the total installation cost and accounted for
in the year zero after tax cost in the project cash flow.
SAM also deducts the sales tax amount from federal and state income tax payment in year one of the
project cash flow. The sales tax deduction amount depends on the sales tax rate specified on the Financing
page, and the percentage of direct cost and total direct cost specified on the System Costs page:
Sales Tax Deduction = Sales Tax (%) * Percent of Direct Cost (%) * Total Direct Cost ($)

PreTax Debt Service Coverage Ratio

The debt-service coverage ratio row in the cash flow table only applies to projects with utility and
commercial third-party financing. Solar Adviser displays the annual debt service coverage (DSCR) amounts
for utility and commercial third party ownership projects only. The minimum DSCR value displayed in the
Metrics table is the minimum value in the row of the cash flow table.
PreTax DSCR = Operating Income ÷ Total Debt Payment

5.3.3 New Utility Structures (Draft)

This section describes the cash flow for the four new utility rate structures, Single Owner, All Equity
Partnership Flip, Leveraged Partnership Flip and Sale Leaseback.

Note. This section is in draft form and will be updated soon after the release of SAM 0.0.1.

Partial Income Statement: Project

The first four rows of the cash flow table show values for the project as a whole.

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Net Energy (kWh)

The energy quantity reported for year one is equal to the Annual Energy value displayed in the Metrics
table on the Results page. The quantities in year two and subsequent years is based on the year one
value adjusted for the degradation rate on the Annual Performance page:
Energy in Year n = Energy in Year One * (1 - Degradation Rate) ^ n-1
PPA price (cents/kWh)
The PPA price year one is the 1st Year PPA price, which is a result displayed in the Metrics table on
the Results page. The energy price represents the average annual electricity sales price.
The PPA price in years two and later is the first year price adjusted by the PPA escalation rate
displayed on the Metrics table.
Energy Price in Year n = Energy Price in Year n-1 * (1 + PPA Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
Salvage value ($)
SAM calculates the net salvage value using the percentage you specify on the Financing page and the
total installed cost from the System Costs page. The salvage value applies in the final year of the
project cash flow.
For example, if you specify a 10% salvage value for a 30-year project with an inflation rate of 2.5% and
total installed cost of $1 million, SAM includes income of $204,640.74 in year 30: $1,000,000 × 0.10 ×
(1 + 0.025) ^ (30 - 1).
SAM adds the salvage value as income (a negative value) to the operating expenses in the cash flow in
the final year of the analysis period. The salvage value reduces the operating expenses in the final year
of the analysis period, which effectively increases the federal and state income tax payment because
operating expenses are deductible from federal and state income tax.
Total revenue ($)
Annual income earned by the project through electricity sales:
Total Revenue = Net Energy (k Wh) * PPA Price ($/k Wh)

Expenses
The eight expense rows are for annual project costs calculated from assumptions you specify on the
Financing and System Costs pages.
The four O&M expenses are based on the first year or annual schedule costs you specify under Operation
and Maintenance Costs on the System Costs page, and are adjusted by the inflation rate from the
Financing page and optional escalation rate from the System Costs page.
O&M Fixed expense ($)
O&M Fixed Expense in Year n = Fixed Annual Cost ($/yr) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate) ^
n-1
O&M Capacity-based expense ($)
O&M Capacity-based Expense in Year n = Fixed Cost by Capacity ($/k W-yr) * System Rated
Capacity * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
O&M Production-based expense ($)
O&M Production-based Expense in Year n = Variable Cost by Generation ($/MWh) * Annual Output
in Year n (MWh) * (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)

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O&M Fuel expense ($)
Parabolic trough, power tower, and generic fossil systems include an annual cost of fuel for the fossil
backup system in the total operating expense. (When the fossil fill fraction variable on the Thermal
Storage page for troughs or towers is greater than zero, the systems consume fuel for backup energy.)
For photovoltaic and CSP dish systems, the fuel cost is always zero.
SAM reports the annual fuel usage in the hourly results. The total annual fuel usage in year 1 is
reported on the Annual Data spreadsheet in the Spreadsheet summary table.
Fuel Expense in Year n = Annual Fuel Usage in Year 1 (k Wh) × 0.003413 MMBtu/k Wh × Fossil
Fuel Cost ($/MMBtu) × (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation Rate)^(n-1)
The insurance and property tax expense amounts depend on the insurance and tax rates you specify on the
Financing page.
Insurance expense ($)
The insurance cost applies in year 1 and later of the cash flow, and depends on the insurance rate
specified on the Financing page and the total installed costs on the System Costs page.
Insurance in Year n = Total Installed Costs ($) × Insurance (%) × (1 + Inflation Rate + Escalation
Rate)^(n-1)
Property tax net assessed value ($)
The first year property tax net assessed value is shown on the Financing page, and is based on the
assessed percent value you specify and the total installed cost from the System Costs page.
Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year 1 = Assessed Percent (%) × Total Installed Cost ($)
The assessed value in Years 2 and later is based on the assessed value decline value you specify on
the Financing page:
Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year n = Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year 1 × (1 -
Assessed Value Decline)^(n-1)
Property tax expense ($)
The property tax expense depends on the assessed value and the property tax rate you specify on the
Financing page:
Property Tax Expense in Year n = Property Tax Net Assessed Value in Year n ($) × Property Tax
(%/Year)
Total operating expense ($)
The total operating expense is the sum of O&M, insurance, and property tax expenses.
Total Operating Expense in Year n = O&M Fixed Expense ($) + O&M Capacity-based Expense ($)
+ O&M Production-based Expense ($) + O&M Fuel Expense ($) + Insurance Expense ($) +
Property Tax Expense ($) (all in Year n)

EBITDA ($)
Earnings before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA) is a measure of the project's
annual net income:
EBITDA in Year n = Total Revenue in Year n ($) - Total Operating Expense in Year n ($)

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5.4 Tabular Data Browser

The tabular data browser displays results in tabular form from both the base case simulation, which reflects
data specified on the input pages, and from parametric analyses and other advanced analyses involving
multiple simulations.
You can create custom tables of data in the tabular data browser and export them for use in another
program.

To view the tabular data browser:

1. On the Results page, click Tabular Data Browser.

If you do not see the Hourly Data list, run simulations to generate the list.
2. If your analysis involved multiple simulations, such as for parametric analyses, choose a simulation
in the Choose Simulation list. The list does not appear for results of single simulations.
3. In the navigation tree under Output Variables, check the box for each variable you want to display
in the table.

Tabular Data Browser Categories

The tabular data browser displays data in the following categories:
Metrics
Displays any results that consist of a single value, including:
Results from the Metrics table
Cost data from the System Costs page
Annual totals of energy output values from the hourly data.
Monthly Data
Displays results that consist of twelve monthly values:
Monthly averages of energy output values from the hourly data.
Weather and performance output data values are monthly totals of the hourly data.
For projects with Utility IPP financing, the "First Year TOD..." values show the total electrical output
and revenue by month at for each time of day period specified on the Thermal Energy Storage page
for CSP systems and Energy Payment Dispatch page for other technologies.

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For projects with residential or commercial financing, the "First year..." values show monthly demand
charges and for rate structures with tiered rates, monthly energy charges under the tier structure.
Rate structures are from the Utility Rate page.
Annual Data
Displays results that consist of values for each year in the analysis period:
Year-to-year quantities from the cash flow for each year of the analysis period.
Year-to-year cumulative kWh/kW value.
Hourly Data
Hourly values calculated by the performance model. For descriptions of the hourly data, see:
PV Component Hourly Data
PVWatts Hourly Data
Physical Trough Hourly Data
Empirical Trough Hourly Data
Hourly pricing data for projects with residential and commercial financing.
For for other models, contact SAM Support at [Link]@[Link].

Note. If you do not see the Hourly Data list, run simulations to generate the list. SAM deletes stored
hourly data when you close the file to save storage space.

Exporting Data from the Tabular Data Browser

SAM offers three options for exporting the cash flow table:
Copy to clipboard copies the table to your clipboard. You can paste the entire table into a word
processing document, spreadsheet, presentation or other software.
Save as CSV saves the table in a comma-delimited text file that you can open in a spreadsheet
program or text editor.
Send to Excel (Windows only) saves the table in an Excel file.

Tip. You can view graphs of hourly values from the tabular data browser in DView by first exporting it to
a CSV file, and then opening the file in DView. To open DView, on the Results menu, click View Hourly
Time Series (DView). Use a text editor to make sure that the first row of the file contains column
labels separated by commas and the second row contains column units separated by commas.

Related topics:
Time Series Data Viewer (DView) for details about viewing hourly data in DView.
Base Case Cash Flow for information about financial model results.
Simulation Output File for details about viewing the raw hourly simulation data.
Case Summary for information about viewing the case summary spreadsheet, which includes data
shown on the tabular data browser.

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5.5 Sliders
A slider is a user interface element that allows you to dynamically change the value of an input variable and
observe the effects on tables and graphs displayed on the Results Summary page. For example, the
following group of three sliders would allow you to view the effect of changing operation and maintenance
costs (Fixed Cost by Capacity), inverter cost and module cost on the levelized cost of energy and other
graphs.

Note. Moving a slider only changes the graph. It does not change the stored inputs or results.

To use sliders:
To add a slider, click Choose base case sliders:

To change value of a slider, click and drag the blue slider button, which will turn yellow as you drag
it. The button indicates the variable's current value, as does the number at the left end of the slider.
The red line indicates the variable's base case value, which is the value from the variable's input
page.

The buttons on the top right corner of the slider allow you to assign the current value to the base
case value, change the slider's range, and to remove the slider from the Results Summary page.

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Note. Assigning a slider's current value to the base case changes the variable's value on the input page.

5.6 Case Summary

The case summary is a dataset that SAM generates input variables, the cash flow, hourly results, and
averages of hourly results.
The data included in the case summary is from "base case" input values, which are the values of input
variables visible on the input pages. The case summary does not display data from additional simulations
for parametric or other simulation configurations that require multiple simulations.

Note. The case summary is a report that contains values generated by SAM during simulations. When
you export the case summary to Excel (Windows only) the workbook contains values but no formulas.
This is because SAM calculates the values internally and does not rely on Excel to make the
calculations.

To generate the case summary workbook:

1. On the Results page, click the Export and view data button

or, on the Results menu, click Case Summary.

2. Choose an option for exporting the data.

SAM provides three options for exporting case summary data:

To Clipboard (Windows and Mac)
Creates a copy of the case summary data as comma-separated values (CSV) in your computer's
clipboard. You can paste the data in a spreadsheet, word processing program, or other program. This
option does not save hourly output data.

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Save as CSV (Windows and Mac)

Saves the case summary data to a text file as comma-separated values (CSV). The comma-separated
version of the case summary includes some of the data included in the case summary workbook in a
single file. The data is arranged in columns as follows: Monthly averages of some hourly variables,
annual averages, cash flow table with years listed by row instead of by column, data from the Metrics
table. This option does not save hourly output data.
Send to Excel (Windows only)
For Windows only. Creates and opens an Excel workbook containing several worksheets of data.

Case Summary Workbook in Excel (Windows Only)

The case summary workbook contains a worksheet for each of the following categories of output data:
Cashflow
Cash flow table showing project cost details for each year of the analysis period. This is the same data
shown in the Base Case Cashflow table on the Results page.
Metrics
A copy of the data shown in the Metrics table on the Results page. See Metrics Table for details.
Graphs
Data from graphs visible on the Results page when you displayed the case summary workbook.
Inputs
A list of input variables and values.
Hourly Data
Hourly values calculated by the performance model. For descriptions of the hourly data, see:
PV Component Hourly Data
PVWatts Hourly Data
Physical Trough Hourly Data
Empirical Trough Hourly Data
For for other models, contact SAM Support at [Link]@[Link].
Monthly Data
Monthly averages of the hourly performance data.
Annual Data
Annual averages of the hourly performance data.
All Outputs
A single worksheet containing some data from the worksheets described above. This data is equivalent
to the data exported using the To Clipboard or Save as CSV export options.
Data File
A blank worksheet.

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5.7 Hourly Results

SAM displays hourly results in the tabular data browser and on the Hourly Data tab of the case summary
spreadsheet.
The variables that appear in the hourly results are different for different technologies, and are a subset of the
hourly results stored in the simulation results file.
For descriptions of the hourly results by technology, see the relevant section below. For technologies not
included in the list, contact SAM support at [Link]@[Link]:
Photovoltaic component-based model
PVWatts
Physical trough
Empirical trough
For projects with residential and commercial financing, SAM also displays hourly results for electricity
prices, electric load, and energy to and from the grid:
Hourly Pricing Data

5.7.1 Hourly Pricing Data

For projects with residential and commercial financing, you specify electricity prices on the Utility Rate
page and an electric load on the Electric Load page. The electricity prices are retail prices set by the
electric service provider.
SAM reports the following hourly data in the tabular data browser on the Results page that you can use to
explore pricing data along with hourly energy quantities:
Electricity sold to and purchased from the grid in kWh
Electricity prices in $/kWh
Electric load in kWh
Revenue from electricity sales (sales - purchases) in $

To view hourly pricing data:

1. After running simulations, on the Results page, click Tabular Data Browser.

Note. To save disk space, SAM discards hourly data each time you close a file. To see the hourly data
after opening a file, you must first run simulations.

2. Under Output Variables, click Hourly Data to expand the list of hourly variables.
3. Check a variable name to display the variable's hourly values.
You can export the data to Excel or another spreadsheet program using the buttons above the
table.

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Hourly Pricing Variables

System output, kWh
The electric output of the renewable energy system. The variable name differs for the different
technologies.
Electricity demand, kWh
Electricity required from the grid. For negative values, SAM sets the electricity demand to zero:
Electricity Demand = Electricity Load - System Output
Note that SAM reports the load as a negative number. The above equation is for positive load values.
Electricity Load, kWh
The electric load requirement defined on the Electric Load page.
Electricity Price with System, $/kWh
The price of electricity for the given hour using buy and sell rates specified on the Utility Rate page. For
hours when the project buys electricity, it is the buy rate specified for that hour. For hours when the
project sells electricity, it is the sell rate.
Electricity Price without System, $/kWh
The price of electricity for the given hour, assuming the renewable energy system does not exist, using
the sell rates specified on the Utility Rate page.
Electricity to grid, kWh
Electricity delivered to the grid. A negative value indicates electricity purchased from the grid. A positive
value indicates electricity sold to the grid.
Electricity to Grid = System Output - Electricity Load
Note that SAM reports the load as a negative number. The above equation is for positive load values.
Peak electricity demand, kW
Applies only when you specify sub-hourly load data on the Electric Load page. The maximum value of
the sub-hourly electricity demand values for each hour.
Peak electricity load, kW
Applies only when you specify sub-hourly load data on the Electric Load page. The maximum value of
the sub-hourly electricity load values for each hour. SAM determines the maximum monthly value to
calculate any monthly demand charges specified on the Utility Rate page.
Peak electricity to grid, kW
Applies only when you specify sub-hourly load data on the Electric Load page. The maximum value of
the sub-hourly electricity to grid values for each hour.
Purchases with system, $
The value of electricity purchased from the grid at the applicable buy rate for each hour, including
monthly charges and tiered rate energy charges.
Purchases with System = Electricity Price with System × Electricity Demand
SAM assigns monthly charges and tiered rate energy charges to the final hour of each month. For
example, charges for January apply to Hour 744 (31 days/month × 24 hours/day = 744 hours/month),
and charges for February apply to Hour 1416, assuming 28 days for February. For the final hour of each

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month:
Purchases with System = Electricity Price with System × Electricity Demand + Demand Charges +
Tiered Rate Energy Charges
Purchases without system, $
The value of electricity that would be purchased to meet the load without the renewable energy system
at the buy rates specified on the Utility Rate page.
Purchases without System = Electricity Price without System × Electricity Load
SAM assigns monthly charges and tiered rate energy charges to the final hour of each month as
described above. For the final hour of each month:
Purchases without System = Electricity Price without System × Electricity Load + Demand Charges
+ Tiered Rate Energy Charges
Revenue with system, $
The net value of sales to the grid.
Revenue with System = Sales with System - Purchases with System
Revenue without system, $
The value of electricity that would be purchased from the grid without the renewable energy system.
Revenue without System = Sales without System - Purchases without System
Because sales without the system are zero,
Revenue without System = - Purchases without System
Sales with system, $
The value of electricity sold to the grid at the applicable sell rate for each hour that the system output is
greater than the load.
Sales with System = Electricity Price with System × ( System Output - Electricity Load )
Note that SAM reports the load as a negative number. The above equation is for positive load values.
For hours when the sales value is less than zero, SAM reports a value of zero.
Sales without system, $
Without a renewable energy system, no electricity is sold to the grid.
Sales without System = 0

5.7.2 PV Component Hourly Data

SAM displays hourly results for the photovoltaic component-based model in the following places:
Case summary workbook
Tabular data browser
DView
Simulation output file
The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in
the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and

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DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file.

Case Summary Hourly Data for the Photovoltaic Component-based Model

Hour
Hour of the year. The time convention is determined by the convention used in the weather file. For
NREL's TMY format, Hour 1 represents the hour ending at 1 am on January 1, and February has 28
days. For schedules used for utility rate structures and thermal energy storage dispatch, SAM
assumes that January 1 is a Monday.
Global Horizontal (kW/m2), Hourly
Global horizontal radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at
the end of the hour.
Incident Beam (kW/m2), Hourly
Incident beam radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the
end of the hour.
Incident Beam, Shaded (kW/m2), Hourly
Incident beam radiation reduced by the beam shading factor (if any) specified on the Shading page.
Incident Diffuse (kW/m2), Hourly
Incident diffuse radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the
end of the hour.
Incident Diffuse, Shaded (kW/m2), Hourly
The incident diffuse radiatin reduced by the sky diffuse shading factor (if any) specified on the Shading
page.
Radiation Total (kW/m2), Hourly
Incident total radiation calculated by the weather processor based on solar angles determined from the
latitude and longitude values in the weather file and array orientation options specified on the Array page
.
Incident Total (kWh), Hourly
The total average hourly incident global radiation absorbed by the array, the product of the incident
radiation in kilowatts per square meter and the array area in square meters from the Array page.
Module Eff. (%), Hourly
Module average efficiency by hour, equivalent to Gross DC Power / Incident Total.
Wind Speed (m/s), Hourly
The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind
speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file.
Ambient Temperature ('C), Hourly
The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
Cell Temperature ('C), Hourly
The cell temperature.

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Vmp (V), Hourly
The array's maximum power DC voltage.
Gross DC Output (kWh), Hourly
DC output of the array, not derated.
Derated DC Output (kWh), Hourly
DC output of the array, derated by the amount specified by the pre-inverter derate factor on the Array
page.
Gross AC Output (kWh), Hourly
AC output of the inverter, not derated.
Hourly Energy (kWh)
AC output of the inverter, derated by the amount specified by the post-inveter derate factor on the Array
page. Note that in previous versions of SAM, this variable was named Derated AC Output (kWh),
Hourly.
For simulations that involve retail pricing and a load (residential and commercial financing only), the hourly
results includes additional variables showing the load, grid electricity, and prices. See Hourly Pricing Data
for details.

5.7.3 PVWatts Hourly Data

SAM displays hourly results for the PVWatts model in the following places:
Case summary workbook
Tabular data browser
DView
Simulation output file
The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in
the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and
DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file.

Case Summary Hourly Data for the PVWatts Model

Hour
Hour of the year. The time convention is determined by the convention used in the weather file. For
NREL's TMY format, Hour 1 represents the hour ending at 1 am on January 1, and February has 28
days. For schedules used for utility rate structures and thermal energy storage dispatch, SAM
assumes that January 1 is a Monday.
Direct (kW/m2), Hourly
Incident direct radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the
end of the hour.
Diffuse (kW/m2), Hourly
Incident diffuse radiation value from the weather file, which represents the radiation over the hour at the
end of the hour.

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Plane of Array (kW/m2), Hourly

Incident total radiation calculated by the weather processor based on solar angles determined from the
latitude and longitude values in the weather file and array orientation options specified on the Array page
.
Wind Speed (m/s), Hourly
The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind
speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file.
Ambient Temp ('C), Hourly
The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
Cell Temp ('C), Hourly
The cell temperature.
DC Output (kWh), Hourly
DC output of the array.
Hourly Energy (kWh)
AC output of the system.
Shading Factor for Beam Radiation, Hourly
The hourly beam shading factor specified on the Shading page.
For simulations that involve retail pricing and a load (residential and commercial financing only), the hourly
results includes additional variables showing the load, grid electricity, and prices. See Hourly Pricing Data
for details.

5.7.4 Physical Trough Hourly Data

SAM displays hourly results for the physical trough model in the following places:
Case summary workbook
Tabular data browser
DView
Simulation output file
The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in
the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and
DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file.

Case Summary Hourly Data for the Physical Trough Model

Hour
Hour of the year
Hourly Energy (kWh)
AC electricity generated by the system.

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DNI (kW/m2-hr), Hourly
Direct normal irradiance
DNIxCosTH (W/m2), Hourly
Incident direct normal irradiance
Dry Bulb Temp (C), Hourly
The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
Wet Bulb Temp (C), Hourly
The mid-hour wet bulb temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour wet bulb temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour
in the weather file.
Collector Optical Efficiency, Hourly
Collector efficiency
Available Flow From Field, Hourly
Mass flow rate at solar field outlet in kg/hr.
Flow to Power Block, Hourly
Mass flow rate at power block inlet in kg/hr.
Flow Discharge Collector Side, Hourly
Mass flow rate mass flow at solar side of storage loop in kg/hr.
Flow Discharge TES Side, Hourly
Mass flow rate at tank side storage loop in kg/hr.
Flow to Aux Heater, Hourly
Auxiliary heater mass flow rate in kg/hr.
Mass in Cold Tank, Hourly
Mass of fluid in cold tank in kg.
Mass in Hot Tank, Hourly
Mass of storage fluid in hot tank in kg.
Power Block Efficiency, Hourly
Thermal-to-electricy conversion efficiency of the power block.
Field Pumping Power, Hourly
Parasitic solar field pumping load in kWh/h.
Gross Electric Output (kWh), Hourly
System electric output.
Q Field Output, Hourly
Solar field thermal energy output in kWh.
Q Incident Total, Hourly
Total radiation incident on collector in kWh.

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Q Absorbed Total, Hourly

Total energy absorbed by the solar field in kWh.
Q to Power Block, Hourly
Thermal energy delivered to power block in kWh.
Q Dumped, Hourly
Thermal energy shed by defocusing collectors in kWh
Q Thermal Loss, Hourly
HCE thermal heat losses in kWh.
Q Aux. Fuel Usage
Auxiliary boiler fuel consumption in kWh.
Cold Header Inlet Temp (C), Hourly
HTF temperature at solar field inlet.
Hot Header Outlet Temp (C), Hourly
HTF temperature at solar field outlet.
Power Block HTF Inlet Temp (C), Hourly
HTF temperature at power block inlet.
Power Block HTF Outlet Temp (C), Hourly
HTF temperature at power block outlet.
Water Usage (m3), Hourly
Water usage for cooling and mirror washing.

5.7.5 Empirical Trough Hourly Data

SAM displays hourly results for the empirical trough model in the following places:
Case summary workbook
Tabular data browser
DView
Simulation output file
The data in the different places is the same, but SAM uses slightly different names for the same values in
the different places. For some technologies, the hourly data in the case summary, tabular data browser and
DView is a subset of the data in the simulation output file.
Hour
Hour of simulation from the weather file. SAM assumes that Hour 1 ends at 1:00 a.m. on January 1,
and that Hour 8,760 ending at midnight December 31.
DNI (kW/m2-hr), Hourly
Direct normal irradiance from weather file.

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DNIxCosTH (W/m2), Hourly
Incident direct normal irradiance.
Wind Speed (m/s), Hourly
The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind
speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file.
Ambient Temp ('C), Hourly
The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
Incident Solar Radiation, Hourly
Total direct radiation incident on the solar field in kWh, equal to the product of the direct normal
irradiance and the actual solar field area from the Solar Field page.
Incidence Angle for Solar Field, Hourly
Total cosine-adjusted direct radiation incident on the solar field in kWh, equal to the product of the
DNIxCosTh and the actual solar field area from the Solar Field page.
Solar Field Availability, Hourly
Total availability-adjusted field energy in kWh, equal to the product of the cosine-adjusted energy and
the Solar Availability factor from the SCA / HCE page.
Solar Field Optical Efficiency, Hourly
The availability-adjusted field energy value in kWh less optical efficiency-related losses.
Receiver Thermal Losses, Hourly
Thermal losses from the receiver in kWh.
Piping Thermal Losses, Hourly
Piping thermal losses in kWh.
Thermal Energy Delivered by Solar Field, Hourly
Thermal energy output of the solar field in kWh.
TES Full Losses, Hourly
Losses from the thermal energy storage system TES when the TES is at full capacity.
TES Thermal Losses, Hourly
Hourly losses from the thermal energy storage system, equal to the Tank Heat Loss value specified on
the Thermal Storage page.
Turbine Start Up, Hourly
Energy required to start up the power block.
Excess to PB,TES, Hourly
Thermal energy in kWh dumped when either the energy delivered to either the power block or TES
exceeds the maximum allowed
Thermal Energy to Power Block, Hourly
Thermal energy in kWh delivered to the power block from the solar field an/or storage.

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Gross Electric Output (kWh), Hourly

Power block gross electric output before parasitic losses.
Hourly Energy (kWh)
System electric output after parasitic losses.

5.8 Simulation Results File

During simulations, SAM generates a set of hourly output data and stores them in the simulation output file.
SAM stores the file in a temporary folder that is available until you close SAM.
SAM provides three options for viewing subsets of the data in the simulation output file. Each option
displays a different subset of the data in the simulation output file:
Tabular Data Browser (Windows and Mac) on the Results page allows you to choose the data to
display and to export the data to the clipboard or to a text or Excel file.
Time Series Data Viewer (DView) (Windows only) displays the data in a graphical data viewing program
that shows the raw hourly data along with statistical summaries of the data, and allows graphs and data
to be exported to the clipboard, image files, and text files.
Case Summary Workbook (Windows only) displays the data in an Excel workbook on the Hourly Data
spreadsheet.
Open the simulation output file (.out) directly (Windows and Mac) with a text-editor or spreadsheet
program. Press the F9 key to open the temporary folder containing the file.
If you frequently work with hourly results, you can choose to save hourly output files in a folder of your
choice in the Preferences window by checking the Save TRNYSYS hourly data, list, and log files in
folder option and specifying a folder. Click Preferences on the File menu to open the window. SAM does
not delete files from this folder. However, it uses the same file name each time it runs a simulation, so if you
want to save files from different simulations, you should manually rename the file after each simulation so
that SAM does not overwrite the data.

Hourly Simulation Data Descriptions

For descriptions of the hourly simulation data by technology, see the relevant section below. For
technologies not included in the list, contact SAM support at [Link]@[Link]:
Photovoltaic component-based models
Physical trough model
Empirical trough model

5.8.1 PV Component Simulation

SAM displays photovoltaic system hourly output data in the following places:
Simulation output file (described below)
Tabular data browser on the Results page

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Case summary workbook
DView

Hourly Simulation Output Data for Photovoltaic Component-based Model

hour
Hour of simulation from the weather file. SAM assumes that Hour 1 ends at 1:00 a.m. on January 1,
and that Hour 8,760 ending at midnight December 31.
GlobHozRad, kW/m2
Global horizontal radiation from weather file.
IncBeam, kW/m2
Incident beam radiation calculated by the weather data processor based on data from weather file and
array orientation specified on the Array page.
IncBeamShad, kW/m2
Incident beam radiation reduced by the beam shading factor specified on the Shading page.
IncDiff, kW/m2
Incident diffuse radiation calculated by the weather data processor based on data from the weather file
and array orientation specified on the Array page.
IncDiffShad
Incident diffuse radiation reduced by the sky diffuse shading factor specified on the Shading page.
IncTotRad, kW/m2
Incident total radiation calculated by the weather data processor based on data from the weather file
and array orientation specified on the Array page, and accounting for the shading factors on the
Shading page.
DCPower
The average DC power delivered by the array over the hour in kWh/h.
InvPartLoad
The ratio of the inverter's AC power to its rated AC power.
InvEff
The ratio of the inverter's AC output to its DC input.
ACPower, kW
The average AC power delivered by the system.
CellTemp, °C
The cell temperature.
AmbTemp, °C
The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
Windspd, m/s
The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind

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 Simulation Results File 393

speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file.
Vmp, Vdc
The array's maximum power DC voltage.
InputRadiation, kWh
The total average hourly incident global radiation absorbed by the array, the product of the incident
radiation in kilowatts per square meter and the array area in square meters.
Gross_DCPower, kW
DC output of the array, not derated.
Derated_DCPower, kW
DC output of the array, derated by the amount specified by the total pre-inverter derate factor on the
Array page.
Gross_ACPower, kW
AC output of the inverter, not derated.
Derated_ACPower, kW
AC output of the inverter, derated by the amount specified by the total post-inveter derate factor on the
Array page
ModEff
Module average efficiency by hour, equivalent to Gross_DCPower / InputRadiation.
Beam_derate
The beam shading factor from the Shading page.
self_shad_nonlin
self_shad_lin
slope, deg
The array angle from horizontal, based on the tracking option and tilt angle from the Array page and the
sun angle calculated by the weather processor.
azimuth, deg
The east-west orientation of the array, based on the tracking option and tilt angle from the Array page
and the sun angle calculated by the weather processor.
rotation, deg

5.8.2 Physical Trough Simulation

SAM displays physical trough simulation output data in the following places:
Simulation output file (described below)
Tabular data browser on the Results page
Case summary workbook
DView

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Hourly Simulation Output Data for Physical Trough Model

TIME, hours
hour of the year
DNI, W/m2
direct normal irradiance
Hour_of_day, hours
hour of the day
P_atm, atm
atmospheric pressure
V_wind, m/s
The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind
speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file.
Solar_azimuth, deg
solar azimuth
Solar_elevation, deg
solar elevation
T_dry_bulb, C
The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
T_wet_bulb, C
The mid-hour wet bulb temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
collector_opt_efficiency
collector efficiency
collector_Theta, deg
collector incidence angle (Theta)
collector_CosTheta
cosine of Theta
collector_IAM, none
incidence angle modifier
collector_Row-Shadow
row shadowing
collector_End-loss
end loss

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 Simulation Results File 395

collector_DNI-x-CosTh, W/m2
CosTheta-adjusted incident radiation
collector_Qsf-x-CosTh, MW
CosTheta-adjusted field power
flow_available_from_field, kg/hr
mass flow rate
flow_within_field, kg/hr
Internal field mass flow rate
flow_to_power_block, kg/hr
flow to power block
flow_demand_power_block, kg/hr
demand mass flow rate
flow_store_disch-col-side, kg/hr
mass flow rate of solar side storage loop
flow_store_disch-TES-side, kg/hr
mass flow rate of tank side storage loop
flow_to_aux_heat, kg/hr
auxiliary heater mass flow rate
flow_in_loop, kg/s
flow in a single loop
flow_water_makeup, kg/hr
water makeup flow rate
Frac_focused_SCAs
fraction of all SCAS that are defocused
hx_effectiveness
hx effectiveness
mass_cold_tank, kg
cold tank available mass
mass_hot_tank, kg
hot tank available mass
mass_tanks_total, kg
total available storage HTF mass
Pressure_drop_field, bar
pressure drop across solar field
Efficiency_power_block
cycle thermal efficiency

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power_field-pump_par, MW
required pumping power
power_PB-TES-pumps_par, MW
TES and PB HTF pumping power
power_drives-elec_par, MW
SCA drives and electronics parasitic power
power_BOP_par, MW
balance of plant parasitic load
power_fixed_par, MW
fixed parasitic load
power_htr-boiler_par, MW
auxiliary boiler parasitic load
power_cooling_par, MW
cooling parasitic power
power_gross, MW
cycle power output
E_net, MW
net electric power output
Q_field_out, MW
thermal power produced by the field
Q_inc_total, MW
total incident power on field
Q_abs_total, MW
total absorbed power
Q_to_pb, MW
thermal energy to the power block
Q_hdr_pipe_hl
MW, hot header and runner pipe heat losses
Q_dump, MW
dumped energy
Q_loss_tank, MW
tank thermal losses
Q_loss_therm, MW
HCE thermal losses
Q_loss_abstube_avg, W/m
average losses from absorber tube

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Q_aux_fluid, MW
auxiliary thermal energy delivered
Q_aux_fuel_hv, MMBTU
auxiliary fuel heat content required
Q_freeze_prot, MW
required freeze protection
Q_frzprot_tank, MW
total parasitic power for tank freeze protection
Q_startup, MW
energy used for startup
T_cold_header_in, C
system inlet temperature
T_hot_header_out, C
outlet temperature
T_collector_in, C
HCE inlet temperature
T_cold_tank_in, C
cold tank inlet temp
T_hot_tank_in, C
hot tank inlet temp
T_cold_tank, C
cold tank temperature
T_hot_tank, C
hot tank temperature
T_store_loop_in, C
fluid temp of hot HTF in solar loop
T_store_loop_out, C
cold side of storage, HTF temperature in solar loop
T_power_block_HTF_in, C
power block inlet HTF temperature
T_power_block_HTF_out, C
cold HTF outlet temp
Vol_cold_tank, m3
available cold htf volume
Vol_hot_tank, m3
available hot htf volume

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Vol_tanks_tot, m3
total storage volume

5.8.3 Empirical Trough Simulation

SAM displays physical trough simulation output data in the following places:
Simulation output file (described below)
Tabular data browser on the Results page
Case summary workbook
DView

Hourly Simulation Output Data for Empirical Trough Model

TIME, HOURS
hour of year
Day_of_year, day
day of year
MONTH, month
month of year
Hour_of_month, hr
hour of month
Day_of_month, day
day of month
Hour_of_day, hr
hour of day
TOUPeriod, none
time-of-use period defined for storage dispatch
SolTime, hr
solar time
HrAngle, deg
hour angle
SolAz, deg
solar azimuth angle
SolAlt, deg
solar altitude
DNI, W/m2
direct normal irradiance from weather file

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T_dry_bulb, C
The mid-hour ambient temperature calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-
hour temperature from the previous hour with the end-of-hour temperature from the current hour in the
weather file.
V_wind, m/s
The mid-hour wind speed calculated by the weather data processor by averaging the end-of-hour wind
speed from the previous hour with the end-of-hour wind speed from the current hour in the weather file.
Theta, deg
theta incidence angle
Costheta, none
cosine theta angle product
TrckAngl, deg
collector tracking angle
IAM, none
incident angle modifier
RowShadow, none
fraction of incoming radiation remaining after row shadowing is subtracted
Endloss, none
fraction of incoming radiation remaining after losses off end of collector
RecHtLoss, MW
receiver heat loss
QSF_HCE_HL, MW
energy lost by HCEs (receivers) in the solar field
SF_OptEff, none
total solar field optical efficiency
Q_nip, W/m2
direct normal radiation value read from the weather file
Q_nipCosTh, W/m2
cosine Theta-adjusted incident radiation
QSF_nipCosTh, MW
radiation in the solar field collector plane
Q_DNI_on_SF, MW
direct normal radiation incident on the solar field. Q_DNI_on_SF = Q_nip * Solar Field Area
Q_abs, W/m2
thermal energy absorbed by collectors
QSF_Abs, MW
thermal energy absorbed by the solar field accounts for optical losses but not thermal losses

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Q_SF(MW), MW
thermal energy delivered by the solar field Q_SF = Q_abs - QSF_HCE_HL - QSF_Pipe_HL
SfPipeHL, kJ/hr.m2
energy lost by header piping in the solar field
QSF_Pipe_HL, MW
energy lost by header piping in the solar field
SF_Tin, C
solar field inlet temperature
SF_TOut, C
solar field outlet temperature
SF_MassFlow, kg/s
solar field outlet mass flow rate
SF_AveTemp, C
average solar field temperature
Q_col, W/m2
collected energy
ColOptEff, none
collector optical efficiency
QsfWarmUp, MW
power contributed to warming the field
Q_htf_FrPr, MW
energy used for freeze protection
Q_htf_FP_TES, [Link]
energy supplied by the TES when the heat transfer fluid temperature falls below its freezing point
Q_htf_FP_Htr, [Link]
energy supplied by the auxiliary heater when the heat transfer fluid temperature falls below its freezing
point
Q_to_TES, MW
thermal energy to storage
Q_from_TES, MW
thermal energy from storage
E_in_TES, MW
thermal energy in storage
Q_TES_HL, MW
storage tank heat loss
Q_TES_Full, MW
thermal energy dumped because the thermal storage is full

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Q_to_PB, MW
thermal energy to the power block, may include energy from the solar field or energy from both the
solar field and thermal storage"
Q_turb_SU, MW
thermal energy needed to start the turbine
Q_min, none

Q_dump, MW
thermal energy dumped when either the energy delivered to either the power block or TES exceeds the
maximum allowed
PBMode, none
zero indicates that power block is not generating electricity, one indicates that the power block is not
generating electricity but is starting up, two indicates that the power block is generating electricity"
Turb_Su_Frac, none
zero indicates the power block is not starting, one indicates that the power block is starting
E_gross_solar, MW
gross solar electric generation
E_under_min, MW
gross solar output during hours when the solar energy is insufficient to drive the turbine does not
contribute to the electric output"
E_dump, MW
the difference between gross solar output and the design output for hours when E_gross_solar > Design
Turbine Gross Output, does not contribute to power output"
E_gross_fossil, MW
gross fossil electric generation
Q_gas, MW
thermal energy equivalent of the electric energy generated by the fossil fuel-fired backup boiler
E_gross, MW
electric output originating from both solar and fossil sources but not accounting for parasitic losses or
availability
E_net, MW
electric output from both solar and fossil sources accounting for parasitic losses but not for availability
E_parasit, MW
electric energy losses due to parasitic electrical loads in the system (pumps, control electronics, etc.)
E_par_SF, [Link]
parasitics of the solar field
E_par_cHTF, MW
cold HTF pump parasitics (HTF flow to solar field)

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E_par_hHTF, MW
hot HTF pump parasitic losses
E_par_Anti, [Link]
antifreeze parasitics
E_par_Htr, MW
heater parasitic losses
E_par_PB, MW
fixed power block parasitics (24 hr)
E_par_BOP, MW
balance of plant parasitics
E_par_CT, MW
cooling tower parasitic loads
E_par_Offline, MW
parasitic losses that occur during hours when the power block is not generating electricity
E_par_Online, MW
parasitic losses that occur during hours when the power block is generating electricity
Ftrack, none
one indicates that collectors are tracking the sun zero indicates that trackers are stowed

6 Time Series Data Viewer

(DView)
SAM displays graphs of hourly data for the current case in a built-in data viewer called DView. You can use
the viewer to display graphs of the following types of data:
Weather data: On the Climate page, click View hourly data.
Electric load data for systems with commercial or residential financing: On the Electric Load page, click
Visualise load data.
Hourly simulation results: On the Results menu, click View Hourly Time Series (DView).
For a listing of the hourly output variables displayed in DView, see Simulation Output File. For a description
of weather data in the Climate file, see Climate.

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Note for Mac users. DView only runs on Windows. To view hourly output data on a Mac computer, you
must open the simulation output file directly in a text editor or spreadsheet program. See Simulation
Output File for details. To view weather data, weather files in the TMY3 format are comma-separated text
files, so you can open them with a spreadsheet program. Files in TMY2 and EPW format use a
constant-width column format, and are more difficult to read without specialized software.

DView displays graphs of hourly data, monthly and annual averages of hourly data, and statistical graphs.
DView allows you to export data from graphs to a tab-delimited text file, and to copy graph images for use
in presentations and reports.
You can download the latest version of DView from [Link]

Tips for using DView:

For check box lists, checking a box in the left-hand column displays two graphs and displays the
checked variable in the upper graph. Checking a box in the right-hand column displays the graph in the
lower graph, or in a single graph when no boxes are checked in the left-hand column.
Right-click a graph to export an image of the graph or a table of the data in the graph.
Change properties of a graph, such as the graph title and labels, line colors and style, and axis scale
by right-clicking a graph and choosing Properties.
When you display hourly output data in DView, SAM opens a temporary file. You can use DView to
save the file if you want to compare hourly results from different simulations.

Table 23. Data viewer graph formats.

Tab Name Graph Format Description
DMap 8,760 point data map showing entire year of hourly data in a single graph
Hourly Time series line graph, use scroll bars and zoom buttons to view entire data set
Daily Daily average line graph
Monthly Monthly average line graph
Boxplot Monthly average with daily and monthly minima and maxima
Profile Average daily profiles by month
PDF Probability distribution function
CDF Cumulative distribution function
DC Duration curve

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7 Advanced Topics

7.1 Parametric Analysis

Contents
Overview describes the parametric simulation option.
Page Reference describes the parametric simulation setup options.
Setting up a Parametric Analysis describes the steps for defining parametric
variables.
Working with Linkages explains how to set up a parametric analysis when
parametric variables have a dependent relationship.
Sample Parametric Results shows examples of the types of graphs that can be
created using parametric analyses.

Overview
A parametric analysis involves assigning multiple values to one or more input variables to explore the
relationship between the input variables and results metrics. Examples of parametric analyses include:
For photovoltaic systems, exploring the effect of array orientation on system electricity output by
assigning multiple values to the array tilt and orientation variables.
For CSP trough systems with thermal energy storage, exploring the effect of solar multiple and storage
capacity on the levelized cost of energy.
For any technology, exploring the effect of annual degradation rates on the system's annual energy
output over the life of a project.
Configuring parametric variables makes it possible to plot graphs of performance or economic output
metrics as a function of one or more input variables. For example, to plot a graph of the annual electric
generation performance metric and the array tilt input variable, you would need to define the array tilt
variable as a parametric variable. Parametric variables also appear on sliders, allowing you to dynamically
change graphs and tables on the Results page.

Note. Input variables that are not involved in the performance simulation calculations, such as those on
the financing, tax credit and payment incentives, and utility rate pages, are available as sliders without
being defined as parametric variables.

To display the parametric simulation setup options:

1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.

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2. On the Configure Simulations page, click Parametrics to display the Parametric simulation setup
options.

3. Click Add Parametric Simulation to add a set of parametric simulation setup options. You can
add as many parametric simulations as your analysis requires.

Click Remove Simulation to delete a simulation option.

Click Clear All to remove all simulation options from the case.

Page Reference
The Parametric Simulation Setup options allow you to add and remove variables from the list of parametric
variables, assign values to and edit parametric variables, and to set up linkages between parametric
variables that have interdependent values.

Parametric Simulation Setup

Add
Add an input variable to the parametric variables list. You must add a variable before you can assign it
multiple values.
Remove
Remove a variable from the parametric variables list. When you remove a variable, SAM assigns the
value from the variable's input page to the variable.
Setup Linkages
Create linkages between parametric variables when the values of one of the variables is dependent on

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those of the other.
Edit
Assign values to or edit values of the variable highlighted in the parametric variables list.
Up
Move the highlighted value in the variable values list up one row.
Down
Move the highlighted value in the variable values list down one row.
Remove Simulation
Remove the parametric simulation setup and delete all parametric values. You can also clear the
Enable this simulation checkbox to keep the setup options but exclude the parametric analysis from
simulations.
Enable this simulation
This box must be checked for the parametric simulation setup to be included in simulations when you
run the model.

Setting up a Parametric Analysis

Once you have added a parametric simulation, you must add one or more parametric variables to the
simulation, and assign multiple values to each variable.
After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the
Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations.

To set up a parametric analysis:

1. Display the parametric simulation setup options as described above.
2. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign multiple values from a list of available
input variables.

3. In the Search box, type the first few letters of the variable name and check the variable's box in the
list of available variables.

4. Highlight each variable in the parametric variables list and click Edit to assign values to the
variables. See Working with Numeric Ranges for details.

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5. Check Enable this simulation to include the parametric analysis in simulation runs. You can save
the parametric simulation setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the
checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the
setup configuration.

Working with Linkages

In some analyses, parametric variables may be interdependent. For example:
Tilt depends on location when an analysis assumes that the photovoltaic array or CSP collector tilt
angle is equal to the location's latitude.
Thermal storage capacity depends on the solar multiple for a CSP trough analysis that assumes that
the storage system capacity scales with the solar field area.
For these analyses, linking the interdependent parametric variables prevents SAM from simulating
combinations of parametric variable values that are not relevant to the analysis. For example, linking the
array or collector tilt variable to the location variable ensures that SAM only simulates systems that use a
location's latitude as the tilt angle. Without linkages, SAM would simulate all combinations of locations and
tilt values.

To setup a linkage between two parametric variables:

1. Add the two variables to the parametric variables list as described above. The parametric variables
list may include other variables.
2. Click Setup Linkages.
3. In the Choose Linked Parametric Variables window, check the variable names for each of the two
linked variables.
4. Click OK. SAM displays the word "Linked" in brackets next to the variable names in the parametric
variables list indicating the linked variables
5. Click the first linked variable. SAM displays the variable's values in the variable values list, and
shows the value of the other linked variable in brackets.
6. Click Edit to assign multiple values to the first linked variable. See Working with Numeric Ranges
for details.
7. Click OK. SAM displays question marks in brackets next to the values of the second linked
variable to which you have not yet assigned values.
8. In the parametric variables list, click the second linked variable.
9. Click Edit to assign multiple values to the variable. Note that you should assign the same number
of values to this variable as you did to the first linked variable.

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10. Click OK. SAM displays the values of both variables in the variable values list. Check the list to
make sure that there are no question marks in brackets indicating a missing linked value and that
the values are in correctly matched pairs.

Sample Parametric Analysis Results

The following graphs were created by setting up parametric analyses. You can use these examples to
better understand how to use parametric analysis to create useful graphs.
The following graph shows how a photovoltaic system's first year annual electric output depends on the
array tilt. The tilt variable on the Climate page was defined as a parametric variable with ten values: 0, 10,
20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90 degrees from horizontal:

The next graph shows how the first year annual electric output depends on both the array tilt and azimuth.
The tilt variable was assigned the same values as the previous graph, and the azimuth variable was
assigned values between -90 and 90 degrees west of south in increments of 15 degrees:

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The third graph shows the relationship between the first year annual electric output and array azimuth for
three locations, assuming an array tilt equal to the location's latitude. The azimuth value was assigned
ranges between -90 and 90 degrees as above, and the tilt and location variables were linked as follows:
Location = Boulder : Tilt = 40 degrees, Location = Los Angeles : Tilt = 34 degrees, Location = New York
City : Tilt = 41 degrees. Each cluster of bars in the graph shows the annual energy output for each azimuth
value for Boulder, Los Angeles, and New York, respectively.

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7.2 Sensitivity Analysis

Contents
Overview describes the sensitivity simulation option.
Page Reference describes the sensitivity simulation setup options.
Setting up a Sensitivity Analysis describes the steps for defining sensitivity
variables.
Sample Sensitivity Results shows examples of tornado graphs that can be created
using sensitivity analyses.

Overview
The sensitivity analysis option allows you to specify a range of values as a percentage for one or more input
variables to investigate how sensitive an output metric is to variations in the input variables' values.
Examples of sensitivity analyses include:
Determining the sensitivity of the levelized cost of energy to different capital cost components.
Comparing the sensitivity of the levelized cost of energy to capital cost and financial assumptions.
Configuring sensitivity analyses makes it possible to plot tornado graphs on the Results page showing the
range of an output metric values for one or more sensitivity variables.

Note. SAM calculates results for each sensitivity variable independently. In some analyses, this may
cause misleading results. This is especially true when the sensitivity variable is a performance input
variable rather than a cost or financial input variable. For example, for CSP trough systems with storage,
varying the thermal storage capacity independently of the tank heat loss variable to examine how
sensitive the system's electrical output is to storage capacity would not accurately account for the
expected increase in heat loss for larger storage systems. Similarly, for photovoltaic systems, varying
the number of modules per string independently of the inverter type or number of inverters might result in
inaccurate system output calculations if the inverter is improperly sized for a number of modules within
the range specified for the sensitivity analysis.

To display the sensitivity simulation setup options:

1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.

2. On the Configure Simulations page, click Sensitivity to display the Parametric simulation setup
options.

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3. Click Add Sensitivity Simulation to add a set of sensitivity simulation setup options. You can add
as many sensitivity simulations as your analysis requires.

Click Remove Simulation to delete a simulation option.

Click Clear All to remove all simulation options from the case.

Page Reference
The Analysis Setup options allow you to choose an output metric, add and remove variables from the list of
sensitivity variables, assign values to and edit sensitivity variables, and assign ranges to each sensitivity
variable.

Analysis Setup
Select an output metric
Choose an output metric for the sensitivity analysis. This metric will appear on tornado graphs in the
results.
Add
Add an input variable to the sensitivity variables list.
Edit
Assign a "custom" variation range to the variable highlighted in the sensitivity variables list. SAM
assigns the default range to all sensitivity variables that do not have a different custom range. SAM
indicates the custom range in parentheses next to the variable's name in the sensitivity variable list.
Remove
Remove a variable from the sensitivity variables list.
+/- Variation on inputs
The default range applied to all sensitivity variables that do not have a different custom range. For a

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range value of 10 %, SAM would calculate the range of values of an input variable between 10 % below
and 10 % above the variable's value on the input page.

Setting up a Sensitivity Analysis

Once you have added a sensitivity simulation, you must add one or more sensitivity variables to the
simulation.
After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the
Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations.

To set up a sensitivity analysis:

1. Display the sensitivity simulation setup options as described above.
2. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign a variation range from a list of available
input variables. SAM adds the variables to the sensitivity variables list.
3. If you want to use a variation range value other than the default value displayed below the sensitivity
variables list, click Edit to assign a custom range value.
4. Check Enable this simulation to include the sensitivity analysis in simulation runs. You can save
the sensitivity simulation setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the
checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the
setup configuration.

Sample Sensitivity Analysis Results

The following tornado graphs were created by setting up sensitivity analyses. You can use these examples
to better understand how to use parametric analysis to create useful graphs.
The following graph shows how sensitive a CSP trough project's levelized cost of energy is to four capital
cost categories. To create the graph, the following four variables were defined as sensitivity variables using
the default variation range of 10 %: Power plant cost, solar field cost, HTF system cost, and storage
system cost:

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The next graph shows shows how sensitive the levelized cost of energy is to selected capital cost
categories compared to selected financial assumptions for a CSP trough system. The solar field cost, loan
rate, and PPA escalation rate were defined as sensitivity variables with a 10 % variation range. how the first
year annual electric output depends on both the array tilt and azimuth. The tilt variable was assigned the
same values as the previous graph, and the azimuth variable was assigned values between -90 and 90
degrees west of south in increments of 15 degrees:

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7.3 Optimization

Contents
Overview describes the optimization option.
Page Reference describes the optimization simulation setup options.
Setting up an Optimization describes the steps for defining optimization variables.
Sample Optimization Results shows examples of results from an optimization
analysis.

Overview
An optimization involves choosing an output metric that you would like to either maximize or minimize, and
allowing SAM to find values of one or more input variables that result in the maximum or minimum output
metric value. Examples of optimization include:
For photovoltaic systems, finding the array tilt and azimuth values that result in the lowest levelized cost
of energy to optimize the array orientation for lowest cost of energy.
For a photovoltaic system modeled using the PVWatts performance model, optimize the storage
capacity for minimum levelized cost of energy.
For a CSP trough system, find the optimal collector deploy and stow angle to maximize solar field
thermal output.

Note. When you optimize an input variable, be careful to choose one that is not interdependent on other
variables. For example, for a CSP trough system with storage, optimizing the solar multiple independent
of storage capacity to minimize the levelized cost of energy could give misleading results. Similarly, for
photovoltaic systems, optimizing the number of modules per string independently of the inverter might
result in a system with an improperly sized inverter. To find optimal values of interdependent variables,
you can use parametric analysis.

One application of SAM's optimization capability is to help you find values of input variables to use for your
analysis. For example, for a photovoltaic system, you could use optimization to find the best array tilt and
azimuth values to use on the Array page. Or, for a CSP trough system, you could use optimization to find
the deploy and stow angle to use on the Solar Field page.

To display the optimization setup options:

1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.

2. On the Configure Simulations page, click Optimization to display the optimization simulation
setup options.

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3. Click Add Optimization Simulation to add a set of optimization setup options. You can add as
many parametric simulations as your analysis requires.

Click Remove Simulation to delete a simulation option.

Click Clear All to remove all simulation options from the case.

Page Reference
The Optimization Setup options allow you to select the output metric to maximize or minimize, add and
remove variables from the list of optimization variables, and assign a range of values to optimization
variables.

Optimization Setup
Minimize / Maximize
Choose whether to maximize or minimize the output metric.
Select an output metric
Choose the output metric to maximize or minimize.
Add
Choose one or more optimization variables from a list of available input variables.

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Edit limits
Assign an upper and lower limit to the variable highlighted in the optimization variable list.
Remove
Remove the highlighted variable from the optimization variable list.
Advanced parameters
The advanced parameters affect the speed and resolution of the optimization. You can use the default
values for most analyses, or experiment with the values for faster run times. You can also try adjusting
the values if SAM does not find an optimal solution.

Setting up an Optimization
Once you have added an optimization simulation, you must choose an output metric to maximize or
minimize, add one or more optimization variables to the simulation, and edit the limits of each variable.
After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the
Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations.

To set up an optimization:
1. Display the parametric simulation setup options as described above.
2. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign multiple values from a list of available
input variables. SAM adds the variables to the parametric variables list.
3. Highlight each variable in the parametric variables list and click Edit to assign an upper and lower
limit to each variable.
4. Check Enable this simulation to include the optimization in simulation runs. You can save the
optimization setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the checkbox.
Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the setup
configuration.

Sample Optimization Results

The following example illustrates the use of optimization for SAM analyses.
This example is for a CSP trough system, and finds the optimal collector deploy and stow angles defined on
the Solar Field page. Those angles determine the collector angle at which heat transfer fluid begins
circulating in the morning, and stops circulating in the evening, respectively. The system starts tracking the
movement of the sun at sunrise, but deploying collectors too early results in wasted energy from operating
fluid pumps before there is sufficient energy to generate electricity. Similarly, continuing to operate the fluid
pumps in the evening when the sun is below a certain point above the horizon wastes energy. Optimizing
the deploy and stow angles for maximum thermal energy delivered by the solar field ensures that the
system does not waste energy by deploying the collectors too late or stowing them too early. In this
example for a system in Dagget, California, SAM found an optimal deploy angle of 12 degrees, and an
optimal stow angle of 167 degrees. The optimization found the maximum value of the annual thermal energy
from solar field output metric for deploy angle limits of 0 and 20 degrees, and stow angle limits of 160 to 180

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degrees:

7.4 Statistical

Contents
Overview describes the statistical analysis simulation option.
Page Reference describes the statistical simulation setup options.
Input Distribution Options describes the distribution parameters that you specify for
each statistical variable.
Setting up a Statistical Analysis describes the steps for choosing an output metric,
input variables, and distribution parameters for a statistical analysis.
Displaying Histograms for Statistical Variables describes the graphing options on
the Results page available for statistical analyses.

Overview
A statistical analysis allows you to examine the effect of uncertainty in the value of one or more input
variables on an output metric. For example, you could use statistical analysis to explore how the degree of
uncertainty in the installation cost of one or more system components might affect the system's levelized
cost of energy over the project life.

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In a statistical analysis, SAM runs several simulations for a distribution of values assigned to one or more
input variables, and displays a histogram showing the frequency distribution of different output metric values
over each input variable's distribution of values.
For an example of a SAM file with statistical analysis, open the sample file Statistical Analysis Sample: On
the File menu, click Open Sample Template and select the file from the list.

To display the statistical simulation setup options:

1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.

2. On the Configure Simulations page, click Statistical to display the statistical simulation setup
options.

3. Click Add Parametric Simulation to add a set of parametric simulation setup options. You can
add as many parametric simulations as your analysis requires.

Click Remove Simulation to delete a simulation option.

Click Clear All to remove all simulation options from the case.

Page Reference
The statistical Analysis Setup options allow you to select the output metric, add and remove variables from
the list of statistiacl variables, and assign distribution parameters to the statistical variables.

Analysis Setup
Select an output metric
Choose the output metric for the statistical analysis.

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Add
Choose one or more statistical variables from a list of available input variables.
Edit
Assign an input distribution for the analysis. See below for details.
Remove
Remove the highlighted variable from the statistical variable list.
Number of Monte Carlo Runs
Enter a value for the number of simulations to run for the analysis. The default value is 400.

Input Distribution Options

The edit distribution window allows you to define the type of distribution to use for the statistical analysis
and to assign values to the statistical analysis parameters.

Choose an input distribution

Variable name
The name of the statistical variable. This the variable that was highlighted in the statistical variable list
when you clicked Edit.
Current Value
The value of the statistical variable on the variable's input page.
Distribution list
Select from a list of distributions, and SAM displays a description of the distribution and parameters for
you to enter.

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Setting up a Statistical Analysis

Once you have added a statistical simulation, you must choose an output metric for the analysis, add one
or more statistical variables to the simulation, and edit the distribution parameters of each variable.
After setting up the optimization, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the
Case menu to run the optimization and any other enabled simulations.

To set up a statistical analysis:

1. Display the statistical simulation setup options as described above.
2. Click Add to choose variables to which you want to assign a distribution from a list of available
input variables. SAM adds the variables to the parametric variables list.
3. Highlight each variable in the parametric variables list and click Edit to assign the distribution
parameters.
4. Enter a number of simulations for Number of sampled values per variable. SAM will run this
many simulations using variable values based on the distribution parameters you specify.
5. Click Compute Samples to generate a table of values without running simulations.
6. Check Enable this simulation to include the optimization in simulation runs. You can save the
optimization setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing the checkbox.
Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the setup
configuration.

Displaying Histograms for Statistical Variables

After you run all simulations with one or more statistical simulations enabled, SAM allows you to view a
histogram for each statistical variable on the Results page. To display a histogram, SAM sorts the values of
the simulations into bins. The number of bins is specified in the graph setup.
For example, in the Statistical Analysis Sample file, the Inverter Cost histogram shows the number of
occurrences of inverter cost that fall into each of the equally spaced bins, whose center values are shown
along the x axis. The blue line is the estimated cumulative distribution function (CDF), labeled on the right
axis from 0 to 1, and indicates the percentage of inverter cost values whose values fall below the
corresponding x value.

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The histogram graph can only plot a single variable. Instead of plotting the inverter cost values, you could
plot the levelized cost of energy, showing histogram of the 700 calculated LCOE values that correspond to
the random values chosen for the Inverter costs. This way, given different amounts of uncertainty in your
chosen inputs, you can visualize the effect and uncertainty on any of the single-valued output metrics.

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7.5 Multiple Systems

Contents
Overview describes the multiple systems simulation option.
Page Reference describes the multiple system analysis setup options.
Setting up a Multiple System Analysis describes the steps for combining
subsystems into a combined system.

Overview
A multiple systems analysis allows you to model a power system as a combination of subsystems. This
makes it possible to model a photovoltaic system consisting of separate subsystems with arrays oriented
in different directions, or a CSP trough system consisting of two separate subsystems with different
characteristics. Each subsystem is a complete electricity generating system, which means that for a CSP
system for example, each subsystem would include a solar field, storage system, and power generating
unit.
SAM applies a single set of financing, tax credit and payment incentives to a combined system, but applies
separate performance and climate specifications to each subsystem.
The results such as levelized cost of energy and annual electric output displayed in graphs and tables on
the Results page are for the combined system rather than for the individual subsystems.
For an example of a SAM file with multiple systems, open the sample file Combined Multiple PV Systems:
On the File menu, click Open Sample Template and select the file from the list.

To display the multiple system simulation setup options:

1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.

2. On the Configure Simulations page, click Multiple Systems to display the multiple system
analysis setup options.

Page Reference
The multiple system setup options allow you to choose which cases in the project file to combine into a
system, and display the capacity and cost values for the combined system.

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Select Additional Performance Outputs

List of available cases
The list of available cases shows the cases in the project file that you can combine into a single
system. You must create a case for each subsystem to be combined into a single system. SAM
includes only checked cases in the combined system. The list of cases corresponds to the case tabs
in the project file.
Enable this simulation
This box must be checked for the system to be modeled as a combined system.

Aggregate System Variables

The aggregate system variables display values for the combined system that SAM calculates by adding
values from the individual subsystems.
Combined Nameplate Capacity (kW)
The sum of the subsystem nameplate capacities displayed on the System Summary page for each
subsystem. For photovoltaic systems, the nameplate capacity is equivalent to the total array capacity
in DC kW. For CSP systems, it is the nominal capacity of the power cycle in kW of electricity.
Combined Heat Rate (MMBtu/MWh)
This applies only to generic fossil systems and is the sum of each subsystem's heat rate from the
Fossil Plant page.
Total Direct Cost ($)
The sum of the total direct cost values displayed on each subsystem's costs page.
Total Installed Cost ($)
The sum of the total installed cost values displayed on each subsystem's costs page.
Total Direct Sales Tax ($)
The sum of the total sales tax values displayed on each subsystem's costs page.
O&M Annual Cost ($/yr)
The sum of the fixed annual operation and maintenance costs displayed on each subsystem's costs
page.
O&M Annual Capacity Cost ($/kW-yr)
The sum of the fixed annual operation and maintenance costs displayed on each subsystem's costs
page.
O&M Variable by Production ($/MWh)
The sum of the fixed annual operation and maintenance costs displayed on each subsystem's costs
page.

Setting up a Multiple System Analysis

Setting up a multiple system analysis involves creating a case for each subsystem to be combined, and
then selecting the cases to be included in the multiple system analysis.
After setting up the analysis, click the Run All Simulations button, or click Run All Simulations on the

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Case menu to simulated the combined system..

To set up a multiple system analysis:

1. Create a case for each subsystem to be included in the combined system.
2. Display the case that you want to be the primary system.
SAM will apply the input variables on the Utility Rate, Financing, Tax Credit Incentives, and
Payment Incentives pages from the primary system to the combined system. It will ignore input
values on those pages from the subsystems.
3. Display the multiple system analysis setup options as described above.
4. Under Select Additional Performance Outputs, check each case to include in the combined
system, including the current (primary) case indicated by "This case is required" in parentheses
next to the case name.
SAM displays the combined system nameplate capacity and costs under Aggregate System
Variables.
5. Check Enable this simulation to include the multiple system analysis in simulation runs. You can
save the parametric simulation setup options and exclude the analysis from simulations by clearing
the checkbox. Clearing the checkbox allows you to shorten simulation run times without losing the
setup configuration.

7.6 Excel Exchange

SAM allows you to connect any input variable in SAM to a cell or range of cells in a Microsoft Excel
workbook. This feature allows you to use external spreadsheet-based cost and performance models to
generate values for SAM input variables. Because SAM can both import values from workbooks and export
values to them, you can use the result of a spreadsheet calculation as the value of one input variable that
depends on the value of other input variables. User variables are user-defined input variables that can also
share values with external workbooks.

Note for Mac users. SAM can not exchange data with Microsoft Excel on Mac computers. This means
that the Excel Exchange feature is disabled on Mac versions of the software, and that SAM cannot
directly export data to Excel workbooks.

To use the SAM data in Excel or another spreadsheet program, you can export the data to a comma-
separated text file (CSV), and then import the CSV file to the spreadsheet program.

For an example of a SAM file with Excel Exchange, open the sample file Excel Sample: On the File menu,
click Open Sample File and select the file from the list.

Note. When you run simulations with Excel Exchange, SAM opens a copy of the Excel file to read and
write values but does not save the file. If you open the Excel file after running the simulations, you will
not see any values from the SAM in the Excel file.

To display the Excel data exchange setup options:

1. On the Main window, click Configure Simulations to view the Configure Simulation page.

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2. On the Configure Simulations page, click Excel Exchange to display the Excel data exchange
options.

The Excel Data Exchange options allow you to add and remove SAM input variables to the list of variables
to exchange data with Excel, specify the Excel workbook with which to exchange data, and for each input
variable, define the relationship with a cell or range of cells in the workbook.

Excel Data Exchange

Add
Add one or more input variable from the input pages. You can configure each variable to either send a
value to an Excel range, or "capture" a value from an Excel range.
Remove
Delete the highlighted variable from the list.
Clear All
Delete all variables from the list.
Browse
Browse your computer's folders to find the Excel workbook with which you want to exchange data. The
workbook can be located in any folder on your computer.
Apply for all variables
When all of the variables are in a single Excel file, you can click this button to avoid having to retype the
file name for each variable.

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Send Variable Value to Excel Range
Configure the highlighted variable to send its value to the specified Excel range.
Capture Variable Value From Excel Range
Configure the highlighted variable to capture its value from the specified Excel range.
Excel Range
The range name or cell reference identifying the cell or range of cells in the Excel workbook with which
the highlighted variable will exchange data.
Enable this simulation
This box must be checked for the analysis to exchange data with Excel.

7.7 Simulator Options

The Simulator Options are for advanced analyses that involve either changing the simulation time step, or
working with custom TRNSYS input decks.

TRNSYS Simulation Timestep

For some technologies, you can adjust the simulation time step from the default hourly (60 minute) time
step. Using a smaller time step than one hour is most appropriate for the physical trough model when you
want to explore the effects of sub-hourly changes in dispatch of energy from the solar field and thermal
energy storage system.

Note. Changing the simulation time step does not affect the weather data time step. When you use a
smaller than hourly time step, SAM uses interpolation of the hourly weather data to estimate the solar
resource and other weather parameters at the sub-hourly time points.

TRNSYS Executable and Input Deck

You can use these options to use custom TRNSYS components with SAM. Leave the values blank to use
SAM's default TRNSYS comopnents.
Deck file name
The path and name of the TRNSYS deck file for your custom component
TRNSYS executable
The path and name of the TRNSYS executable file with arguments.
Arguments
Arguments for the TNRSYS executable you specify above.

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7.8 User Variables

The User Variables page displays two types of special variables. SAM only uses these variables under
special conditions -- you can ignore the user variables for most analyses.
To view the User Variables page, click User Variables on the main window's navigation menu. The user
variable input page is available for all technologies.

Note. The Name and units text boxes are ignored by SAM. You can use the boxes to help you
remember what each user variable represents.

General Purpose User Variables

A general purpose user variable is a variable that you can create to store values in SAM for advanced
analyses. SAM stores values of user variables but does not use them in any internal calculations. You can
create up to ten user variables.
One application of user variables is to enhance analyses that involve exchanging data with Excel. You can
connect user variables, like other input variables, to cells in an Excel workbook. For example, you could
use a user variable to convert units using a formula in Excel. You can use the general purpose user
variables in parametric and sensitivity analyses.

TRNSYS System Simulation Input User Variables

The system variables are for TRNSYS programmers. You can use the system variables to store values in
the SAM user interface that interact with a customized TRNSYS input deck.

7.9 SamUL
The SAM User Language (SamUL) is a built-in scripting language that allows a user to automate tasks and
perform more complex analyses directly from within SAM. This guide assumes some rudimentary facility
with basic programming concepts and familiarity with the SAM interface, capabilities, and general work flow.

Why use SamUL?

Suppose you are an energy analyst, and want to calculate the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for several
hundred locations in the United States for a specific PV system of a given size, installation costs, and
financial assumptions. You are familiar with the SAM, and have access to weather data for all the requested
locations.
The first step would be to set up a case for the PV system with appropriate input values. Next, you could
run a simulation for each weather file individually, and record the results in a spreadsheet. You could even
set up many locations in a parametric simulation. Either method would be tedious and error prone for the
several hundred locations. Furthermore, if you decided to change even just one specification of the system,
you would have to start all over. Automating the process would minimize errors and allow the flexibility of
modifying inputs.
One option for automation would be to write a program or script in Python, C, or Excel VBA using SAM's
code generation feature. Your program would assign values to all of the inputs in the case, make a call

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SAM's simulation engine to run simulations, and then read the appropriate results and write them to a file.
That option would work if you are handy with one of the languages, but involves working with large amounts
of code.
SamUL, SAM's built in scripting language allows you to perform this task in just a few lines of code. See
the SamUL case study for an example. Once you've written the script, you can easily make changes to the
assumptions in the base case, or modify the script. Because the scripting language is built in to SAM you
do not need a software development environment or compiler to use it.
To get started using SamUL, see the Write a Simple SamUL Script section below. For a more detailed
reference, see the following topics:
Data Variables
Flow Control
Arrays of Data
Function Calls
Input, Output, and System Access
Interfacing with SAM Analyses
Case Study: PV System with Multiple Locations
Library Reference

Why SamUL instead of VBA?

Since SamUL is so similar in functionality and syntax to Visual Basic, you might wonder why we didn't
simply put a VBA engine behind SAM. Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) is a closed source Microsoft
product that is very tightly integrated into the Office suite of applications, and while there are some freely
available interpreters for subsets of VB-like languages, we decided that engineering a simple scripting
language would be straightforward enough. In the future, we might consider integrating other well known
languages, such as Lua.
In general, SamUL is close enough to VBA in syntax and structure to make it easily understandable by
people familiar with VBA. By developing our own script engine, we have been able to integrate it very tightly
into the SAM environment for maximum ease of use.
Some notable points distinctions include:
'for' loop syntax follows the C / Perl convention
Array arithmetic is automatically performed element by element
'elseif' statement formatting is similar to PHP
No distinction between functions and procedures

Write a Simple SamUL Script

A SamUL script is code that you write in a SAM file. SAM stores the script in the file along with cases
representing the power projects you are modeling. SAM creates a tab in the main window that gives you
access to the script, in the same way that it creates tabs for cases in the file.
When you create a SamUL script in a SAM file, SAM adds a SamUL development environment to the file
that consists of a toolbar, editor, and console:
The toolbar provides controls for running and saving scripts, adding commands and variables, and for
finding text in the script.
The editor is where you write and edit the script.

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The console displays script outputs and error messages when you run the script.
When you create a script in a SAM file, you must also create at least one case the file. In the script, you
specify the name of a case, and write code to change values of inputs variables in the case, configure and
run simulations, and write simulation outputs to the console or a text file.
The following simple script displays the total annual output and levelized cost of energy of a PV system for
a range of five array tilt values. The script uses an input prompt to get a latitude value.

To write and run a simple SamUL script:

1. Start SAM and create a case using the Photovoltaics, PVWatts option with Residential financing.
Use the default case name "New PVWatts Case 1."
2. On the Developer menu, click New SamUL Script.
SAM adds a script and creates a tab for your script with the label Script1.
3. Click Browse Function Library, and from the SAM Functions list, choose Set Active Case.

The function library is a list of the SamUL functions.

4. Type an open parentheses immediately after the Set Ac t i v eCas e function to display the function
syntax and a brief description.

5. Type the name of the case in quotations " New PVWat t s Cas e" and close the parentheses.
6. On the next line, use the function browser to add the Get I nput function to the script.
7. Type an open parenthesis, and use the input variable browser to find the c l i mat e. l oc at i on
variable.

8. Use the toolbar to find the functions and variables and to write the rest of the script shown below.

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9. Click Execute SamUL Script to run the script.

SAM displays the script output in the console, and a message in the status bar at the bottom of
the window.

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7.9.1 Data Variables

General Syntax
In SamUL, a program statement is generally placed on a line by itself, and the end-of-line marks the end of
the statement. Currently, there is no facility to split a long statement across multiple lines.
Blank lines may be inserted between statements. While they have no meaning, they can help make a script
easier to read. Spaces can also be added or removed nearly anywhere, except of course in the middle of a
word. The following statements all have the same meaning.
out ( " Hel l o 1\ n" )
out ( " Hel l o 2\ n" )
out ( " Hel l o 3\ n" )
Comments are lines in the program code that are ignored by SamUL. They serve as a form of
documentation, and can help other people (and you!) more easily understand what the script does.
Comments begin with the single-quote ' character, and continue to the end of the line.
' t hi s pr ogr am c r eat es a gr eet i ng
out ( " Hel l o, wor l d! \ n" ) ' di s pl ay t he gr eet i ng t o t he us er

Variables
Variables store information while your script is running. SamUL variables share many characteristics with
other computer languages.
Variables do not need to be declared in advance of being used
There is no distinction between variables that store text and variables that store numbers
Variable names may contain letters, digit, and the underscore symbol. A limitation is that variables
cannot start with a digit. Unlike some languages such as C and Perl, SamUL does not distinguish
between upper and lower case letters in a variable (or subroutine) name. As a result, the name my Dat a
is the same as MYdat a.
Values are assigned to variables using the equal sign =. Some examples are below:
Num_Modul es = 10
Ar r ay Power Wat t s = 4k
Ti l t = 18. 2
s y s t em_name = " Super PV Sy s t em"
Cos t = " unk nown"
COST = 1e6
c os t = 1M
Assigning a value to a variable overwrites its previous value. As shown above, decimal numbers can be
written using scientific notation or engineering suffixes. The last two assignments to Cost are the same
value.
Recognized suffixes are listed in the table below. Suffixes are case-sensitive, so that SamUL can
distinguish between m (milli) and M (Mega).
Name Suffix Multiplier
Tera T 1e12
Giga G 1e9

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Mega M 1e6
Kilo k 1e3
Milli m 1e-3
Micro u 1e-6
Nano n 1e-9
Pico p 1e-12
Femto f 1e-15
Atto a 1e-18

Arithmetic
SamUL supports the four basic operations +, - , * , and / . The usual algebraic precendence rules are
followed, so that multiplications and divisions are performed before additions and subtractions. Parentheses
are also understood and can be used to change the default order of operations. Operators are left-
associative, meaning that the expression 3- 10- 8 is understood as ( 3- 10) - 8.
More complicated operations like raising to a power and performing modulus arithmetic are possible using
built-in function calls in the standard SamUL library.
Examples of arithmetic operations:
bat t er y _c os t = c os t _per _k wh * bat t er y _c apac i t y

' mul t i pl i c at i on t ak es pr ec edenc e

degr aded_out put = degr aded_out put - degr aded_out put * 0. 1

' us e par ent hes es t o s ubt r ac t bef or e mul t i pl i c at i on

c as h_amount = t ot al _c os t * ( 1 - debt _f r ac t i on/ 100. 0 )

Simple Input and Output

You can use the built-in out and outln functions to write data to the console window. The difference is that
outln automatically appends a newline character to the output. To output multiple text strings or variables,
use the + operator, or separate them with a comma.
ar r ay _power = 4. 3k
ar r ay _ef f = 0. 11
out l n( " Ar r ay power i s " + ar r ay _power + " Wat t s . " )
out l n( " I t i s " + ( ar r ay _ef f * 100) + " per c ent ef f i c i ent . " )
out l n( " I t i s " , ar r ay _ef f * 100, " per c ent ef f i c i ent . " ) ' s ame as abov e
The console output generated is:
Ar r ay power i s 4300 Wat t s .
I t i s 11 per c ent ef f i c i ent .
Use the i n function to read input from the user. You can optionally pass a message to i n to display to the
user when the input popup appears. The user can enter either numbers or text, and SamUL will perform any
type conversions if needed (and if possible).
c os t _per _wat t = i n( " Ent er c os t per wat t : " ) ' Show a mes s age. i n( ) al s o i s
f i ne.
not i c e( " Tot al c os t i s : " + c os t _per _wat t * 4k + " dol l ar s " ) ' 4k W s y s t em

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The not i c e function works like out , except that it displays a pop up message box on the computer
screen.

Data Types and Conversion

SamUL supports four basic types of data, although most conversions between types happen automatically.
Because of this, SamUL is generally a weakly typed language, meaning that you can add text variables to
number variables, and SamUL will try to make a appropriate conversion in context.
Type Conversion Function Valid Values
Integer Number i nt eger ( ) +/- approx. 2 billion
Double-precision Decimal Number doubl e( ) 1e-308 to 1e308, with infinity
Boolean bool ean( ) true or false (1 or 0)
Text Strings s t r i ng( ) Any length text string
Sometimes you have two numbers in text strings that you would like to multiply. This can happen if you
read data in from a text file on the computer, for example. Since it does not make sense to try to multiply
text strings, you need to first convert the strings to numbers. To convert a variable to a double-precision
decimal number, use the double function, as below.
a = " 3. 5"
b = " - 2"
c 1 = a* b ' t hi s wi l l c aus e an er r or when y ou c l i c k ' Run'
c 2 = Doubl e( a) * Doubl e( b) ' t hi s wi l l as s i gn c 2 t he number v al ue of - 7
The assignment to c1 above will cause the error Error: Invalid string operator '*', while the assignment to c2
makes sense and executes correctly.
You can also use integer to convert a string to an integer or truncate a decimal number, or the string
function to explicitly convert a number to a string variable.
If you need to find out what type a variable currently has, use the t y peof function to get a description.
a = 3. 5
b = -2
c 1 = a+b ' t hi s wi l l s et c 1 t o - 1. 5
c 2 = St r i ng( I nt eger ( a) ) + St r i ng( b ) ' c 2 s et t o t ex t " 3- 2"

out l n( t y peof ( a) ) ' wi l l di s pl ay " doubl e"

out l n( t y peof ( c 2) ) ' wi l l di s pl ay " s t r i ng"

Special Characters
Text data can contain special characters to denote tabs, line endings, and other useful elements that are
not part of the normal alphabet. These are inserted into quoted text strings with escape sequences, which
begin with the \ character.
Escape Sequence Meaning
\n New line
\t Tab character
\r Carriage return

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\" Double quote
\\ Backslash character
So, to print the text "Hi, tabbed world!", or assign c:\Windows\[Link], you would have to write:
out l n( " \ " Hi , \ t t abbed wor l d! \ " " )
pr ogr am = " c : \ \ Wi ndows \ \ not epad. ex e"
Note that for file names on a Windows computer, it is important to convert back slashes ('\') to forward
slashes (/). Otherwise, the file name may be translated incorrectly and the file won't be found.

7.9.2 Flow Control

Comparison Operators
SamUL supports many ways of comparing data. These types of tests can control the program flow with
branching and looping constructs that we will discuss later.
There are six standard comparison operators that can be used on most types of data. For text strings, "less
than" and "greater than" are with respect to alphabetical order.

Comparison Operator
Equal ==
Not Equal !=
Less Than <
Less Than or Equal <=
Greater Than >
Greater Than or Equal >=
Examples of comparisons:
di v i s or ! = 0
s t at e == " or egon"
er r or <= - 0. 003
" pv " > " c s p"
Single comparisons can be combined by boolean operators into more complicated tests.
The not operator yields true when the test is false. It is placed before the test whose result is to be notted:
not ( di v i s or == 0)
The and operator yields true only if both tests are true:
di v i s or ! = 0 and di v i dend > 1
The or operator yields true if either test is true:
s t at e == ör egon" or s t at e == " c ol or ado"
The boolean operators can be combined to make even more complex tests. The operators are listed above
in order of highest precedence to lowest. If you are unsure of which test will be evaluated first, use
parentheses to group tests. Note that the following statements have very different meanings.

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s t at e_c ount > 0 and s t at e_abbr ev == " CA" or s t at e_abbr ev == " OR"
s t at e_c ount > 0 and ( s t at e_abbr ev == " CA" or s t at e_abbr ev == " OR" )

Branching
Using the comparison and boolean operators to define tests, you can control whether a section of code in
your script will be executed or not. Therefore, the script can make decisions depending on different
circumstances and user inputs.

if Statements
The simplest branching construct is the if statement. For example:
i f ( t i l t < 0. 0 )
out l n( " Er r or : t i l t angl e mus t be 0 or gr eat er " )
end
Note the following characteristics of the i f statement:
The test is placed in parentheses after the if keyword.
The following program lines include the statements to execute when the i f test succeeds.
To help program readability, the statements inside the i f are usually indented.
The construct concludes with the end keyword.
When the i f test fails, the program statements inside the i f -end block are skipped.
else Construct
When you also have commands you wish to execute when the if test fails, use the else clause. For
example:
i f ( power > 0 )
ener gy = power * t i me
oper at i ng_c os t = ener gy * ener gy _c os t
el s e
out l n( " Er r or , no power was gener at ed. " )
ener gy = - 1
oper at i ng_c os t = -1
end

Multiple if Tests
Sometimes you wish to test many conditions in a sequence, and take appropriate action depending on
which test is successful. In this situation, use the el s ei f clause. Be careful to spell it as a single word,
as both else if and el s ei f can be syntactically correct, but have different meanings.
i f ( angl e >= 0 and angl e < 90)
t ex t = " f i r s t quadr ant "
el s ei f ( angl e >= 90 and angl e < 180 )
t ex t = " s ec ond quadr ant "
el s ei f ( angl e >= 180 and angl e < 270 )
t ex t = " t hi r d quadr ant "
el s e
t ex t = " f our t h quadr ant "
end

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You do not need to end a sequence of el s ei f statements with the else clause, although in most cases it
is appropriate so that every situation can be handled. You can also nest if constructs if needed. Again, we
recommend indenting each level of nesting to improve your script's readability. For example:
i f ( angl e >= 0 and angl e < 90 )
i f ( pr i nt _v al ue == t r ue )
out l n( " f i r s t quadr ant : " + angl e )
el s e
out l n( " f i r s t quadr ant " )
end
end

Single line ifs

Sometimes you only want to take a single action when an if statement succeeds. To reduce the amount of
code you must type, SamUL accepts single line i f statements, as shown below.
i f ( az i mut h < 0 ) out l n( " War ni ng: az i mut h < 0, c ont i nui ng. . . " )

i f ( t i l t > 90 ) t i l t = 90 ' s et max i mum t i l t v al ue

You can also use an el s e statement on single line i f . Like the i f , it only accepts one program
statement, and must be typed on the same program line. Example:
i f ( v al ue > av er age ) out l n( " Abov e av er age" ) el s e out l n( " Not abov e av er age" )

Looping
A loop is a way of repeating the same commands over and over. You may need to process each line of a
file in the same way, or sort a list of names. To achieve such tasks, SamUL provides two types of loop
constructs, the while and for loops.
Like if statements, loops contain a "body" of program statements followed by the end keyword to denote
where the loop construct ends.

while Loops
The whi l e loop is the simplest loop. It repeats one or more program statements as long as a logical test
holds true. When the test fails, the loop ends, and the program continues execution of the statements
following the loop construct. For example:
whi l e ( done == f al s e )
' pr oc es s s ome dat a
' c hec k i f we ar e f i ni s hed and updat e t he ' done' v ar i abl e
end
The test in a while loop is checked before the body of the loop is entered for the first time. In the example
above, we must set the variable done to false before the loop, because otherwise no data processing would
occur. After each iteration ends, the test is checked again to determine whether to continue the loop or not.

Counter-driven Loops
Counter-driven loops are useful when you want to run a sequence of commands for a certain number of
times. As an example, you may wish to display only the first 10 lines in a text file.
There are four basic parts of implementing a counter-driven loop:

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Initialize a counter variable before the loop begins.

Test to see if the counter variable has reached a set maximum value.
Execute the program statements in the loop, if the counter has not reached the maximum value.
Increment the counter by some value.
For example, we can implement a counter-driven loop using the while construct:
i = 0 ' us e i as c ount er v ar i abl e
whi l e ( i < 10)
out l n( " v al ue of i i s " + i )
i = i + 1
end

for Loops
The f or loop provides a streamlined way to write a counter-driven loop. It combines the counter
initialization, test, and increment statements into a single line. The script below produces exactly the same
effect as the whi l e loop example above.
f or ( i = 0; i < 10; i = i +1 )
out l n( " v al ue of i is " + i )
end
The three loop control statements are separated by semicolons in the for loop statement. The initialization
statement (first) is run only once before the loop starts. The test statement (second) is run before entering
an iteration of the loop body. Finally, the increment statement is run after each completed iteration, and
before the test is rechecked. Note that you can use any assignment or calculation in the increment
statement.
Just like the i f statement, SamUL allows for loops that contain only one program statement in the body to
be written on one line. For example:
f or ( v al =57; v al > 1; v al = v al / 2 ) out l n( " Val ue i s " + v al )

Loop Control Statements

In some cases you may want to end a loop prematurely. Suppose under normal conditions, you would
iterate 10 times, but because of some rare circumstance, you must break the loop's normal path of
execution after the third iteration. To do this, use the br eak statement.
v al ue = doubl e( i n( " Ent er a s t ar t i ng v al ue" ) )
f or ( i =0; i <10; i =i +1 )
out l n( " Val ue i s " + v al ue )
i f ( v al ue < 0)
br eak
end
v al ue = v al ue / 3. 0
end
In another situation, you may not want to altogether break the loop, but skip the rest of program statements
left in the current iteration. For example, you may be processing a list of files, but each one is only
processed if it starts with a specific line. The c ont i nue keyword provides this functionality.
f or ( i =0; i <f i l e_c ount ; i =i +1 )
f i l e_header _ok = f al s e

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' c hec k i f whet her c ur r ent f i l e has t he c or r ec t header

i f ( f i l e_header _ok == f al s e)
c ont i nue
end

' pr oc es s t hi s f i l e
end
The br eak and c ont i nue statements can be used with both f or and whi l e loops. If you have nested
loops, the statements will act in relation to the nearest loop structure. In other words, a br eak statement in
the body of the inner-most loop will only break the execution of the inner-most loop.

Quitting
SamUL script execution normally ends when there are no more statements to run at the end of the script.
However, sometimes you may need to halt early, if the user chooses not to continue an operation.
The ex i t statement will end the SamUL script immediately. For example:
i f ( y es no( " Do y ou want t o qui t ?" ) == t r ue )
out l n( " Abor t ed. " )
ex i t
end
The y es no function call displays a message box on the user's screen with Yes and No buttons, showing
the given message. It returns t r ue if the user clicked yes, or f al s e otherwise.

7.9.3 Arrays of Data

Often you need to store a list of related values. For example, you may need to refer to the price of energy in
different years. Or you might have a table of state names and capital cities. In SamUL, you can use arrays
to store these types of collections of data.

Initializing and Indexing

An array is simply a list of variables that are indexed by numbers. Each variable in the array is called an
element of the array, and the position of the element within the array is called the element's index. The
index of the first element in an array is always 0.
To access array elements, enclose the index number in square brackets immediately following the variable
name. SamUL does not require you to declare or allocate space for the array data in advance.
names [ 0] = " Sean"
names [ 1] = " Wal t er "
names [ 2] = " Pam"
names [ 3] = " Cl ai r e"
names [ 4] = " Pat r i c k "

out l n( names [ 3] ) ' out put i s " Cl ai r e"

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my _i ndex = 2
out l n( names [ my _i ndex ] ) ' out put i s " Pam"
You can also initialize a fixed array using the ar r ay command provided in SamUL. Simply separate each
element with a comma. There is no limit to the number of elements you can pass to array.
names = ar r ay ( " Sean" , " Wal t er " , " Pam" , " Cl ai r e" , " Pat r i c k " )
out l n( " Fi r s t : " + names [ 0] )
out l n( " Al l : " + names )
Note that calling the t y peof function on an array variable will return "ärray" as the type description, not the
type of the elements. This is because SamUL is not strict about the types of variables stored in an array,
and does not require all elements to be of the same type.

Array Length
Sometimes you do not know in advance how many elements are in an array. This can happen if you are
reading a list of numbers from a text file, storing each as an element in an array. After the all the data has
been read, you can use the length function to determine how many elements the array contains.
c ount = l engt h( names )

Processing Arrays
Arrays and loops naturally go together, since frequently you may want to perform the same operation on
each element of an array. For example, you may want to find the total sum of an array of numbers.
number s = ar r ay ( 1, - 3, 2. 4, 9, 7, 22, - 2. 1, 5. 8 )

c ount = l engt h( number s )

s um = 0
f or ( i =0; i <c ount ; i =i +1)
s um = s um + number s [ i ]
end

The important feature of this code is that it will work regardless of how many elements are in the array.

Multidimensional Arrays
As previously noted, SamUL is not strict with the types of elements stored in an array. Therefore, a single
array element can even be another array. This allows you to define matrices with both row and column
indexes, and also three (or greater) dimensional arrays.
To create a multi-dimensional array, simply separate the indices with commas between the square
brackets. For example:
dat a[ 0, 0] = 3
dat a[ 0, 1] = -2
dat a[ 1, 0] = 5
dat a[ 2, 0] = 1

nr ows = l engt h( dat a) ' r es ul t i s 4

nc ol s = l engt h( dat a[ 0] ) ' r es ul t i s 2

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r ow1 = dat a[ 0] ' ex t r ac t t he f i r s t r ow

x = r ow1[ 0] ' v al ue i s 3
y = r ow1[ 1] ' v al ue i s - 2

Managing Array Storage

When you define an array, SamUL automatically allocates sufficient computer memory to store the
elements. If you know in advance that your array will contain 100 elements, for example, it can be much
faster to allocate the computer memory before filling the array with data. Use the al l oc at e command to
make space for 1 or 2 dimensional arrays.
dat a = al l oc at e( 3, 2) ' a mat r i x wi t h 3 r ows and 2 c ol umns
dat a[ 2, 1] = 3

pr i c es = al l oc at e( 5 ) ' a s i mpl e 5 el ement ar r ay

As bef or e, y ou c an ex t end t he ar r ay s i mpl y by us i ng hi gher i ndex es . Howev er ,

i f y ou k now i n adv anc e how many mor e el ement s y ou wi l l be addi ng, i t c an be
f as t er t o us e t he r es i z e c ommand t o r eal l oc at e c omput er memor y t o s t or e t he
ar r ay . r es i z e pr es er v es any dat a i n t he ar r ay , or t r unc at es dat a i f t he new
s i z e i s s mal l er t han t he ol d s i z e.
dat a = al l oc at e( 5)
out l n( l engt h( dat a) )
r es i z e( dat a, 10)
out l n( l engt h( dat a) )

r es i z e( dat a, 2, 4)
out l n( l engt h( dat a) )
out l n( l engt h( dat a[ 0] ) )

Multiple Advance Declarations

You can also declare many variables and arrays in advance using the dec l ar e statement. For example:
dec l ar e r adi at i on[ 8760] , t emp[ 8760] , mat r i x [ 3, 3] , i =0

This statement will create the array variables radiation and temp, each with 8760 values. It will also set
aside memory for the 3x3 matrix variable, and 'create' the variable i and assign it the value of zero. The
declare statement can be a useful shortcut to creating arrays and initializing many variables in a single line.
The only limitation is that you cannot define arrays of greater than two dimensions using the declare
command.

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7.9.4 Function Calls

It is usually good programming practice to split a larger program up into smaller sections, often called
procedures, functions, or subroutines. A program may be easier to read and debug if it is not all thrown
together, and you may have common blocks of code that appear several times in the program.

User Functions
A function is simply a named chunk of code that may be called from other parts of the script. It usually
performs a well-defined operation on a set of variables, and it may return a computed value to the caller.
Functions can be written anywhere in your SAM script, including after they are called. If a function is never
called by the program, it has no effect.

Definition
Consider the very simple procedure listed below.
f unc t i on s how_wel c ome( )
out l n( " Thank y ou f or c hoos i ng SamUL. " )
out l n( " Thi s t ex t wi l l onl y be di s pl ay ed at t he s t ar t of t he s c r i pt . " )
end

Notable features:
Use the function keyword to define a new function.
The function name is next, and follows the same rules as for variable names. Valid function names can
have letters, digits, and underscores, but cannot start with a digit.
The empty parentheses after the name indicate that this function takes no parameters.
The end keyword closes the function definition.
To call the function from elsewhere in the code, simply write the function's name, followed by the
parentheses:
' s how a mes s age t o t he us er
s how_wel c ome( )

Returning a Value
A function is generally more useful if it can return information back to the program that called it. In this
example, the function will not return unless the user enters ÿes" or "no" into the input dialog.
f unc t i on r equi r e_y es _or _no( )
whi l e( t r ue )
ans wer = i n( " Des t r oy ev er y t hi ng? Ent er y es or no: " )
i f ( ans wer == " y es " ) r et ur n t r ue
i f ( ans wer == " no" ) r et ur n f al s e
out l n( " That was not an ac c ept abl e r es pons e. " )
end
end

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' c al l t he i nput f unc t i on

r es ul t = r equi r e_y es _or _no( ) ' r et ur ns t r ue or f al s e
i f ( not r es ul t )
out l n( " us er s ai d no, phew! " )
ex i t
el s e
out l n( " des t r oy i ng ev er y t hi ng. . . " )
end

The important lesson here is that the main script does not worry about the details of how the user is
questioned, and only knows that it will receive a true or false response. Also, the function can be reused in
different parts of the program, and each time the user will be treated in a familiar way.

Parameters
In most cases, a function will accept arguments when it is called. That way, the function can change its
behavior, or take different inputs in calculating a result. Analogous to mathematical functions, SamUL
functions can take arguments to compute a result that can be returned. Arguments to a function are given
names and are listed between the parentheses on the function definition line.
For example, consider a function to determine the minimum of two numbers:
f unc t i on mi ni mum( a, b)
i f ( a < b) r et ur n a el s e r et ur n b
end

' c al l t he f unc t i on
c ount = 129
out l n( " Mi ni mum: " + mi ni mum( c ount , 77) )

In SamUL, changing the value of a function's named arguments will modify the variable in the calling
program. Instead of passing the actual value of a parameter a, SamUL always passes a reference to the
variable in the original program. The reference is hidden from the user, so the variable acts just like any
other variable inside the function.
Because arguments are passed by reference (as in Fortran, for example), a function can "return" more than
one value. For example:
f unc t i on s umdi f f mul t ( s , d, a, b)
s = a+b
d = a- b
r et ur n a* b
end

s um = - 1
di f f = - 1
mul t = s umdi f f mul t ( s um, di f f , 20, 7)

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out l n( " Sum: " + s um + " Di f f : " + di f f + " Mul t : " + mul t ) ' wi l l out put 27,
13, and 140

Variable Scope
Generally, variables used inside a function are considered "local", and cannot be accessed from the caller
program. For example:
f unc t i on t r i pl e( x )
y = 3* x
end

t r i pl e( 4 )
out l n( y ) ' t hi s wi l l f ai l bec aus e y i s l oc al t o t he t r i pl e f unc t i on

As we have seen, we can write useful functions using arguments and return values to pass data into and out
of functions. However, sometimes there are so many inputs to a function that it becomes very cumbersome
to list them all as arguments. Alternatively, you might have some variables that are used throughout your
program, or are considered reference values or constants. For these situations, you can define variables to
be global in SamUL, and then they can be used inside functions and in the main program. For example:
gl obal pi = 3. 1415926

f unc t i on c i r c umf er enc e( r )

r et ur n 2* pi * r
end

f unc t i on deg2r ad( x )

r et ur n pi / 180* x
end

out l n( " PI : " + pi )

out l n( " CI RC: " + c i r c umf er enc e( 3 ) )
out l n( " D2R: " + deg2r ad( 180 ) )

Common programming advice is to minimize the number of global variables used in a program. Sometimes
the are certainly necessary, but too many can lead to mistakes that are harder to debug and correct, and
can reduce the readability and maintainability of your script.

Built-in SamUL Functions

Throughout this guide, we have made use of built-in functions like in, out l n, and others. These functions
are included with SamUL automatically, and called in exactly the same way as user functions. Like user
functions, they can return values, and sometimes they modify the arguments sent to them. Refer to the
Library Reference for documentation on each function's capabilities, parameters, and return values.

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7.9.5 Input, Output, and System Access

SamUL provides a variety of standard library functions to work with files, directories, and interact with other
programs. So far, we have used the in, out, and outln functions to accept user input and display program
output in the runtime console window. Now we will learn about accessing files and other programs.

Working with Text Files

To write data to a text file, use the wr i t et ex t f i l e function. wr i t et ex t f i l e accepts any type of
variable, but most frequently you will write text stored in a string variable. For example:
dat a = " "
f or ( i =0; i <10; i =i +1) dat a = dat a + " Tex t Dat a Li ne " + s t r i ng( i ) + " \ n"
ok = wr i t et ex t f i l e( " C: / t es t . t x t " , dat a )
i f ( not ok ) out l n( " Er r or wr i t i ng t ex t f i l e. " )

Reading a text file is just as simple with the r eadt ex t f i l e function.

my t ex t = " "
i f ( not r eadt ex t f i l e( " C: / t es t . t x t " , my t ex t ) )
out l n( " c oul d not r ead t ex t f i l e. " )
el s e
out l n( " t ex t dat a: " )
out ( my t ex t )
end

While these functions offer an easy way to read an entire text file, often it is useful to be able to access it
line by line. SamUL provides the open, c l os e, and r eadl n functions for this purpose.
f i l e = open( " c : / t es t . t x t " , " r " )
i f ( not f i l e)
out l n( " c oul d not open f i l e" )
ex i t
end

dec l ar e l i ne
whi l e ( r eadl n( f i l e, l i ne ) )
out l n( " My Tex t Li ne=' " + l i ne + " ' " )
end

c l os e( f i l e)

In the example above, f i l e is a number that represents the file on the disk. The open function opens the
specified file for reading when the "r" parameter is given. The r eadl n function will return true as long as
there are more lines to be read from the file, and the text of each line is placed in the line variable.
Another way to access individual lines of a text file uses the split function to return an array of text lines.

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For example:
my t ex t = " "
r eadt ex t f i l e( " C: / t es t . t x t " , my t ex t )
l i nes = s pl i t ( my t ex t , " \ n" )
out l n( " Ther e ar e " + l engt h( l i nes ) + " l i nes of t ex t i n t he f i l e. " )
i f ( l engt h( l i nes ) > 5) out l n( " Li ne 5: ' " , l i nes [ 5] , " ' " )

File System Functions

Suppose you want to run SAM with many different weather files, and consequently need a list of all the files
in a folder that have the .tm2 extension. SamUL provides the directorylist function to help out in this
situation. If you want to filter for multiple file extensions, separate them with commas.
f i l e_names = di r ec t or y l i s t ( " C: / Wi ndows " , " dl l " ) ' c oul d al s o us e " t x t , dl l "
out l n( " Found " + l engt h( f i l e_names ) + " f i l es t hat mat c h. " )
out l n( uns pl i t ( f i l e_names , " \ n" ) )

To list all the files in the given folder, leave the extension string empty or pass in "*".
Sometimes you need to be able to quickly extract the file name from the full path, or vice versa. The
functions filenameonly and dirnameonly extract the respective sections of the file name, returning the result.
To test whether a file or directory exist, use the di r ex i s t s or f i l eex i s t s functions. Examples:
pat h = " C: / SAM/ 2010. 11. 9/ s ams i m. dl l "
di r = di r nameonl y ( pat h )
name = f i l enameonl y ( pat h )
out l n( " Pat h: " + pat h )
out l n( " Name: " + name + " Ex i s t s ? " + f i l eex i s t s ( pat h) )
out l n( " Di r : " + di r + " Ex i s t s ? " + di r ex i s t s ( di r ) )

Standard Dialogs
To facilitate writing more interactive scripts, SamUL includes various dialog functions. We have already used
the not i c e and y es no functions in previous examples.
The c hoos ef i l e function pops up a file selection dialog to the user, prompting them to select a file.
choosefile will accept three optional parameters: the path of the initial directory to show in the dialog, a
wildcard filter like "*.txt" to limit the types of files shown in the list, and a dialog caption to display on the
window. Example:
f i l e = c hoos ef i l e( " c : / SAM" , " * . dl l " , " Choos e a DLL f i l e" )
i f ( f i l e == " " )
not i c e( " You di d not c hoos e a f i l e, qui t t i ng. " )
ex i t
el s e
i f ( not y es no( " Do y ou want t o l oad: \ n\ n" + f i l e) ) ex i t

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' pr oc eed t o l oad . dl l f i l e
out l n( " Loadi ng " + f i l e)
end

Calling Other Programs

Suppose you have a program on your computer that reads an input file, makes some complicated
calculations, and writes an output file. For example, a program could read in some system specifications
and calculate its heat loss coefficients that could be used in a SAM analysis.
There are two very similar ways to call external programs: the system and shell functions. They are
identical except that shell pops up an interactive system command window and runs the program in it. Both
functions will wait until the called program finishes before returning to SamUL, so that the program runs
synchronously. Examples:
s y s t em( " not epad. ex e" ) ' r un not epad and wai t
s hel l ( " i pc onf i g / al l > c : / t es t . t x t " ) ' r un i n t he s y s t em s hel l
out put = " "
r eadt ex t f i l e( " c : / t es t . t x t " , out put )
out l n( out put )

Each program runs in a folder that the program refers to as the working directory. Sometimes you may need
to switch the working directory to conveniently access other files, or to allow an external program to run
correctly.
wor k i ng_di r = c wd( ) ' get t he c ur r ent wor k i ng di r ec t or y
c hdi r ( " C: / wi ndows " ) ' c hange t he wor k i ng di r ec t or y
out l n( " c wd=" + c wd( ) )
c hdi r ( wor k i ng_di r ) ' c hange i t bac k t o t he or i gi nal one
out l n( " c wd=" + c wd( ) )

7.9.6 Interfacing with SAM Analyses

The SamUL language would be of little interest if it did not allow for direct manipulation and automation of
SAM analyses. To this end, there is a set of included function calls that can set SAM input variables,
invoke a simulation, and retrieve output data.
All of the SamUL function calls involve only "base case" analysis. That is, the built-in parametrics,
sensitivity, optimization, and statistical simulation types that are controlled from the user interface are not
accessible from SamUL. This is probably less of a hindrance than it sounds, as SamUL exists primarily to
allow for specialized simulations that do not fall into one of those categories.

Getting Started
SamUL scripts are part of a SAM project file that can consist of multiple cases and scripts. The general
methodology is to have a SAM case that more or less describes the system you want to investigate, and

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then create a SamUL script within the same project that can manipulate the case. A SamUL script can only
operate on one case at a time, and the active case is specified using the SetActiveCase function call. For
example:
Set Ac t i v eCas e( " PV Sy s t em i n Ar i z ona Cas e" )

Changing Input Values

Once an active case has been chosen, you can change base case input values using the Set I nput
function. If an input affects other calculated variables, they are automatically recalculated, and the updated
values are shown on the case input page. Calling Set I nput causes the SAM interface to be updated just
as if the user had changed the variable manually. Examples:
Set I nput ( " s y s t em. degr adat i on" , 12. 5 ) ' s et degr adat i on t o 12. 5 \ %/ y ear
Set I nput ( " pv wat t s . ar r ay _t y pe" , 1 ) ' s et s PVWat t s ar r ay t r ac k i ng mode t o one
ax i s

SamUL requires that you provide the internal names of variables to access them. These names can be
accessed from the third button on the SamUL toolbar. A dialog box will pop up, listing all SAM variables
sorted by grouping and labels. The internal data type of a variable is also listed. Simply select the input
variable from the hierarchical menu, and the internal name will be pasted into the SamUL script at the
cursor position.
Unfortunately, because of the huge number of variables in SAM, there is no comprehensive reference
manual that describes each variable's values or any special formatting that may be required. For example,
the PV shading derate factor matrix is actually stored in memory as a one-dimensional column-major array,
with the first two elements indicating the number of rows and columns respectively. Supposing that you had
read in a 2D array from a text file into the s hadi ng[ i , j ] variable, you must convert it to a single
dimensional array representation as below:
s hadar r = al l oc at e( 12* 24+2)
s hadar r [ 0] = 12
s hadar r [ 1] = 24
c =2
f or ( i =0; i <12; i =i +1)
f or ( j =0; j <24; j =j +1)
s hadar r [ c ] = s hadi ng[ i , j ]
c =c +1
end
end

Then you can write s et i nput ( " pv . s hadi ng. mx h. f ac t or s " , s hadar r ) and it will assign the factors
correctly. The same holds true for most 2D matrix representations in SAM.
One exception is the heliostat field layout matrix for CSP Power Towers. The matrix is also stored as a one-
dimensional array as described above, but there is one more number attached to the end of the array to
hold the span angle in degrees. Thus the total array length is nr ows * nc ol s +3. In any situation, it is
always possible to call the GetInput with a variable to inspect how the data is stored.
s et ac t i v ec as e( " New CSP Power Tower Cas e 1" )

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x = get i nput ( " c s p. pt . s f . us er _f i el d" )
out l n( " l en=" , l engt h( x ) , " : " , x )

Simulating and Saving Output

To start a base case simulation, use the simulate function. It take a boolean parameter to specify whether
to save the hourly (8760) outputs from the simulation. After the simulation has finished, you can access the
outputs using the getoutput function.
s et ac t i v ec as e( " Res i dent i al PV Sy s t em" )
s et i nput ( " s y s t em. degr adat i on" , 12. 5 ) ' s et degr adat i on t o 12. 5 per c ent
s i mul at e( )
l c oe = get out put ( " s v . l c oe_r eal " )
not i c e( " LCOE = " + l c oe )

As with the input variables, the internal variable names of the available outputs are also accessible from the
SamUL toolbar.
You can also save several outputs to a comma-separated value (CSV) file to work with in Excel or another
program using the wr i t er es ul t s function. The outputs variables are passed to the function separated by
commas in a single string, and each variable is dumped as a separate column in the CSV file.
s et ac t i v ec as e( " Res i dent i al PV Sy s t em" )
s et i nput ( " s y s t em. degr adat i on" , 12. 5 ) ' s et degr adat i on t o 12. 5 per c ent
s i mul at e( )
wr i t er es ul t s ( " c : / t es t . c s v " , " s y s t em. hour l y . e_net , s y s t em. mont hl y . e_net , s v .
l c oe_nom" )

Batching Weather Files

Let's return to the original hypothetical example discussed in the introduction. You have directory of weather
files, and for each one you are asked to calculate the hourly generation and LCOE for the system.
The code addresses this need, and makes use of many SamUL language capabilities and built-in function
calls.
' Set t he ac t i v e c as e f r om t he c ur r ent ones
s et ac t i v ec as e( " Si mpl e PV Sy s t em" )

' Spec i f y a di r ec t or y t o us e f or weat her bat c hi ng

di r = " c : / Doc ument s and Set t i ngs / Dav i d Smi t h/ Des k t op/ Weat her Fi l es "

' Li s t al l t he f i l es i n a di r ec t or y t hat hav e t he ex t ens i on " t m2"

f i l e_l i s t = Di r ec t or y Li s t ( di r , " t m2" )

' l oop t hr ough al l t he f i l es

c ount = l engt h( f i l e_l i s t )
f or ( i =0; i <c ount ; i =i +1)

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out ( " Weat her ( " , ( i +1) , " of " , c ount , " ) =" +Fi l eNameOnl y ( f i l e_l i s t [ i ] ) +" \ n" )
' s et t he c l i mat e v ar i abl e t o t he f i l e name
s et i nput ( " c l i mat e. l oc at i on" , f i l e_l i s t [ i ] )

' r un t he bas e c as e
s i mul at e( )

' mak e t he out put f i l e name

out put _f i l e = di r + " / out put _" + Fi l eNameOnl y ( f i l e_l i s t [ i ] ) + " . c s v "

out ( " Wr i t i ng Out put Fi l e: " +Fi l eNameOnl y ( out put _f i l e) +" \ n\ n" )

' dump t he needed r es ul t s i nt o a CSV f i l e

Wr i t eRes ul t s ( out put _f i l e, " s y s t em. hour l y . e_net , s v . l c oe_nom" )
end

This example and several others are included in the standard SAM sample files.

7.9.7 Case Study

Problem Description
Suppose your supervisor sends you an Excel spreadsheet with a list of 30 photovoltaic systems at various
locations. For each system, you are given a street address, system size in kW, capital cost, and a flat
utility rate in cents/kWh for the location. You are asked to add additional columns to the spreadsheet to
show the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) in both real and nominal terms, the total annual energy
production, the payback period if the system were installed. For each system, the array tilt should equal the
location's latitude. The spreadsheet may look something like:
Address PV System Size
300 West Second Street Little Rock Ar 72000 170
15902 Jamaica Ave Jamaica NY 700
125 South Grand Avenue Pasadena CA 91105 125
135 High Street Hartford CT 06103 355
333 Constitution Avenue NW Washington DC 20001 970
717 Madison Place NW Washington DC 20005 200

One approach would be to calculate all of the metrics by manually setting up each system in SAM. Another
possibility would be to set up a complicated linked parametric simulation for all the systems, after having
downloaded the correct weather data for each location. Either way, the task would be at best cumbersome
and error prone. Worse, if your supervisor decides to change one or two inputs, or later wants additional

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output metrics, it would be a hassle to start all over again. SamUL provides all the tools you need to
automate this process in a flexible way.

Obtaining Latitudes and Longitudes

The first task is to determine the latitude and longitude of each address, so that we can find appropriate
hourly weather data for each location. Google conveniently provides a simple web service for decoding a
street address into coordinates. We simply need a valid URL string to pass to Google, and it will return the
latitude and longitude in a string via the HTTP/GET method. SamUL has a built-in function ht t pget to
process a GET request and returns the string data from the server.
We will code up this functionality in a SamUL function called addr2latlon that fills in latitude and longitude
from an address. The first task is to normalize the address string to first remove multiple spaces, and then
replace single spaces with the + sign to make a valid URL. The result of ht t pget is split at each comma
location, and the 3rd and 4th elements (latitude and longitude) are extracted and converted to double
precision numbers.
If the web service returned something strange, the latitude and longitude are set to -1 to signify an error. The
complete function is listed below.
f unc t i on addr 2l at l on( addr es s , l at , l on )
addr = addr es s
s t r r epl ac e( addr , " ", " ")
s t r r epl ac e( addr , " " , " " )
s t r r epl ac e( addr , " " , " +" )
quer y = " ht t p: / / maps . googl e. c om/ maps / geo?q=" + addr +
" &out put =c s v &k ey =my k ey &s ens or =f al s e"
r es ul t = ht t pget ( quer y )
par t s = s pl i t ( r es ul t , " , " )
i f ( l engt h( par t s ) == 4)
l at = doubl e( par t s [ 2] )
l on = doubl e( par t s [ 3] )
el s e
l at = - 1
l on = - 1
end
end

Downloading Weather Data

Hourly TMY2 formatted weather data can be retrieved from the Mercator web service provided by NREL.
Since we are not doing analysis for a particular year, we will write a function to download the typical (TDY)
weather data for a location. The getweather function uses the addr2latlon function listed above to translate
the address to coordinates. Given a latitude and longitude, the proper 10 km grid cell can be determined
using the translate function listed below. The details of this translation will not be covered here, and are
specific to how NREL stores the weather files on the server.
Using the grid code and directory information returned from translate, we can create a URL for the weather
data file that we wish to download. Using the built-in SamUL function ht t pdownl oad, we download the
compressed weather file to a local folder on our computer. Then, it is decompressed and the .gz extension

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removed using the decompress function. If the decompression succeeds, the compressed file is deleted,
and we are left with the proper .tm2 weather data file that can be processed by SAM.
f unc t i on get weat her ( addr , t ar get di r , weat her f i l e, l at , l on )

l at = - 1. 0
l on = - 1. 0
gr i d = " "
di r = " "

addr 2l at l on( addr , l at , l on)

t r ans l at e( l at , l on, gr i d, di r )

l oc al = t ar get di r + " / weat her _" + gr i d + " . t m2. gz "

ur l = " ht t p: / / mer c at or . nr el . gov / per ez _t dy / " + di r + " / r adwx _" + gr i d +

" _9805. t m2. gz "

i f ( not ht t pdownl oad( ur l , l oc al ) )

out l n( " f ai l ed t o downl oad\ n\ t " + ur l + " \ n\ t " + l oc al )
r et ur n f al s e
end

weat her f i l e = s t r l ef t ( l oc al , s t r l en( l oc al ) - 3)

i f ( not dec ompr es s ( l oc al , weat her f i l e ) )

out l n( " f ai l ed t o dec ompr es s f i l e. " )
r et ur n f al s e
end

del et ef i l e( l oc al )

r et ur n t r ue
end

f unc t i on t r ans l at e( l at , l on, gr i dc ode, di r )

s hor t _l at = i nt eger ( abs ( l at ) )
s hor t _l on = i nt eger ( abs ( l on ) )

i f ( mod( s hor t _l at , 2) > 0 ) s hor t _l at = s hor t _l at - 1

i f ( mod( s hor t _l on, 2) > 0 ) s hor t _l on = s hor t _l on- 1
s hor t _l on = s hor t _l on + 2

di r = s hor t _l on + " " + s hor t _l at

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gl at = s t r i ng( i nt eger ( abs ( l at ) * 10 ) ) + " 5"

gl on = s t r i ng( i nt eger ( abs ( l on) * 10 ) ) + " 5"

i f ( s t r l en( gl on) <5) gl on = " 0" + gl on

gr i dc ode = gl on + gl at
end

Processing the Input File

Now that we have access to weather data for each of the locations in the spreadsheet, the next task is to
read it in and perform each simulation. After the simulation for each location is finished, we will immediately
write the results to another file. SamUL conveniently allows multiple files to be open at the same time.
The code below opens the input and output files, and scans each line of the input for the various input
parameters, runs a simulation, and writes the results to an output file.
s et ac t i v ec as e( " Bas el i ne PV Sy s t em" )

wor k di r = " / Us er s / adobos / Des k t op"

i nput = open( wor k di r + " / i nput . c s v " , " r " )

i f ( not i nput )
out l n( " c oul d not open i nput f i l e" )
ex i t
end

out put = open( wor k di r + " / out put . c s v " , " w" )
i f ( not out put )
out l n( " c oul d not open out put f i l e" )
ex i t
end

wr i t e( out put , " l at , l on, l c oe nomi nal , l c oe r eal , enet , pay bac k \ n" )

dec l ar e buf f er
r eadl n( i nput , buf f er )
whi l e( r eadl n( i nput , buf f er ) )
c ol s = s pl i t ( buf f er , " , " )
addr es s = c ol s [ 0]
s i z e = c ol s [ 1]
c os t = c ol s [ 2]
r at e = c ol s [ 3]

dec l ar e l at = - 1. 0, l on = - 1. 0, weat her f i l e=" "

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i f ( not get weat her ( addr es s , wor k di r , weat her f i l e, l at , l on ) )

out l n( " f ai l ed t o get weat her dat a f or : " + addr es s )
ex i t
end

modul e_c os t = c os t / ( s i z e * 1000 )

s et i nput ( " c l i mat e. l oc at i on" , weat her f i l e )

s et i nput ( " pv wat t s . dc r at e" , s i z e )
s et i nput ( " pv wat t s . t i l t " , abs ( l at ) )
s et i nput ( " pv . c os t . per _modul e" , modul e_c os t )
s et i nput ( " ur . f l at . buy _r at e" , r at e/ 100. 0 )

out l n( " Si mul at i ng l oc at i on: " + addr es s )

s i mul at e( )

dec l ar e l c oe_nom=0, l c oe_r eal =0, enet =0, pay bac k =0

l c oe_nom = get out put ( " s v . l c oe_nom" )
l c oe_r eal = get out put ( " s v . l c oe_r eal " )
enet = get out put ( " s v . annual _out put " )
pay bac k = get out put ( " s v . pay bac k " )

wr i t e( out put , l at +" , " +l on+" , " +l c oe_nom+" , " +l c oe_r eal +" , " +enet +" , " +pay bac k )
end

c l os e( i nput )
c l os e( out put )

In this example, the cost data for each location represented the total installed system cost. However, SAM
does not have a direct input for the total cost, as it is calculated from many different cost components. To
trick SAM into using the total cost that we have, however, we simply set all the costs to zero, and calculate
an effective DC module cost given the nameplate size of the system and the total cost. Then, setting the
module cost variable to this value will naturally result in the desired total system cost as well.
This examples shows the power SamUL to automate an otherwise tedious and error prone task. While the
data set presented here is relatively small, one could imagine such a task for thousands of locations,
system sizes, and costs. The ability to exercise SAM's capabilities via scripting is a tool of core importance
in an advanced SAM user's toolbox.
The case study example and several others are included as part of the standard SAM installation. Please
browse the examples for additional information, or contact Solar Advisor Support at

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7.9.8 Library Reference

Type/Data Manipulation
TypeOf
( ):STRING
Returns a description of the argument type.
Integer
( VARIANT ):INTEGER
Converts the variable to an integer number.
Double
( VARIANT ):DOUBLE
Converts the variable to a double-precision floating point number.
Boolean
( VARIANT ):BOOLEAN
Converts the variable to a boolean.
String
( ... ):STRING
Converts the given variables to a string.
IntegerArray
( STRING ):ARRAY
Converts a string delimited by {;, tn} to an integer array.
DoubleArray
( STRING ):ARRAY
Converts a string delimited by {;, tn} to a double-precision floating point array.
Length
( ARRAY ):INTEGER
Return the length of an array.
Array
( ... ):ARRAY
Creates an array out of the argument list.
Allocate
( INTEGER:PRIMARY, [INTEGER:SECONDARY] ):ARRAY
Creates an empty array with the specified dimensions.
Resize
( , INTEGER:PRIMARY, [INTEGER:SECONDARY] ):NONE
Resizes an array or 2D matrix.

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Append
( , ... ):NONE
Appends one or more items to an array.
Prepend
( , ... ):NONE
Prepends one or more items to an array.

Input/Output
Out
( ... ):NONE
Print data to the output device.
OutLn
( ... ):NONE
Print data to the output device followed by a newline.
Print
( STRING:Format, ... ):NONE
Print formatted data to the output device using an extended 'printf' syntax.
In
( ... ):STRING
Request input from the input device, showing an optional prompt.
Notice
( ... ):NONE
Show a message dialog.
YesNo
( ... ):BOOLEAN)
Show a Yes/No dialog. Returns true if yes was clicked
ChooseFile
( [STRING:Initial dir], [STRING:Filter], [STRING:Caption] ):STRING
Show a file selection dialog, with optional parameters.
StartTimer
( NONE ):NONE
Starts a stop watch timer.
ElapsedTime
( NONE ):INTEGER
Returns elapsed milliseconds since last call to 'StartTimer'
MilliSleep
( INTEGER:Milliseconds ):NONE

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Sleep for the specified amount of time.
DateTime
( NONE ):STRING
Returns the current date and time.
Open
( STRING:File, STRING:Mode ):INTEGER
Opens a file for reading 'r', writing 'w', or appending 'a'.
Close
( INTEGER:FileNum ):NONE
Closes a file.
Seek
( INTEGER:FileNum, INTEGER:Offset, INTEGER:Origin ):INTEGER
Sets the position in an open file.
Tell
( INTEGER:FileNum ):INTEGER
Returns the current file position.
Eof
( INTEGER:FileNum ):BOOLEAN
Determines whether a file is at the end.
Flush
( INTEGER:FileNum ):INTEGER
Flushes the current file object to disk.
Write
( INTEGER:FileNum, ... ):BOOLEAN
Writes data as text to a file.
WriteN
( INTEGER:FileNum, VARIANT data, INTEGER: NumChars ):BOOLEAN
Writes character data to a file.
WriteLn
( INTEGER:FileNum, VARIANT data ):BOOLEAN
Writes a line to a file as a string.
ReadN
( INTEGER:FileNum, :Data, INTEGER:NumChars ):BOOLEAN
Reads characters from a file.
ReadLn
( INTEGER:FileNum, :Line ):BOOLEAN
Reads a line from a file, returning false if no more lines exist.

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ReadFmt
( INTEGER:filenum, STRING:format=[idgefxsb]*, STRING:delimiters, ... VALUE ARGUMENT LIST ):
BOOLEAN
Reads a data line from a file with the given sequence of types and delimiters. Number of value
arguments must equal number of characters in format string
OpenWF
( STRING:file, [ARRAY:header info] ):INTEGER
Opens a weather (TM2, TM3, EPW) file for reading.
ReadWF
( INTEGER:filenum, ARRAY:y - m - d - h - gh - dn - df - wind - tdry - twet - relhum - pres *or* [INTEGER:
y, INTEGER:m, INTEGER:d, INTEGER:h, DOUBLE:gh, DOUBLE:dn, DOUBLE:df, DOUBLE:wind,
DOUBLE:tdry, DOUBLE:twet, DOUBLE:relhum, DOUBLE:pres]):BOOLEAN
Reads a line of data from a weather file.
CustomizeTMY3
( STRING:Source tmy3 file, STRING:Target tmy3 file, [ STRING:Column name=gh - dn - df - tdry - twet -
wind - pressure - relhum, ARRAY:Values(8760) ]* ):BOOLEAN
Overwrites columns of 8760 data in a TMY3 file and writes a new file.
WFStatistics
( STRING:File, :DN, :GH, :AMBT, :WSPD ):BOOLEAN
Extracts annual averages of DN, GH, AmbT, and WSpd
WriteTextFile
( STRING:Filename, VARIANT data ):BOOLEAN
Writes a file of text data to disk. Returns true on success.
ReadTextFile
( STRING:Filename, :Data ):BOOLEAN
Reads a text file from disk, returning true on success.
GetHomeDir
( NONE ):STRING
Returns the current user's home directory.
Cwd
( NONE ):STRING
Returns the current working directory.
ChDir
( STRING: Path ):BOOLEAN
Change the current working directory.
DirectoryList
( STRING:Path, STRING:Comma-separated extensions, [BOOLEAN:Include folders]):ARRAY
Enumerates all the files in a directory that match a comma separated string of extensions.

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System
( STRING ):INTEGER
Run a system command, returning the process exit code.
Shell
( STRING ):BOOLEAN
Run a system command in a new console window. Returns true on success.
FileNameOnly
( STRING:Path ):STRING
Returns only the file name portion of a full path.
DirNameOnly
( STRING:Path ):STRING
Returns only the directory portion of a full path.
Extension
( STRING:File ):STRING
Returns the extension of a file.
DirExists
( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN
Returns true if the specified directory exists.
FileExists
( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN
Returns true if the specified file exists.
CopyFile
( STRING:File1, STRING:File2 ):BOOLEAN
Copies file 1 to file 2.
RenameFile
( STRING:File1, STRING:File2 ):BOOLEAN
Renames file 1 to file 2.
DeleteFile
( STRING:File ):BOOLEAN
Deletes the specified file.
MkDir
( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN
Creates a directory including the full path to it.
RmDir
( STRING:Path ):BOOLEAN
Deletes a directory and everything it contains.

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Decompress
( STRING:Archive, STRING:Target ):BOOLEAN
Decompresses an archive file (ZIP, TAR, [Link], GZ).
HttpGet
( STRING:Url ):STRING
Performs an HTTP web query and returns the result as plain text.
HttpDownload
( STRING:Url, STRING:LocalFile ):BOOLEAN
Downloads a file form the web, showing a progress dialog.

String Manipulation
StrPos
( STRING, STRING:Search ):INTEGER
Returns the first position of the search string, or -1 if not found.
StrRPos
( STRING, STRING:Search ):INTEGER
Returns the first position of the search string from the right, or -1 if not found.
StrLeft
( STRING, INTEGER:N ):STRING
Returns the left 'N' character string.
StrRight
( STRING, INTEGER:N ):STRING
Returns the right 'N' character string.
StrLower
( STRING ):STRING
Returns a lower case version of the string.
StrUpper
( STRING ):STRING
Returns an upper case version of the string.
StrMid
( STRING, INTEGER:Start, [INTEGER:Count] ):STRING
Returns the substring from the specified start position, of length 'count'. If 'count' is not supplied, the
remainder of the string is returned.
StrLen
( STRING ):INTEGER
Returns the length of a string.

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StrReplace
( STRING, STRING:s0, STRING:s1 ):STRING
Returns a string with all instances of 's0' replaced with 's1'.
StrCmp
( STRING:s0, STRING:s1 ):INTEGER
Case-sensitive comparison. Returns 0 if equal, positive if s0 comes before s1, and negative if s1 comes
before s0.
StrICmp
( STRING:s0, STRING:s1 ):INTEGER
Case-insensitive comparison. Returns 0 if equal, positive if s0 comes before s1, and negative if s1
comes before s0.
StrGCh
( STRING, INTEGER:position ):STRING
Gets the character at the specified position.
StrSCh
( STRING, INTEGER:position, STRING:char):NONE
Sets the character at the specified position.
Split
( STRING, STRING:delimiters ):ARRAY
Splits the string into an array.
Unsplit
( ARRAY, STRING:delimiters ):STRING
Unsplits an array into a string.
Format
( STRING:Format, ... ):STRING
Formats data into a string using an extended 'printf' syntax.

Math
Mod
( INTEGER, INTEGER ):INTEGER
Returns the remainder after X is divided by Y
Abs
( NUMBER ):NUMBER
Absolute value of the number.
Min
( NUMBER, NUMBER *or* ARRAY ):NUMBER
Returns the smaller of two values, or the smallest in an array.

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Max
( NUMBER, NUMBER *or* ARRAY ):NUMBER
Returns the larger of two values, or the largest in an array
Ceil
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the number rounded up to the nearest integer.
Floor
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the number rounded down to the nearest integer.
Sqrt
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the square root of a number.
Pow
( NUMBER:X, NUMBER:Y ):DOUBLE
Returns 'X' raised to the 'Y' power.
Exp
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the exponential value, base 'e'.
Log
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the logarithm of a number, base 'e'.
Log10
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the logarithm of a number, base 10.
Sin
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the sine of a radian value.
Cos
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the cosine of a radian value.
Tan
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the tangent of a radian value.
ASin
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the arcsine of a number in radians.

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ACos
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the arccosine of a number in radians.
ATan
( NUMBER ):DOUBLE
Returns the arctangent of a number in radians.
ATan2
( NUMBER:Y, NUMBER:X ):DOUBLE
Returns the arctangent of 'Y'/'X' in radians.
IsNan
( DOUBLE ):BOOLEAN
Returns true if the number is NAN.
NanVal
( NONE ):DOUBLE
Returns NAN.
UnifRand
( NONE ):DOUBLE
Returns a random number with uniform distribution (0..1).
NormRand
( NONE ):DOUBLE
Returns a random number with normal distribution around 0.

SAM Functions
SetInput
( STRING:Variable name, VARIANT value):NONE
Sets an input in the active case.
GetInput
( STRING:Variable name ):VARIANT
Returns an input value from the active case.
GetOutput
( STRING:Variable name ):ARRAY
Returns a base case output from the active case's results as a double-precision array.
ResetOutputSource
( NONE or STRING:Simulation name, INTEGER:Run number ):NONE
Resets the output data source to default BASE case, or changes it to a different simulation and run
number.

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ClearSimResults
( STRING:Simulation name ):NONE
Clears all results for the specific simulation name.
SetActiveCase
( STRING:Case name ):NONE
Sets the active case.
GetActiveCase
( NONE ):STRING
Returns the active case name.
SwitchToCase
( NONE ):NONE
Switches to the active case tab in the interface.
ChangeConfig
( STRING:Technology, STRING:Financing ):BOOLEAN
Changes the current case's configuration. Application must be '*'.
ListCases
( NONE ):ARRAY
Lists all the cases in the project.
ProjectFile
( NONE ):STRING
Returns the current project file name.
AppYield
( NONE ):NONE
Yields the interface to respond to user input.
SaveProject
( NONE ): BOOLEAN
Saves the project.
SaveProjectAs
( STRING ):BOOLEAN
Saves the project to the specified file.
Simulate
( BOOLEAN:Save hourly data ):NONE
Runs a base case simulation with the current inputs, with the option of saving hourly results.
MPSimulate
( STRING:Simulation name, ARRAY[ARRAY]:Variable name/value table NRUNS+1 x NVARS with top
row having var names ):BOOLEAN
Runs many simulations using multiple processors.

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WriteResults
( STRING:File name, STRING:Comma-separated output variable names):BOOLEAN
Write a comma-separated-value file, with each column specified by a string of comma-separated output
names.
ClearResults
( NONE ):NONE
Clear the active case's results from memory.
ClearCache
( NONE ):NONE
Clear the memory cache of previously run simulations.
DeleteTempFiles
( NONE ):NONE
Delete any lingering simulation temporary files.
SetTimestep
( STRING:Timestep with units ):NONE
Sets the TRNSYS timestep for the active case.
ReloadDefaults
( NONE ):NONE
Reloads all default values for the active case.
ListTechnologies
( NONE ):ARRAY
Returns an array of all the technologies in SAM.
ListFinancing
( STRING:Technology ):ARRAY
Lists all financing options in SAM for a given technology.
TechnologyType
( NONE ):STRING
Returns the active case technology type.
FinancingType
( NONE ):STRING
Returns the active case financing type.
ActiveVariables
( [STRING:Technology, STRING:Financing] ):ARRAY
List all active variables for the current case or technology/market name.
FluidDensity
( INTEGER:Fluid number, DOUBLE:Temp 'C ):DOUBLE
Returns density at temperature Tc for a given fluid number (pressure assumed 1Pa).

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FluidSpecificHeat
( INTEGER:Fluid number, DOUBLE:Temp 'C ):DOUBLE
Returns specific heat at temperature Tc for a given fluid number (pressure assumed 1Pa).
FluidName
( INTEGER:Fluid number ):STRING
Returns fluid name for a given fluid number.
PtOptimize
( NONE ):NONE
Optimizes the power tower heliostat field, tower height, receiver height, and receiver diameter.
LHSCreate
( NONE ):INTEGER
Creates a new Latin Hypercube Sampling object.
LHSFree
( INTEGER:lhsref ):NONE
Frees an LHS object.
LHSReset
( INTEGER:lhsref ):NONE
Erases all distributions and correlations in an LHS object.
LHSSeed
( INTEGER:seed ):NONE
Sets the seed value for the LHS object.
LHSPoints
( INTEGER:lhsref, INTEGER:number of points ):NONE
Sets the number of samples desired.
LHSDist
( INTEGER:lhsref, STRING:distribution name, STRING: variable name, [DOUBLE:param1, DOUBLE:
param2, DOUBLE:param3, DOUBLE:param4] ): NONE
Sets up a distribution for a variable.
LHSCorr
( INTEGER:lhsref, STRING:variable 1, STRING:variable 2, DOUBLE:corr val ):NONE
Sets up correlation between two variables.
LHSRun
( INTEGER:lhsref ):BOOLEAN
Runs the LHS sampling program.
LHSError
( INTEGER:lhsref ):STRING
Returns an error message if any.

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LHSVector
( INTEGER:lhsref, STRING:variable ):ARRAY
Returns the sampled values for a variable.
STEPCreate
( NONE ):INTEGER
Create a new STEPWISE regression analysis object.
STEPFree
( INTEGER:stpref ):NONE
Frees a STEPWISE object.
STEPInput
( INTEGER:stpref, STRING:name, ARRAY:values ):NONE
Sets a STEPWISE input vector.
STEPOutput
( INTEGER:stpref, ARRAY:values ):NONE
Sets a STEPWISE output vector.
STEPRun
( INTEGER:stpref ):NONE
Runs the STEPWISE analysis.
STEPError
( INTEGER:stpref ):STRING
Returns any error code from STEPWISE.
STEPResult
( INTEGER:stpref, STRING:name ):ARRAY
Returns R2 and SRC for a given input name.
OpenEIListUtilities
( NONE ):ARRAY
Returns a list of utility company names from [Link]
OpenEIListRates
( STRING:Utility name, , ):INTEGER
Lists all rate schedules for a utility company.
OpenEIApplyRate
( STRING:Guid ):BOOLEAN
Downloads and applies the specified rate schedule from OpenEI.
URdbFileWrite
( STRING:file ):BOOLEAN
Writes a local URdb format file with the current case's utility rate information.

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URdbFileRead
( STRING:file ):BOOLEAN
Reads a local URdb format file and overwrites the current case's utility rate information.

7.10 Generating Code

SAM's code generation feature allows you to set values of input variables in SAM files and control SAM
simulation from scripts and programs written in the following languages:
Python
C
MATLAB
VBA
To use the feature, you should be familiar with one of the languages, and have the necessary software to
edit, compile, and run programs written in the language.
When you generate code for a SAM case in one of the languages, SAM creates a text file containing code
that:
1. Assigns input values to all of the variables in the case.
2. Makes a call to SAM's simulation engine to run a simulation.
3. Generates output using some of SAM's basic metrics (total annual output, real and nominal LCOE).
To familiarize yourself with the feature, set up a simple case in SAM, and generate code for the language
you would like to use. Explore the code that SAM generates and experiment with it to see how you can
assign values to SAM input variables, control simulations, and access SAM results.
The following example shows how to use the code generation feature with Python. The procedure is similar
for the other languages.

To generate the Python script:

1. Start SAM and create a new case, for example, Photovoltaics, Component-based Models,
Residential.
2. On the Case menu, click Advanced, Generate Python Code.
3. Save the script to a folder on your computer, for example, \python_scripts\my_pv_case.py.
4. Click No at the prompt to view the file.
5. Open the folder containing the file. You should see the following two files: the my_pv_case.py file
that you created, and the [Link] file that contains code for the interface with the SAM simulation
component.
The my_pv_case.py file contains all of the inputs in your SAM file, and a call to run a SAM
simulation.

To run SAM from the Python script:

1. Run the script you generated above, my_pv_case.py.
In Windows, you can run the script from the command line by typing python my_pv_case.py in
the Command window.

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If you see error messages about missing DLL files, copy the files from the SAM installation folder to
the folder containing the script. The script may require the following DLL files: [Link], [Link]
, [Link], and [Link].
2. When the script runs, you should see something like the following:

The first rows show the simulation status and are generated by SAM's simulation engine. The last
lines are simulation results printed by the Python script that you can edit.

Note. SAM does not need to be open to run the script.

The next procedure explains how to modify the script to change the value of a SAM input variable, in this
case the array tilt angle.

To change values of SAM inputs from the Python script:

1. Use a text editor or your Python development environment to open the script file my_pv_case.py.
2. Replace the simulation calls at the bottom of the file:

s am. s et _d( c x t , " pv . ar r ay . t i l t " , t i l t )

c x t = s i mul at e_c ont ex t ( c x t , ' t r ns y s . pv ' )
c x t = s i mul at e_c ont ex t ( c x t , ' f i n. r es . l oan' )
pr i nt ' Lc oe( r eal ) =' , s am. get _d( c x t , ' s v . l c oe_r eal ' )
pr i nt ' Lc oe( nom) =' , s am. get _d( c x t , ' s v . l c oe_nom' )
pr i nt ' E_net =' , s am. get _d( c x t , ' s y s t em. annual . e_net ' )

with a loop that changes the tilt angle:

f or t i l t i n [ 10, 15, 20, 25, 30] :

s am. s et _d( c x t , " pv . ar r ay . t i l t " , t i l t )
c x t = s i mul at e_c ont ex t ( c x t , ' t r ns y s . pv ' )
c x t = s i mul at e_c ont ex t ( c x t , ' f i n. r es . l oan' )
pr i nt ' Ti l t =' , t i l t
pr i nt ' Lc oe( r eal ) =' , s am. get _d( c x t , ' s v . l c oe_r eal ' )
pr i nt ' Lc oe( nom) =' , s am. get _d( c x t , ' s v . l c oe_nom' )
pr i nt ' E_net =' , s am. get _d( c x t , ' s y s t em. annual . e_net ' )

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3. Run the my_pv_case.py script.

It should display energy production and LCOE values at array tilt values of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30
degrees.

7.11 Libraries

Contents
Overview describes SAM libraries.
Accessing Libraries from Input Pages explains how to use libraries to populate
input variables on input pages.
Library Descriptions describes the libraries in the current version of SAM and the
input pages that display values from each library.
Default and User Libraries explains the difference between libraries that come with
the software, and libraries that you add to your projects.
Managing Libraries with the Library Editor describes the buttons on the library
editor and explains how to use it to create and modify libraries.

Overview
A library is a collection of stored values for some sets of input variables on SAM input pages. A library
allows you to populate a set of variables by choosing an entry from the library. For example, each entry in
the photovoltaic inverter library stores a set of values for the variables describing the characteristics of an
inverter in the Sandia inverter database. When you choose an inverter from the library, SAM populates the
inverter characteristic variables on the Inverter page with values from the library. See Accessing Libraries
from Input Pages for details.
For advanced analyses, you may want to add your own entries to a library, or to modify entries in an
existing library. The library editor allows you to add and manage libraries. You should only add or modify a
library entry when you have a complete set of data for the entry. Because values in the entry may be
interdependent in ways that are not obvious, you can easily introduce errors to simulation results by
changing values in a library entry. An obvious example would be changing one of the power values for an
entry in the inverter library without changing the current and voltage values. In general, you should not
modify libraries unless you are familiar with both the characterization of the physical component
represented by library entries, and with SAM's mathematical representation of the component.

Note. If you decide to modify or create your own libraries, you should first read about the difference
between default and user libraries, and refer to the instructions for working with the library editor.

Accessing Libraries from Input Pages

Depending on the library, SAM either displays a "Choose from library" or "Library" button, or displays the

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library entries as a list directly on the input page. For some components, to choose an item from a library,
you click the Choose (or Library) button and then click the item's name in a list of library items. SAM
automatically populates appropriate variables on the input page, which you can edit if necessary. For
example, on the physical trough model's Collectors page, to choose an entry from the parabolic trough
collector library, click Choose collector from library. SAM displays a list of collectors from the library.
When you click a collector name in the list, SAM copies collector geometry and optical parameter values
from the library to the variables on the Collectors page.

If you change the value of one of those variables, SAM indicates that the parameters on the input page differ
from parameter values in the library by displaying "No library match" in the library name box:

For other libraries, such as the component-based photovoltaic model's Sandia module library, SAM displays
the list of library items directly on the input page. When you choose an item from the list, SAM copies
values from the library to the project's case, and displays some of them as read-only values on the Module
page. If you want to use change a value, you must create a new user library.

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Note. SAM often only displays a subset of the parameters from a library on input pages. If you want to
see the complete parameter set for a library item, you can view the values in the library editor.

Library Descriptions
SAM uses libraries to store parameter sets for the following performance model components and displays
them as lists on the relevant input pages.
BIOBIB Fuels
Not used.
CEC Modules (CECModule)
List of photovoltaic modules from the California Energy Commission database of approved modules
displayed on the Module page.
CSP Empirical Trough TES Dispatch (EmpiricalTroughDispatch)
Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the empirical
trough model displayed on the Thermal Storage page.
CSP GSS TES Dispatch
Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the empirical
trough model displayed on the Thermal Storage page.
CSP Physical Trough Receiver (HCE) (PhysicalTroughHCE)
Receiver characteristics for the physical trough model displayed on the Receivers (HCEs) page.
CSP Physical Trough SCAs (PhysicalTroughSCA)
Collector characteristics for the physical trough model displayed on the Collectors (SCAs) page.
CSP Physical Trough TES Dispatch (PhysicalTroughDispatch)
Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the physical

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trough model displayed on the Thermal Storage page.
CSP Tower TES Dispatch (TowerDispatch)
Storage dispatch schedules based on time-of-use rates of different electric utilities for the power tower
model displayed on the Thermal Storage page.
CSP Trough HCEs (TroughHCE)
Receiver characteristic for the empirical trough model displayed on the SCA/HCE page.
CSP Trough Parasitics (TroughParasitics)
Parasitic loss coefficients for different reference power cycle options of the empirical trough model
displayed on the Parasitics page.
CSP Trough Power Cycles (TroughPowerBlock)
Steam turbine characteristics for different reference power cycle options of the empirical trough model
displayed on the Power Block page.
CSP Trough SCAs (TroughSCA)
Collector characteristics for the empirical trough model displayed on the SCA/HCE page.
Dish Stirling Systems (DishStirlingSystem)
Complete system descriptions for the dish-Stirling model displayed on the System Library page.
Energy Payment Dispatch (EnergyPaymentDispatch)
Energy payment allocation factors and schedules displayed on the Energy Payment Dispatch page.
Large Scale Wind Turbine Library (LargeScaleWindTurbine)
List of turbines for the Utility Scale Wind model displayed on the Wind Farm Specifications page.
SHW Collectors (SHWCollectors)
Not used.
SHW Draw Profiles (SHWDrawProfile)
Not used.
SRCC (SRCCCollectors)
List of solar water heating collectors displayed on the SWH System page.
Sandia Inverters (SandiaInverter)
List of inverters from the Sandia inverter database for the photovoltaic model displayed on the Inverter
page.
Sandia Modules (SandiaModule)
List of modules from the Sandia module database for the photovoltaic model displayed on the Module
page.
Small Scale Wind Library (SmallScaleWindTurbine)
List of wind turbines for the Small Scale Wind model displayed on the Small Scale Wind System page.
TOU Utility Rates (TOURateSchedule)
Retail time-of-use rates for projects with residential or commercial financing displayed on the Utility
Rate page.

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Wind Turbine Library (WindTurbine)

Not used.

Default and User Libraries

SAM stores data for each library in library files. A library file is a text file with a the .samlib extension. You
can find the library files in the library folder (/exelib/libraries in your SAM installation folder). SAM uses a
library type definition file with the .samlibtype extension to map values from the library file to SAM input
variables.
There are two types of libraries, default libraries indicated in lists by the prefix "SAM/" in lists, and user
libraries indicated by the prefix "USER/":
Default libraries are available to all project files on your computer and cannot be modified from the library
editor. SAM considers any library file stored in the library folder to be a default library, and indicates
default libraries in lists on input pages with the prefix "SAM/." Although you can use a text editor to
modify a default library, we recommend using the library editor to create a copy of the default library for
editing so that you always have a copy of the original default library that came with SAM. Note that you
can add your own library to the default collection by creating a library file and putting it the libraries
folder.
User libraries are libraries stored in the project file. A user library must be added to a project file to be
available in the file. User libraries are indicated in lists by the prefix "USER/." Unlike default libraries,
user library parameters are stored in the project file and can increase the project file size. To make a
user library available to more than one SAM project on your computer, you can either export it as a
library file and then import it into other projects, or you can export to the default library folder so that it is
available to all projects on your computer.
SAM displays user libraries at the end of the list. For example, the modules from the user library for the
Sandia PV module model appear at the end of the list of modules:

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Managing Libraries with the Library Editor

The library editor allows you to create and edit user libraries. You cannot edit default libraries from the
library editor. To edit a default library, you can either create a copy of the library as a user library (the
recommended approach), or you can edit the file directly using a text editor. See Default and User Libraries
for details.

To open the library editor:

On the File menu, click Libraries.

Note. In order for the library editor to be fully functional, you must open a SAM file before opening the
library editor. If you open the library editor from SAM's welcome page, only the export function is active.

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Libraries
Shows the list of default libraries with the prefix "SAM/" and any user libraries in the project with the
prefix "USER/". Click a library name to display the library's contents. Each library entry is a row in the
table.
New User Library
Click to add a new user library to the project. SAM stores user library data in the project file rather than
in external library files.
Remove User Library
Click to remove a user library. You cannot remove a default library indicated by the "SAM/" prefix.
Add Entries
Add rows of data to a user library. You must choose a user library indicated by the "USER/" prefix
before adding entries. You cannot add entries to a default library with the "SAM/" prefix.
Export
Export the current library to a library file (.samlib). Export a library when you want to use it in a different
project. You must import the library into the other project for it to be available in that project. You can
export a library to the default library folder (/exelib/libraries in your SAM installation folder) to make the
library available to all SAM projects on your computer.
Import
Create a new user library by importing entries from a library file (.samlib). When you import a library,
SAM stores the library entries in the project file, which affects the file's size.
Help
Display the Libraries help topic.
Close
Close the library editor.

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To create a new user library:

1. Open the library editor.
2. Click New User Library.
3. Type a name for the library in the Import Library window. This is the name that will appear in library
lists.
4. Choose a library type in the New User Library window. See the table of library types for type
descriptions.

When you create a new user library, SAM adds an empty library with the name you specified and the prefix
"USER/" to the list of libraries. To assign values to the entry, you must first add a copy of an existing entry,
and then modify its values. This helps to ensure that no library entries have blank values.

To add entries to a new or existing user library:

1. Click the user library's name in the Libraries list. User libraries are indicated by the prefix "USER/".
2. Click Add Entries.
3. In the Copy Existing Entry window, check one or more items that have similar characteristics to the
entry you want to add.
4. Click OK.
5. To rename a library entry, in the library table, right-click the entry's name, and choose Rename
from the shortcut menu.
6. To add values to a library entry, you can either
change values manually by double-clicking each cell and typing a value, or
copy a row of values from a comma-separated text file or Excel worksheet file, and then right
clicking the library entry's name and choosing Paste Values in the shortcut menu.

Note. The library editor does no error checking, so be sure to use valid values in your library entries.

To modify values in a default library:

1. Create a new user library of the same type as the default library (see instructions above).
2. Add the entry that contains the values you want to modify from the default library and change the
value (see instructions above).

Note. You can also use a text editor to change values directly in a default library. You should only use
this approach if you are very familiar with the parameters stored in the library, and are certain that you
want to discard the original values stored in the library. We recommend only modifying copies of
libraries. See Default and User Libraries for file location details.

To "convert" a user library to a default library:

1. Click user library's name in the Libraries list.
2. Click Export and save the file in the libraries folder (/exelib/libraries in your SAM installation folder).
3. SAM will display the library with the "SAM/" prefix, and make it available to all SAM projects on
your computer.

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8 References

Parabolic Trough Technology and Modeling

Burkholder F et al, 2009. Heat Loss Testing of Schott's 2008 PTR70 Parabolic Trough Receiver. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/TP-550-45633. [Link]
Forristall R, 2003. Heat Transfer Analysis and Modeling of a Parabolic Trough Solar Receiver
Implemented in Engineering Equation Solver. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/TP-550-
34169. [Link]
Kelly B and Kearney D, 2006. Parabolic Trough Solar System Piping Model. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory NREL/SR-550-40165. [Link]
McMahan A, 2006. Design & Optimization of Organic Rankine Cycle Solar-Thermal Power Plants.
Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
[Link]
Moens et al, 2005. Advanced Heat Transfer and Thermal Storage Fluids, National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. NREL/CP-510-37083. [Link]
Patnode A, 2006. Simulation and Performance Evaluation of Parabolic Trough Solar Power Plants. Master
of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
[Link]
Pilkington Solar International GmbH, 2000. Survey of Thermal Storage for Parabolic Trough Power Plants.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/SR-550-27925. [Link]
pdfs/[Link]
Price H et al, 2006. Field Survey of Parabolic Trough Receiver Thermal Performance, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory NREL/CP-550-39459. [Link]
Stuetzle T, 2002. Automatic Control of the 30 MWe SEGS VI Parabolic Trough Plant. Master of Science
Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
Troughnet Parabolic Trough Solar Power Network, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, [Link]
[Link]/csp/troughnet. References to SAM modeling on Troughnet, [Link]
modeling_analysis.html#system
Wagner M, 2008. Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver
System Power Plants. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
edu/publications/theses/[Link]

Dish-Stirling Technology and Modeling

Fraser P, 2008. Stirling Dish System Performance Prediction Model. Master of Science Thesis.
University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
International Energy Agency SolarPaces technology characterization Solar Dish Engine. [Link]
[Link]/CSP_Technology/docs/solar_dish.pdf

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478 SAM Help

Power Tower Technology and Modeling

International Energy Agency SolarPaces technology characterization Solar Power Tower. [Link]
[Link]/CSP_Technology/docs/solar_tower.pdf
Kistler B, 1986. A User's Manual for DELSOL3: A Computer Code for Calculating the Optical
Performance and Optimal System Design for Solar Thermal Central Receiver Plants. SAND86-8018.
[Link]
NREL 2007 Solar Power Tower, Dish Stirling and Linear Fresnel Technologies Workshop presentations.
[Link]
U.S. Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Concentrating Solar Power
Technologies: Power Tower Systems. [Link]
Wagner M, 2008. Simulation and Predictive Performance Modeling of Utility-Scale Central Receiver
System Power Plants. Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
edu/publications/theses/[Link]

Photovoltaic Modeling
Arizona State Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory. [Link]
Bower W et al, 2004. Performance Test Protocol for Evaluating Inverters Used in Grid-Connected
Photovoltaic Systems. [Link]
California Energy Commission, New Solar Homes Partnership Calculator: CECPV Calculator. The CEC
calculator uses the same module performance model as SAM's CEC performance model; documentation
included with the CECPV Calculator explains details of the model. [Link]
nshpcalculator
De Soto W, 2004. Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance. Master of
Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
De Soto W et al, 2003. "Improvement and Validation of a Model for Photovoltaic Array Performance."
Solar 2003 Conference Proceedings. American Solar Energy Society.
King D et al, 2004. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia National Laboratories. SAND2004-
3535. [Link]
King D et al, 2007. Performance Model for Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Inverters. Sandia National
Laboratories. SAND2007-5036. [Link]
Neises T, 2011. Development and Validation of a Model to Predict the Temperature of a Photovoltaic Cell.
Master of Science Thesis. University of Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
[Link]
Marion B, 2010. Overview of the PV Module Model in PVWatts. Presented at PV Performance Modeling
Workshop, Albuquerque, New Mexico. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/PR-520-49607.
Marion B et al, 2005. Recent and Planned Enhancements for PVWATTS. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. CP-520-37016. [Link]
Marion B et al, 2001. PVWatts Version 2: Enhanced Spatial Resolution for Calculated Grid-Connected
PV Performance. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. CP-560-30941. [Link]
fy02osti/[Link]

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Project Economics and Financing

Short W et al, 1995. Manual for the Economic Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-462-5173. [Link]
legosti/old/[Link]
Wiser R, 1997. "Renewable energy finance and project ownership", Energy Policy Vol 25 No 1 pp 15-27.
Wiser R et al, 1997. Financing Investments in Renewable Energy: The Role of Policy Design and
Restructuring. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. [Link]
reports/[Link]
Wiser et al, 1996. Alternative Windpower Ownership Structures: Financing Terms and Project Costs.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. [Link]

TRNSYS
Klein S et al, 2004. TRNSYS 16 A Transient Simulation Program. Solar Energy Laboratory, University of
Wisconsin-Madison. [Link]
Klein S et al, 2007. TRNSYS 16 A Transient Simulation Program, Volume 5 Mathematical Reference.
Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Weather Data
EnergyPlus Weather Data Format Description. [Link]
[Link]
Hay J and Davies J, 2980. Calculation of the Solar Radiation Incident on an Inclined Surface. Proceedings
of the First Canadian Solar Radiation Workshop.
Marion W et al, 2008. Users Manual for TMY3 Data Sets. National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL/
TP-581-43156. [Link]
Marion W et al, 1995. User's Manual for TMY2s Typical Meteorological Years. National Renewable
Energy Laboratory. [Link]
Meteonorm. [Link]
Perez R et al, 1988. The Development and Verification of the Perez Diffuse Radiation Model. Sandia
National Laboratories SAND88-7030.
Reindl D et al, 1990. Diffuse Fraction Correlations. Solar Energy Vol 45 No 1.
Solar Prospector. [Link]
Weather Analytics TMY Anywhere. [Link]

Useful Web Sites

Go Solar California: [Link]
SolarPACES, International Energy Agency: [Link]
U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program: [Link]
Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency at [Link]
National Renewable Energy Laboratory

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480 SAM Help
Energy Analysis, [Link]
National Center for Photovoltaics, [Link]
Concentrating Solar Power Research, [Link]
Publications, [Link]
Sandia National Laboratories
Photovoltaic Systems Research & Development, [Link]
Concentrating Solar Power, [Link]
Publications, [Link]

June 2011