Unit 1

Atom
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Attempt made by Democritus
3.3 Attempt made by John Dalton
3.3 Attempt made by J.J Thomson
3.4 Attempt made by Thomson’s Atomic Model
3.6 Attempt made by Ernest Rutherford
3.5 Attempt made by Niels Bohr
3.6 Attempt made by Erwin Schrödinger
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Mark Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
The atom is the basic unit of matter and serves as our starting point for the study of chemistry.
The atom is composed of the subatomic particles protons, neutrons, and electrons. Scientists
have studied atoms for hundreds of years and have developed a number of different models to
describe them, as experimental technology has improved and new discoveries have been made.
Models of atoms were postulated and discarded before the right one was discovered. In this
module you will be expose to the various atomic models that are posted and discarded until the
final one was accepted.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. List out the various scientists who attempted to explain Atom.
2. State the name of scientist that discovered neutron
3. Write with at least 70% accuracy, brief accounts of the attempts made by the two scientists
and the result of these attempts.
4. Explain William Thomson’s Atomic Model
5. State the limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
6. Explain the atomic model of the atom proposed by Ernest Rutherford?
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3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Attempt made by Democritus
Democritus was a Greek philosopher who was the first person to use the term atom (atomos:
meaning indivisible). He thought that if you take a piece of matter and divide it and continue to
divide it you will eventually come to a point where you could not divide it any more. This
fundamental or basic unit was what Democritus called an atom.
He called this the theory of the universe: All matter consists of atoms, which are bits of matter
too small to be seen.
He assumes that:
1. There is an empty space between atoms
2. Atoms are completely solid
3. Atoms have no internal structure
4. Each atom (of a different substance) is different in size, weight and shape.
Interestingly, these thought about atoms are philosophical concepts, but apparently never
considered performing experiments to test their ideas.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1
1. Define atom?
2. What is the major contribution of Democritus to the development of atom ?

3.2 Attempt made by John Dalton

John Dalton was the first to adapt Democritus’ theory into the first modern atomic model.
He assumes that:
1. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that can participate in a chemical change.
2. Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed, but are instead rearranged to yield
substances that are different from those present before the change
3. Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms
4. When elements react, it is their atoms that have combined to form new compounds.
5. The atoms of an element are identical in all respects, i.e. size, mass, density,
chemical properties, but they differ from the atoms of other elements.
Self-Assessment Exercises 2
1. Who was the first scientist that first to adapt Democritus’ theory into the first modern
atomic model?
2. What are the major findings of John Dalton in the development of modem atomic model?
3.3 Attempt made by J.J Thomson and Robert Millikan
Joseph John Thomson was a British physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics, credited with the
discovery of the electron, the first subatomic particle to be discovered. He used his research on
cathode ray tube (Figure1) technology in this discovery.

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 Figure 1: Cathode Ray Tube

Deflection of Cathode Rays by an Electric Field. As the cathode rays travel toward the right,
they are deflected toward the positive electrode (+), demonstrating that they are negatively
charged.

How does this Tube Work?

1. Nearly Empty tube (Air has been sucked out)
2. An electric charge is passed through the tube. Travels from cathode to anode
3. The charge is invisible, so to see where it traveled a fluorescent screen is placed at
back of tube. Where the beam hits, a dot will appear on the screen. You could also use
a fluorescent gas and the whole tube will light up.
4. This beam will always travel straight if not interfered with.
5. The deflection coils each has a specific charge. One is positive and the other is negative.
6. Thomson showed that the charge would deflect away from the negative coil. He then
stated that this charge was thus a negative charge.
J .J Thomson also predict the mass of the negative charge he discovered. He then found out
that this charge was 1000 times lighter that a hydrogen atom. He made a bold statement
saying that this negative charge must be inside an atom. This negative charge (he called
corpuscles) later became known as the electron.
Subsequently, the American scientist Robert Millikan (1868–1953) carried out a series of
experiments using electrically charged oil droplets, which allowed him to calculate the charge
on a single electron. With this information and Thomson’s mass-to-charge ratio, Millikan
determined the mass of an electron:

It was at this point that two separate lines of investigation began to converge, both aimed at
determining how and why matter emits energy.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. Give the name of the scientist that discovered the electron in an atom.
2. Which scientist calculate the charge on a single electron. .
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3.4 Thomson’s William Atomic Model

Using what he had discovered, Thomson predicted what an atom should look like. These are the
key points to Thomson’s Atomic Model:
Thomson atomic model was proposed by William Thomson in the year 1900. This model explained
the description of an inner structure of the atom theoretically. It was strongly supported by
Joseph John Thomson, who had discovered the electron earlier.
Some of the Assumptions of Thomson’s Atomic Model
1. Because of its design this model is known as the plum pudding model
2. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it
Postulate
3. An atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges are equal
in magnitude

Figure 2: Thomson’s Atomic Model

Limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
i. It failed to explain the stability of an atom because his model of atom failed to explain
how a positive charge holds the negatively charged electrons in an atom. Therefore, This
theory also failed to account for the position of the nucleus in an atom
ii. Thomson’s model failed to explain the scattering of alpha particles by thin metal foils
iii. No experimental evidence in its support

Self-Assessment Exercise 4
State the limitations of Thomson’s atomic model

3.5 Attempt made by Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford was not convinced about the model of the atom proposed by Thomson. He
thus set up his now famous Gold Foil Experiment.
The atom, as described by Ernest Rutherford, has a tiny, massive core called the nucleus. The
nucleus has a positive charge. Electrons are particles with a negative charge. Electrons orbit the
nucleus. The empty space between the nucleus and the electrons takes up most of the volume of
the atom.
1. He fired alpha particles (positively charged) at a gold foil.
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2. He measured the deflection as the particles came out the other side.
[Link] of the particles did not deflect at all. Every now and then a particle would deflect all the
way back.
4. He said that there must be a positive centre of the foil. He called this centre the nucleus.

Figure 3: Rutherford’s Atomic Model (Planetary Model)

1. The nucleus of the atom is a dense mass of positively charged particles.

2. The electrons orbit the nucleus
3. A problem raised was: Why are the negatively charged particles not attracted by the positively
charged nucleus
4. Rutherford stated that the atom was like a mini solar system and that the electrons orbited the
nucleus in a wide orbit. That is why it is known as the planetary model.

Self-Assessment Exercise 5

[Link] the atomic model of the atom proposed by Ernest Rutherford?

3.6 Attempt made by Niels Bohr

Niels Bohr agreed with the planetary model of the atom, but also knew that it had a few
limitations. Using his knowledge of energy and quantum physics he was able to perfect
Rutherford’s model. He was able to answer why the electrons did not collapse into the nucleus.

Figure 4: Bohr’S Atomic Model (Rutherford’s - Bohr’S Model)

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[Link] orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy.
2. The lower the energy of the electron, the lower the orbit.
3. This means that as electrons fill up the orbitals, they will fill the lower energy level first.
4. If that energy level is fill (or at capacity), a new energy level will begin.
5. Radiation is when an electron moves from one level to another. Problems with this theory:
Electrons do not travel on a specific orbit or path.

Self-Assessment Exercise 6

1. Explain the Bohr’S Atomic Model (Rutherford’s - Bohr’S Model

3.7 Attempt made by Erwin Schrödinger

Erwin Schrödinger was a revolutionary physicist who used Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
to come up with the atomic model that we still use today. Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger
(1887-1961) developed an “Electron Cloud Model” in 1926. It consisted of a dense nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of electrons at various levels in orbitals. Schrödinger and Werner
Heisenburg (1901-1976) mathematically determined regions in which electrons would be most
likely found. The probability of the finding the electrons in the orbitals are sometimes
referred to as “lobes.” They used the mathematical equations for the behaviour of waves
following the work on waves by Louis de Broglie (1892-1987).
Schrödinger’s Atomic Model (Cloud Model)
[Link] electron does not travel in an exact orbit
2. We can predict where it will probably be
3. We cannot say for certain where it is, but only where it ought to be.
[Link] type of probability orbit is dependent on the energy level described by Bohr

Figure 5: Schrödinger’s Atomic Model (Cloud Model)

Self-Assessment Exercise 7

Do the electron travel in an exact orbit?

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4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, the Scientists tradition of recording and system knowledge gained through
observations and experiments has enabled us to learn about the discovering of the atoms. Even
some of the assumptions that were not correct were used to further understand the structure and
composition of atoms.
5.0 Summary

In this unit, we have discussed the various contribution of different scientist to the
development of atom. The smallest part of an element is called an atom and each atom (of an
element) is different in structure from other atoms (of other elements). An atom can be divided
in smaller subatomic particles: Protons, Electrons and Neutrons. The nucleus is the centre of an
atom. It contains protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus. As we go up the periodic
Table, an electron and proton is added. Electrons occupy a certain energy level (of a certain
size). Once the energy level is full, a new level begins. Within each of these levels are specials
types of orbitals. These depend on the energy level. Each orbital can contain two electrons.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1. What is an atom?
2. List out the various scientists who attempted to explain Atom.
3. Which scientist that discovered neutron
4. What are the assumptions of William Thomson’s Atomic Model
5. State the limitations of Thomson’s atomic model
6. Explain the atomic model of the atom proposed by Ernest Rutherford?

7.0 References/Further Reading

Sharma K. K. and Sharma L. K. (2006): A Text of Physical Chemistry, Forth Revised

Edition, Vikas Publishing House, PVT Ltd, New Delhi.
Peter Atkins and Julio de Paula (2010): Atkins’ Physical Chemistry, Ninth Edith, Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Thomas Engel and Philip Reid (2006): Physical Chemistry, Pearson, Benjamin
Cummings, San Francisco, U. S.