Module 5

Metal Forming

 Mechanics of bulk metal forming

 Mechanics of sheet metal forming

 Heat transfer and deformation

 Thermomechanical process and recrystallization

1
Mechanics of bulk metal forming
 Introduction

• Forming - desired shape and size is given to a material through plastic deformation
without any loss of any material.

• Stress applied between yield strength and fracture strength of material

• Type of loading: tensile, compressive, bending or shearing or combination of these

Cold forming Working temperature is less than recrystallization temperature

Hot forming Working temperature is higher than recrystallization temperature

• Common forming processes: Rolling, Forging, Drawing, Deep drawing, Bending and
Extrusion

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 3

 ROLLING

Thickness of a slab or plate is reduced by two opposing

cylindrical tools called rolls

 The rolls rotate so as to draw the work into the gap between
them and squeeze it

 Based on recrystallization temperature, it may be hot rolling or

cold rolling process

Types of rolling process: ring rolling, roll bending, roll

forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 4

 Mechanics of Rolling Process

Entry and exit velocities of the strips are different such that Exit Entry
𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉 > 𝑉𝑖
where V is roller velocity

Pressure
 When the strip velocity is equal to roller velocity – neutral
point
Contact angle
The friction force changes its direction after neutral point Pressure distribution

 Estimate rolling pressure distribution as a function of

geometric parameters 𝜃
Roll separating force: 𝐹 = ‫׬‬0 𝑝𝑅𝑑𝜃
𝜃
Driving Torque: T = ‫׬‬0 𝜇𝑝𝑅2 𝑑𝜃
Driving power per roll: 𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 5

 FORGING

 Workpiece is compressed between two parallel dies -

die shapes are imparted to the work

 Involves localised compressive forces – created by

a hammer

Can be classified as hot, warm or cold working

process

The forging force attains the maximum value at the

end of the operation

The entire workpiece is plastically deform during the

process
Mechanics of bulk metal forming 6
 FORGING

 The coefficient of friction is an important parameter

𝜏 = 𝜇𝑝 𝜏 = 𝜎𝑠 Sliding
friction
Sticking
friction
x
𝜏 − 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Forging force l
𝑝 − 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝒙′′ 𝒍
𝑭=𝟐 න 𝒑𝟏 𝒅𝒙 + න 𝒑𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝜎𝑠 - shear yield strength 𝟎 𝒙′′

𝒓′′ 𝑹
For a circular disk 𝑭 = 𝟐𝝅 න 𝒑𝟏 𝒓𝒅𝒓 + න 𝒑𝟐 𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝟎 𝒓′′

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 7

 EXTRUSION

 Deformation is similar to drawing but compressive

load is applied instead

 Material is forced to flow through a die opening –

takes the shape of cross section

 Creates very complex cross-sections

 Able to handle brittle materials – because mostly

subjected to compressive stress and shear stress

 Both hot or cold working is possible

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 8

 EXTRUSION

𝜋 2 𝜋 2
 Continuity equation: 𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝑅
4 4

Workdone per unit volume due to 𝜀

plastic deformation 𝑊𝑃 = න 𝜎𝑑𝜀 𝑉𝑅
0

𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 = 2𝑙𝑛
𝐴𝑓 𝑑𝑓

𝜋 2 𝜋 2
Assume average value of stress = yield stress Deformation per unit time: 𝑑 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝑅
𝜀
4 4
𝑑𝑖
𝑊𝑃 = න 𝜎𝑑𝜀 = 2𝜎𝑦 𝑙𝑛
0 𝑑𝑓 𝛑 𝟐
Power used in plastic deformation: 𝐖𝐏 𝐝𝐢 𝐕𝐑
𝟒

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 9

 DRAWING

Drawing is a similar to extrusion and tensile force is used instead of compressive load

Multiple stages can be used 𝐴𝑖 1

True strain: 𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 = ln
𝐴𝑓 1−𝐷
Single or multiple dies can be used for this purpose

 The process is cold working process as well as can be set as hot working process for large
wires to reduce forces

Degree of drawing (D) operation:

2
𝐴𝑖 − 𝐴𝑓 𝑑𝑖2 − 𝑑𝑓2 𝑑𝑖
𝐷= = =1−
𝐴𝑖 𝑑𝑖2 𝑑𝑓

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 10

 Analysis of forming processes

Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest

• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the material

• Plastic deformation behavior is expressed by

Y f  K n

where Yf − Flow stress; K - strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent

Flow curve based on true stress and true strain.

• For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when deformed due to strain
hardening.

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 11

 Analysis of forming processes

Analysis of stress-strain curve

• Elastic limit
• Ultimate tensile strength
• Elastic recovery
• Workdone
• Strain hardening behaviour

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 12

 Analysis of forming processes

Tresca’s yield condition: Plastic flow depends on slip which is shearing process
• Yielding would occur when the greatest shear stress reaches a critical value
• In the tensile test where 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0, the greatest maximum shear stress at yielding is 𝜏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 𝜎𝑦 /2
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑦
• This yielding would occur at = ; 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑦
2 2
• The yielding is independent of the intermediate principal stress
• In the plane stress where 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 = 0 ; 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦

von Mises’ yield condition: Maximum distortion energy criteria

• Plastic flow occurs when the shear strain energy reaches a critical value
• The von Mises yield criterion says that yielding will occur when the root-mean-square value of the maximum
shear stress reaches a critical value.
• 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 = C (Constant)
• Plastic flow depends on all principal stresses
• As per plane stress condition ; the criterion is : 𝜎12 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22 = 𝜎𝑦

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 13

 Analysis of forming processes

Relation between tensile and shear yield strength

Uniaxial tensile testing: 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 : 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0

Yielding under pure shear condition: 𝜎1 = 𝜏: 𝜎2 = 0; 𝜎3 = − 𝜏

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 14

Mechanics of sheet metal forming

15
 PLANE STRESS DEFORMATION

• In sheet metal forming process - Stress perpendicular to the

surface of the sheet is small as compared to other components
• Assume normal stress is zero – creates plane stress
deformation condition
• The tensile test is of course a plane stress process.
• Sheet metal deforms under non-zero principal stresses 𝜎1 and
𝜎2 General plane stress

• 𝜎3 − perpendicular to the surface of the sheet is small and

very much lower than the yield stress of the material

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 16

 Yielding in Plane Stress

• Yielding of a material under plane stress - depends on current strength of the sheet and the
stress ratio α
• Strength of the sheet is normally represented by flow stress, σf
• Flow stress - material yield in simple tension, i.e. if α = 0

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 17

 Yielding in Plane Stress

Maximum shear stress

• On faces - no shear stresses

• Face inclined at any other angle - both normal and shear stresses will be there
• Faces of different orientation – Shear stress reaches a maximum at three particular directions
– known as maximum shear stress plane
• Planes are inclined at 450 to the principal directions. Normal stresses also act on these
maximum shear stress planes
Mechanics of sheet metal forming 18
 Yielding in Plane Stress

Three maximum shear stresses 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 𝜎3 − 𝜎1

𝜏1 = 𝜏2 = 𝜏3 =
2 2 2
A yielding condition might be expressed as, 𝑓 𝜏1 , 𝜏2 , 𝜏3 = 𝜎𝑓

Hydrostatic Stress
𝝈𝟏 +𝝈𝟐 +𝝈𝟑
The hydrostatic stress is the average of the principal stresses 𝝈𝒉 =
𝟑

It can be considered as three

equal components acting in all
directions on the element

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 19

 Yielding in Plane Stress

Hydrostatic stress is similar to the hydrostatic pressure p in a fluid and is expressed as 𝜎ℎ = −𝑝

Deviatoric Stress

The deviatoric stresses are expressed as

𝜎1 ′ = 𝜎1 − 𝜎ℎ 𝜎2 ′ = 𝜎2 − 𝜎ℎ 𝜎3 ′ = 𝜎3 − 𝜎ℎ

Yielding and plastic deformation can be described by the state of stress at a point either
by the maximum shear stresses, or the deviatoric stresses along with flow rule

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 20

 Yielding in Plane Stress

Tresca Yield Condition

• Yielding would occur - greatest maximum shear stress reaches a critical value
𝜎𝑓
• In the tensile test 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0, the greatest maximum shear stress at yielding is 𝜏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡. = .
2
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑓
• Yielding criteria =
2 2

• In plane stress - illustrated graphically by the hexagon and

is the locus of a point P that indicates the stress state at
yield as the stress ratio α changes.
• In a work-hardening material, this locus will expand as σf
increases. Yield locus for plane stress for the
Tresca yield criterion.

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 21

 Yielding in Plane Stress

von Mises yield condition

• Mathematically, yield criterion is defined - when the root-mean-square value of the maximum
shear stresses reaches a critical value
𝜎𝑓
• In a tensile test - two of the maximum shear stresses will have the value of , while the third
2
is zero
𝜎𝑓 2
𝜏1 2 +𝜏2 2 +𝜏3 2 2
• The criterion is expressed as = 2
3 3

• Substituting the principal stresses for the maximum shear stresses, the yielding condition can
be expressed also as
1
{(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 } = 𝜎𝑓
2

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 22

 Yielding in Plane Stress

For the plane stress state, the criterion is 𝜎1 2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 2 = 𝜎𝑓 = 1 − 𝛼 + 𝛼 2 𝜎1

von-Mises criterion gives the yield locus in form of an ellipse

von mises yield condition in terms of deviatoric components can

be written as
3 ′2 ′2 ′2
(𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 ) = 𝜎𝑓
2

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 23

 LEVY-MISES FLOW RULE

Deviatoric stress + hydrostatic stress = actual stress state

Hydrostatic stress influence on change in size
Deviatoric components - associated with the shape change

𝑑𝜀1 𝑑𝜀2 𝑑𝜀3

Levy–Mises flow rule = =
𝜎1 ′ 𝜎2 ′ 𝜎3 ′

𝑑𝜀1 𝑑𝜀2 𝑑𝜀3

= = 𝝈𝟑 = 𝟎
2 − 𝛼 2𝛼 − 1 −(1 + 𝛼)

𝜀1 𝜀2 𝛽𝜀1 𝜀3 −(1+𝛽)𝜀1
In a plane stress, = = = =
2−𝛼 2𝛼−1 −(1+𝛼) −(1+𝛼) −(1+𝛼)

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 24

 WORK HARDENING

Flow stress increases in any process according to the amount of plastic work done

Stress–strain curves for the principal directions 1 and 2 for an element deforming in a plane
stress procedure in which 𝜎2 = 𝛼𝜎1

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 25

 EFFECTIVE STRESS AND STRAIN FUNCTION

The plastic work done per unit volume in an increment process

𝑑𝑊
= 𝑓1 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 𝑑𝑓2 (𝜀1 , 𝜀2 , 𝜀3 )
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
During deformation, a yield criteria is followed
If von Mises yielding criterion is followed, for plane stress
𝑓1 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 = ( 1 − 𝛼 + 𝛼 2 )𝜎1
This function is called the representative, effective or equivalent stress, 𝜎ത
If the material is yielding, it may be equal to flow stress, 𝜎𝑓 or changes according to strain
hardening effect

Effective or equivalent strain increment dതε 4

𝑑𝜀 ҧ = 𝑑𝑓2 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 , 𝜀3 = 1 + 𝛽 + 𝛽2 𝑑𝜀1
and for plane stress 3

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 26

 EFFECTIVE STRESS AND STRAIN FUNCTION

In a continuous and proportional process, true strains ε can be substituted for the incremental
strains dε
4
𝜀ҧ = 1 + 𝛽 + 𝛽2 𝜀1
3

The general stress–strain relation for an isotropic material deforming plastically, the effective
stress–strain curve

𝜎ത = f (𝜀)ҧ

This is coincident with the tensile test true stress–strain curve for an isotropic material

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 27

 DEEP DRAWING

 Sheet metal forming process - sheet metal blank is

radially drawn into a forming die by the mechanical
action of a punch

 The workpiece around the corner of the punch is

subjected to bending operation

 Depth of the drawn part is more than diameter

 The ratio of height to diameter in a cup is decide by

Limiting Drawing Ratio

 Deeper cups may be made by redrawing

Mechanics of bulk metal forming 28

 Deep Drawing

Flange Drawing:

Annular flange of a deep-drawn cup Element in the annular flange

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 29

 Deep Drawing

Flange Drawing: Equilibrium equation in the absence of friction

𝜎𝑟 + 𝑑𝜎𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜎𝑟 𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 + 𝜎𝜃 𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝜎𝜃 − 𝜎𝑟
+ − =0
𝑑𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑟

Stress state:
Point A – due to free surface 𝜎𝑟 = 0 and 𝜎𝜃 = −𝜎𝑓 , where 𝜎𝑓 is the current flow stress
Point B - radial stress is equal and opposite to the hoop stress
Point C - radial stress is the maximum
Deformation state: • In drawing - total area will not
Point A - blank will thicken as it deforms change much.
Point B - no change in thickness • Can be approximated the blank size
Point C - sheet will thin

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 30

 Deep Drawing

Using the Tresca yield condition : 𝜎𝜃 − 𝜎𝑟 = −(𝜎𝑓 )0

where (𝜎𝑓 )0 is the initial flow stress and thickness initially is uniform
Boundary conditions: 𝜎𝑟 = 0 at 𝑅0 and 𝜎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑟𝑖 at 𝑟𝑖

𝑟𝑖
𝜎𝑟𝑖 = −(𝜎𝑓 )0 ln , and 𝜎𝜃𝑖 = − (𝜎𝑓 )0 −𝜎𝑟𝑖
𝑅0

The greatest stress at the wall of the cup - obeying the Tresca condition is (𝜎𝑓 )0 .
Therefore, substitute 𝜎𝑟𝑖 = (𝜎𝑓 )0
𝑅0
Limiting Drawing Ratio, = 𝑒 = 2.72
𝑟𝑖

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 31

 BENDING

 It is a manufacturing process that produces a V-

shape, U-shape, or channel shape along a straight axis
in sheet metals

 Bending can also be described as straining of a

metal sheet to take an angle along a straight axis
𝜶
 Estimation of the elastic recovery or spring back is
essential

t – thickness of sheet
r – nose radius of punch
𝜶 - Included angle

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 32

 BENDING

Linearly strain hardened material (Bilinear stress-strain curve)

Elastic bending strain due to application of bending moment M

𝑀 𝐸 𝐸𝜙 𝑀𝐿
= = 𝜙=
𝐼 𝑅 𝐿 𝐸𝐼

I – Second moment area of beam cross-section

R – Radius of curvature
L – Length of neutral plane
𝜙 – is a measure of spring back
𝛼 𝐿
𝜙 2𝑀𝐿 Assume 5% shift in neutral axis =
= 2 𝑟 + 0.45𝑡
𝛼Τ2 𝐸𝐼𝛼

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 33

 BENDING

2𝜙 𝑀 𝑟 + 0.45𝑡
=
𝛼 𝐸𝐼

1 3
Beam of rectangular cross-section of unit width I= 𝑡
12

2𝜙 12𝑀 𝑟 + 0.45𝑡
Total spring back =
𝛼 𝐸𝑡 3

Required punch angle: α − 2𝜙 to produce a bend with included angle

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 34

 Punching and Blanking

 Most common sheet metal operation – shearing of the metal strips

 Notching, lancing, slitting and trimming are similar kind of operation
 Finite volume of sheet metal is removed using die and punch
 Shape and size depends on – geometry of punch and die
 Final product is removed portion – blanking
 Pierced sheet metal is the final product – punching
 Basic mechanics of material removal is same
 A clearance is provided between punch and die 𝜎𝑓 - true rupture stress
𝑐0 - optimum clearance
where 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑝 + 2𝑐
𝐿 – length of cut = 𝜋𝐷
Maximum force to cause rupture 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑓 𝑐0 𝐿 𝐷 − punch diameter
1
Work required for punching 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑝
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝 – depth of penetration = ∆ + 𝑐0

Mechanics of sheet metal forming 35

 Role of friction in metal forming

 Friction increases the work load and power loss

 Friction stress changes the principal stress direction
 High friction also creates dead zone in extrusion and built-up
edges - affects the surface finish
Role of friction in strip rolling 𝒑 ∙ ∆𝒍

Horizontal force components 𝜇𝑝 ∙ ∆𝑙 cos 𝜃 ≥ 𝑝 ∙ ∆𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝝁𝒑 ∙ ∆𝒍

𝜇 ≥ tan 𝜃
𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓
𝜇≥𝜃 𝜃= 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓
𝑅 𝜇𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥
𝑅
𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓
𝜇≥ 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓 ≤ 𝜇2 𝑅
𝑅 𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑓 ≤ 𝜇2 𝑅
𝑚𝑎𝑥

36
 Heat transfer and Deformation
 Based on working temperature -
 Cold Forming - Near room temperature
 Warm Forming - Between room temperature and recrystallization temperature.
Working temperature ~ 0.3 Tm
 Hot Forming - Above recrystallization temperature
Working temperature ~ 0.5Tm to 0.7 Tm
 Heatis generated in the workpiece - plastic deformation and interfacial frictional energy
Heat dissipation to the environment leads to reduction in temperature.
T → Ti + Td + Tf –Tc
T = Total Temperature
Ti = Initial Temperature
Td = Temperature rise due to plastic deformation
Tf = Temperature rise due to friction
Tc = Temperature lost to environment by conduction, convection, radiation
37
 Heat transfer and Deformation
Temperature rise due to deformation energy

The amount of plastic work done per unit volume = σε

Total plastic work done = σεV where V is the volume
Considering α as the fraction of plastic work done. 𝜀
Therefore total plastic work done is ασεV. 𝜀ሶ =
𝑡
Internal stored energy is mCPΔTd within the workpiece
where CP = Specific heat capacity
ΔTd = Change in temperature due to deformation energy

Equating the energy balance mCPΔTd = ασεV

ΔTd = ασεV/mCP
ΔTd = ασ 𝜀ሶ tV/ mCP

38
 Heat transfer and Deformation
Temperature rise due to friction
Frictional energy overcome between tool and workpiece
Wf = Shear force X velocity of flow = τAv = nkAv
where, τ = nk = shear stress (sliding/sticking condition)
n = shear factor, 0 ≤ n ≤ 1;
k = shear strength
v = velocity
A = Area of contact between tool and workpiece

Making energy balance, 𝑊𝑓 × 𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑓 where, t is time

nkAvt = mCPΔTf

ΔTf = nkAvt/mCP

39
 Heat transfer and Deformation
Comparison between cold and hot working

 Cold working - room temperature while hot working - 0.5 – 0.7 times of
melting point temperature
 Load required in cold working is relatively more than hot working
 Elongated grains - cold working while equiaxed grains - found in hot
working
 Strength of cold worked materials are relatively higher than the strength of hot
worked materials.
 Ductility of cold worked materials is lower than hot worked materials
 Dislocation density more in cold worked materials while less dislocation
density in hot worked material
 Annealing is often required after cold working
40
 Heat transfer and Deformation
 Elastic deformation disappears completely when load is removed
 Plastic deformation is a permanent deformation without failure and takes place
when elastic range of the deformation has been exceeded.
 In plastic region, metal's behaviour is expressed by the flow curve: σ = Kε n
where σ is stress, K is strength coefficient, ε is strain and n is strain
hardening exponent.
 Stress and strain in flow curve are true stress and true strain.
 Generally for metals at room temperature, strength increases with the increase
in strain hardening.
 The value of K and n is temperature dependent. Strength and strain hardening
reduces with increase in temperature.
 While ductility of metals increases with increase in temperature.

41
 Heat transfer and Deformation
Quantification of flow stress value
It is considered to be the middle value between yield strength and ultimate strength of the
metal and is taken as a function of strain, and is expressed as:
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
where, 𝜎𝑓 is flow stress; ε is true strain; K is strength coefficient; n is strain
hardening coefficient

Therefore flow stress can also be defined as the stress required to sustain deformation at any
given strain

The average flow stress – based on work done under stress–strain curve from the
beginning of strain to the final value
𝜎𝑓 𝑎𝑣 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛 Τ 1 + 𝑛
ε = maximum strain
42
 Heat transfer and Deformation
Strain rate sensitivity

Strain rate is estimated as

𝜀ሶ = v/h
where, 𝜀ሶ = true strain rate
v = Speed of deformation
h = instantaneous height of the workpiece being deformed

As strain rate is increased, resistance to deformation increases.

At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on strain rate.

𝜎𝑓 = 𝐶 𝜀ሶ𝑚
where C = strength constant, m = strain rate sensitivity exponent.

43
 Heat transfer and Deformation
 At room temperature, the effect of strain rate is almost negligable

 As temperature is increased, strain rate becomes significant in determining

flow stress

 In cold working strain rate have very small effect on flow stress

 Flow stress as a function of strain and strain rate can be expressed as,

𝜎𝑓 = 𝐴𝜀 𝑛 𝜀ሶ 𝑚 where A = Strength coefficient

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 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Thermomechanical processing

 A metallurgical process that combines mechanical deformation process like

metal forming processes with thermal processes like heat-treatment,
quenching or controlled heating and cooling process

 Purpose is to improve the mechanical properties of materials processed by

work hardening effect

 Better explain by Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain growth mechanism

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 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Annealing

 It is a heat treatment process in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for

an extended period of time and then slowly cooled.

 The purpose is to relieve stresses, increase softness, ductility and toughness

 It consists of 3 stages
 Heating to the desired temperature
 Holding or soaking at that temperature
 Cooling usually at room temperature

Rate of heating or rate of cooling is important – too high rate create temperature gradient and
internal stresses - may lead to wrapping or cracking
The actual annealing time must be long enough to allow for any necessary transformation
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reactions.
 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Process annealing

 It is a heat treatment process of cold worked material - that is to soften and

increase the ductility of previously strain-hardened metal

 Commonly used that require extensive plastic deformation - to allow a

continuation deformation with high reduction ratio

 Recovery and recrystallization occurs during the process

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 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Normalizing

 Steels that have been plastically deformed by metal working processes and
consists of a grains of pearlite with irregularly shaped and relatively large with
wide distribution of grains

 Normalizing is used to refine the grains i.e. decrease the average grain size and
produce a more uniform and desirable size distribution

 Produced fine-grained pearlite steels are tougher than coarse-grained ones

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 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Full anneal
 Full anneal is often utilized in low- and medium carbon steels that experience
extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation

 Heating to a desired temperature and followed by cooling

 Slow cooling in the furnace is followed
 Recovery is the main mechanism

 Produce coarse pearlite that is relatively soft and ductile

 The full anneal process is time consuming – but beneficial in the form of small
grains and a uniform grain structure

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 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

 Plastic deformation of polycrystalline at specific temperature –

A change in grain shape
Strain hardening
An increase in dislocation density

 Some fraction of the energy is stored in metal as strain energy

 The strain energy is associated with various lattice defects, mainly the dislocations.
 Retained energy – depends on composition of materials, and rate and temperature of
deformation
 Lowering the deformation temperature and changing from pure metal to an alloy, the
amount of stored energy increases
 Release of strain energy by recovery process – annihilating excess dislocations
 Large energy release with the formation of strain free crystals – recrystallization
 Followed by grain growth
 Function of strain, strain rate and temperature
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 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
 Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth occur - during annealing after cold deformation
or during hot working of metals
 Recrystallization occurs - nucleation and growth of grains
 Key mechanism to control microstructure evolution during hot working and subsequent heat
treatment
- dynamic recovery, dynamic recrystallization, static recovery, static recrystallization,
and grain growth

Dynamic recovery: Static recrystallization occurs after

 Occurs at high temperature the deformation, mostly in cold
 Movement of dislocations to grain forming process
boundary
 Lowers the strain energy Dynamic recrystallization occurs
 Lowers the effective rate of work during deformation process, mostly
hardening in hot forming process 51
 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Formation of nuclei:
 Favorable positions are high lattice strain energy such as slip-line intersections,
twin intersections and grain boundaries
 The growth rate and nucleation rate is difficult to measure
Grain growth: Grain boundary energy and the curvature of the boundary
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷 1
∝𝜌 = 𝑘. 𝜌 - curvature
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐷
𝐷𝑛 − 𝐷0𝑛 = 𝑘𝑡
𝐷2 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶
K, n – time independent constants
𝐷2 − 𝐷02 = 𝑘𝑡 and n ≥ 2

If D0 is very small, 𝐷2 = 𝑘𝑡 𝐷 = 𝑘′ 𝑡
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 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming
Recrystallization kinetics: Impingement
Nucleation period = 𝑡0
N = Rate of nucleation X Growth
R = Mean radius of spherical grain
R = G(t - t0) Nucleation
𝑑𝑅
G = Growth rate = t
𝑑𝑡
Johnson-Mehl equation:
Recrystallization volume fraction, 𝜋
𝑡
4 3 𝑋 = 1 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 4
𝑋 = න 𝑁 𝑑𝑡. 𝜋𝑅 3
𝑡0 3
𝑡 Assumptions:
4 3 𝜋
= න 𝑁 𝜋𝐺 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 − 𝑡0 4
3  Grains are spherical
𝑡0 3 3  Rate of growth and nucleation are
𝜋 constant
If nucleation time t0 is very small 𝑋 = 𝑁𝐺 3 𝑡 4
3  Nucleation time is small and randomly
This is valid if 𝑋 ≪ 1 distributed
 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

Higher temperature of working, lower strain energy stored, which will lead to a
higher recrystallization temperature

The rate of recrystallization is an exponential function of temperature. Since

recrystallization process is a complex one - the activation energy for
recrystallization cannot be treated as a fundamental constant.

Rate of recrystallization increases with amount of cold work

It require a critical amount of coldwork may cause recrystallization

Recrystallization is easier in pure metals than in alloys and occurs at lower

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temperature.
 Thermomechanical processing and recrystallization in Metal Forming

 Recrystallization temperature depends on many variables and is not a fixed

temperature like melting temperature

 A smaller original cold-worked grain size reduces the recrystallization

temperature

 Increasing the annealing time reduces the recrystallization temperature

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Thank you
for your kind attention

End of Module 5
Metal Forming

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