E-Proceedings of National Workshop on

Design of Steel Structures Using Revised IS 800: 2007

(Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel)
30th June 2009 to 4th July2009

Organized by
Department of Civil Engineering
Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune 41

Dr. [Link] Jyoti P. Bhusari

Convener Coordinator

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 1
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Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 2
Residential Projects
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Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 3
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Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 4
 Preface
The draft for the code of practice for general building construction in steel IS: 800
was ready and submitted to bureau of Indian standards in the year 2000. Training
programme arranged by INSDAG since year 2002, created awareness amongst the
prospective users. In the year 2005, Department of Civil Engineering also arranged two
days workshop on 18th and 19th November in collaboration with INSDAG for the benefits
of academicians, professionals and students.
New version of IS: 800 released in December 2007 was actually came in
circulation somewhere in Feb 2008. BIS made mandatory to implement it immediately.
But during a period of last one year it has been observed that there was no eager in using
this code and users felt it difficult and not user friendly.
This National workshop is arranged due to need and demand from academicians
and professionals and we are very happy to see the large number of their participation.
We would like to thank all the delegates and the members of National Advisory
Committee who encouraged us to bring this success. We also express thanks towards the
faculty of this workshop for their well prepared text and presentation.
Prof. M. N. Navale, Founder President of Sinhgad Technical Education Society,
Pune always encouraged us for arrangement of such technical programme. We are
indebted to him. Dr. A. S. Padalkar, Principal, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune
provided facilities for this workshop and we thank him. Mr. Utkarsh Patil, Managing
Director of VistaCore Group generously helped us by sponsoring this workshop. We
thank him for his love and affection towards us. Thanks are also due towards M/s Laxmi
Sales, Amravati for their help.
Last but not the least, our sincere thanks are towards all our collegeaus of Civil
Engg. Department and Institute, who cooperated with us for helping in different tasks.
We are providing herewith CD containing detailed lecture notes of speakers. We hope,
this will help delegates to enhance their understanding use of revised IS 800:2007 in
more gratified reception.

Aashadi Ekadashi Dr. M. R. Shiyekar, Cell 9822617920, mukundshiyekar@[Link]

03rd July 2009 Mrs. J. P. Bhusari, Cell 9421914441, jyoti_bhusari@[Link]

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 5
 Patrons
Prof. [Link] Dr. (Mrs.) S.M. Navale
Founder President, STES, Pune Founder Secretary, STES, Pune

Chairman of Workshop
Dr. A.S. Padalkar
Principal, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune
National Advisory Committee
Prof. Santhakumar A.R., IIT Madras
Prof. Tarun Kant, IIT Bombay
Prof. [Link], IIT Roorkee
Prof. [Link], Manager, (Civil/Structure) INSDAG, Kolkatta.
Mr. S.N. Manohar, Retd. Chief Engineer, TCE, Pune.
Mr. S.P. Khedkar, HCC Ltd, Mumbai
Mr. Jayant Kulkarni, Director, Epicons Consultant, Mumbai.

Members of organizing committee

Dr. Mrs. [Link] (Vice Principal) Dr. N.J. Sathe
Dr. S .M. Shiyekar Mr. M.V. Bhogone
Mrs. S.S. Jain Mrs. D.R. Vaidya
Mr. S.S. Shastri Ms. S.S. Tikhe
Mrs. [Link] Mr. S.D. Marulkar
Mrs. S.S. Shiyekar Mr. [Link]
Mrs. [Link] Mr. [Link]
Mr.S.T. Mali Mr. [Link]
Mr. [Link] Mr. [Link]
Mr. D.S. Aswar
Convener Coordinator
Dr. M.R. Shiyekar Mrs. Jyoti P. Bhusari
HOD, Dept. of Civil Engineering Asst. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 6
A NATIONAL WORKSHOP ON ‘DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES USING REVISED IS: 800 – 2007
(Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel)’
From 30th June to 4th July 2009

Detailed Schedule of Sessions

Sess
Lecture Speaker Topic / Theme Time
ion
Day 1 : 30th June 2009
Breakfast 9.00 am to 10.00 am
1 Inauguration Function with Keynote Address 9.30 to 10.00

Mr. [Link] Philosophy of Limit State Design and Classification of

2 L1 10.00 to 11.30
INSDAG, Kolkata Sections

Mr. [Link]
3 L2 Design of Tension Member 11.30 to 1.00
INSDAG, Kolkata
Lunch Break

Prof. Y. L. Bhirud Design of Compression Member: Angle Strut

4 L3 2.00 to 3.30
Trinity COE, Pune

Tea Break
Dr. M. R. Shiyekar
5 T1 Tutorials-1 3.45 to 5.15
SCOE, Pune
Day 2: 1st July 2009
Breakfast 9.30am to 10.00 am
Prof. U. R. Awari Design of Compression Member: Built up Column,
6 L4 10.00 to 11.30
AISSMS COE, Pune. Lacing and Battening

Dr. V. L. Shah
7 L5 Design of Bolted Connection 11.30 to 1.00
Consultant, Pune.

Lunch Break
Dr. V. L .Shah
8 L6 Design of welded connection 2.00 to 3:30
Consultant, Pune.

Tea Break

Mrs. J. P. Bhusari
9 L7 Introduction to Plastic Analysis 3.45 to 5.15
SCOE, Pune.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 7
 Day 3: 2nd July 2009

Breakfast 9.30am to 10.00 am

Dr. M .R. Shiyekar

10 L8 Design of Flexural member, Laterally Supported 10.00 to 11:30
SCOE, Pune

Mr. .P. B. Kodag

11 L9 Design of Flexural member, Laterally Unsupported 11:30 to 1.00
SCOE, Pune
Lunch Break

Mr. V. A. Nalwar
12 L10 Design of Gantry Girder 2 to 3.30
Neilsoft Ltd, Pune

Dr. [Link]
13 L11 Design of Plate Girder 3.45 to 5.15
SCOE, Pune
Breakfast 9.30am to 10.00 am

Mrs. P. G. Kulkarni
14 L12 Combined Stresses: Moment with high shear 10.00 to 11.00
SCOE, Pune.

Mrs. P. G. Kulkarni Combined Stresses: Beam Column axial with

15 L13 11.00 to 12.00
SCOE, Pune. biaxial bending

Dr. M. R. Shiyekar
16 T2 Tutorial -2 12.00 to 1.00
SCOE, Pune
Lunch Break

Mrs Nutan Pathak

17 L14 Roof Trusses 2.00 to 3.30
MIT, Pune.
Tea Break

[Link]
18 L15 Design of Footbridge 3.45 to 5.15
COE, Pravaranagar

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 8
 Day 5: 4th July 2009
Breakfast 9.30am to 10.00 am
Dr. Bilawari Karkare Column bases: Slab base and Gussetted base Moment
19 L16 10.00 to 11:30
VIIT, Pune resisting column base Anchor bolts

Dr. M. R. Shiyekar
20 L17 Analysis and Design of Portal frames 11.30 to 1:00
SCOE, Pune
Lunch Break
Prof. Santha Kumar
21 L18 Earthquake Considerations in Design of Frames 2.00 to 3:30
IIT, Madras

[Link] [Link]
22 L19 Enabling Structures and detailing 3.45 to 4.45
Consultant,Mumbai

Panel Disscussion and Valedictory Function

22 4.45 to 5.30

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 9
 INDEX
Lecture Title Speaker Page
No. No.
1 Philosophy of Limit State Design and Dr. M. M. Ghosh 11
Classification of Sections
2 Design of Tension Member Dr. M. M. Ghosh 23
3 Design of Compression Member Mr. Y. L. Bhirud 43
(Part 1- Angle Struts)
4 Design of Compression Member Mr. Awari Uttam R. 54
(Part II- Built up Column, Lacing and
Battening)
5 Design of Bolted Connection Dr. V. L. Shah 74

6 Design of Welded Connection Dr. V. L. Shah 94

7 Introduction to Plastic Analysis Mrs. Jyoti P. Bhusari 105

8 Design of Flexural member, Laterally Dr. M. R. Shiyekar 125

Supported
9 Design of Flexural member, Laterally Mr. Kodag Pradeep B. 132
Unsupported
10 Design of Gantry Girder Mr. Vishal A. Nalwar 140

11 Design of Plate Girder Dr. Sandeep M. 157

Shiyekar
12 Combined Stresses: Moment with Mrs. Pratibha Kulkarni 182
High Shear

13 Combined Stresses: Beam Column Mrs. Pratibha Kulkarni 188

axial with biaxial bending

14 Design of Roof Trusses Mrs. Nutan Pathak 201

15 Design of Foot Bridge Mr. U. P. Naik 214

16 Design of Column Base: Slab base Dr. Bilavari Karkare 223

and Gussetted base, Moment
Resisting Column base, Anchor Bolts
17 Design of Portal Frames Dr. M. R. Shiyekar 239

18 Earthquake Consideration in Design Dr. SanthaKumar 251

of Frames
19 Enabling Structures and Detailing Mr. Arun B Karnik 275

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 10
Lecture No. 1
Title: Introduction to Limit States
Speaker: Dr. M. M. Ghosh, INSDAG, Kolkata.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A Civil Engineering Designer has to ensure that the structures and facilities he designs
are (i) fit for their purpose (ii) safe and (iii) economical and durable. Thus safety
is one of the paramount responsibilities of the designer. However, it is difficult to assess
at the design stage how safe a proposed design will actually be – consistent with
economy. There is, in fact, a great deal of uncertainty about the many factors, which
influence both safety and economy. Firstly, there is a natural variability in the material
strengths and secondly it is impossible to predict the loading, which a structure (e.g. a
building) may be subjected to on a future occasion. Thus uncertainties affecting the
safety of a structure are due to
• uncertainty about loading
• uncertainty about material strength and
• uncertainty about structural dimensions and behaviour.

These uncertainties together make it impossible for a designer to guarantee that a

structure will be absolutely safe. All that the designer could ensure is that the risk of
failure is extremely small, despite the uncertainties.

An illustration of the statistical meaning of safety is given in Fig. 1. Let us consider a

structural component (say, a beam) designed to carry a given nominal load. Bending
moments (B.M.) produced by characteristic loads are first computed. These are to be
compared with the characteristic resistance or strength (R.M.) of the beam. But the
characteristic resistance (R.M.) itself is not a fixed quantity, due to variations in material
strengths that might occur between nominally same elements. The actual resistance of
these elements can be expected to vary as a consequence. The statistical distribution of
these member strengths (or resistances) will be as sketched in (a).

Similarly, the variation in the maximum loads and therefore load effects (such as bending
moment) which different structural elements (all nominally the same) might encounter in
their service life would have a distribution shown in (b). The uncertainty here is both
due to variability of the loads applied to the structure, and also due to the variability of
the load distribution through the structure. Thus if a particularly weak structural
component is subjected to a heavy load which exceeds the strength of the structural
component, clearly failure could occur.

Unfortunately it is not practicable to define the probability distributions of loads and

strengths, as it will involve hundreds of tests on samples of components. Normal design
calculations are made using a single value for each load and for each material property
and making appropriate safety factor into the design calculations. The value used is
termed as “Characteristic Strength or Resistance” or “Characteristic Load”.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 11
© Copyright reserved

Variation of maximum life time load

effects (B.M.)
Variation of resistance (R.M.)
Frequen

Curve (a) between nominally identical

Curve (b) materials
cy

Risk of
failure

Load effects
Strength (or
Load used in divided by
resistance) used
calculation
in calculations Resistance
moment
Fig. 1 Statistical Meaning of Safety

Characteristic resistance of a material (such as Concrete or Steel) is defined as that

value of resistance below which not more than a prescribed percentage of test results
may be expected to fall. (For example the characteristic yield stress of steel is usually
defined as that value of yield stress below which not more than 5% of the test values may
be expected to fall). In other words, this strength is expected to be exceeded by 95% of
the cases.

Similarly, the characteristic load is that value of the load, which has an accepted
probability of not being exceeded during the life span of the structure. Characteristic
load is therefore that load which will not be exceeded 95% of the time.

2.0 STANDARDISATION
Most structural designs are based on experience. Standardisation of all designs is
unlikely within the foreseeable future hence design rules, based on experience, become
useful. If a similar design has been built successfully elsewhere, there is no reasons why
a designer may not consider it prudent to follow aspects of design that have proved
successful, and adopt standardised design rules. As the consequences of bad design can
be catastrophic, the society expects designers to explain their design decisions. It is
therefore advantageous to use methods of design that have proved safe in the past.
Standardised design methods can help in comparing alternative designs while minimising
the risk of the cheapest design being less safe than the others.

Most Governments attempt to ensure structural safety through regulations and laws.
Designers then attempt to achieve maximum economy within the range of designs that
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 12
the regulations allow. Frequently the professions are allowed to regulate themselves; in
these a cases the Regulations or Codes of Practices are evolved by consultation and
consensus within the profession.

3.0 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

With the development of linear elastic theories in the 19th century the stress-strain
behaviour of new materials like wrought iron & mild steel could be accurately
represented. These theories enabled indeterminate structures to be analysed and the
distribution of bending and shear stresses to be computed correctly. The first attainment
of yield stress of steel was generally taken to be the onset of failure. The limitations due
to non-linearity and buckling were neglected.

The basic form of calculations took the form of verifying that the stresses caused by the
characteristic loads must be less than an “allowable stress”, which was a fraction of the
yield stress. Thus the allowable stress may be defined in terms of a “factor of safety"
which represented a margin for overload and other unknown factors which could be
tolerated by the structure. The allowable stress is thus directly related to yield stress by
the following expression:
Yield stress
Allowable stress =
Factor of safety

In general, each member in a structure is checked for a number of different combinations

of loading. The value of factor of safety in most cases is taken to be around 1.67. Many
loads vary with time and these should be allowed for. It is unnecessarily severe to
consider the effects of all loads acting simultaneously with their full design value, while
maintaining the same factor of safety or safety factor. Using the same factor of safety or
safety factor when loads act in combination would result in uneconomic designs.

A typical example of a set of load combinations is given below, which accounts for the
fact that the dead load, live load and wind load are all unlikely to act on the structure
simultaneously at their maximum values:

(Stress due to dead load + live load) < allowable stress

(Stress due to dead load + wind load) < allowable stress
(Stress due to dead load + live load + wind) < 1.33 times allowable stress.

In practice there are severe limitations to this approach. These are the consequences of
material non-linearity, non-linear behaviour of elements in the post-buckled state and the
ability of the steel components to tolerate high theoretical elastic stresses by yielding
locally and redistributing the loads. Moreover the elastic theory does not readily allow
for redistribution of loads from one member to another in a statically indeterminate
structures.

4.0 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 13
An improved design philosophy to make allowances for the shortcomings in the
“Allowable Stress Design” was developed in the late 1970’s and has been extensively
incorporated in design standards and codes formulated in all the developed countries.
Although there are many variations between practices adopted in different countries the
basic concept is broadly similar. The probability of operating conditions not reaching
failure conditions forms the basis of “Limit States Design” adopted in all countries.

“Limit States" are the various conditions in which a structure would be considered to
have failed to fulfil the purpose for which it was built. In general two limit states are
considered at the design stage and these are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Limit States

Limit State of Strength Serviceability Limit State

Strength (yield, buckling) Deflection

Stability against overturning and sway
Vibration
Fracture due to fatigue
Fatigue checks (including reparable
Plastic collapse
damage due to fatigue)
Brittle Fracture
Corrosion
Fire

“Limit State of Strength” are: loss of equilibrium of the structure and loss of stability of
the structure. “Serviceability Limit State" refers to the limits on acceptable performance
of the structure.

Not all these limits can be covered by structural calculations. For example, corrosion is
covered by specifying forms of protection (like painting) and brittle fracture is covered
by material specifications, which ensure that steel is sufficiently ductile.

5.0 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR

The major innovation in the new codes is the introduction of the partial safety factor
format. A typical format is described below:

In g en era l ca lcu lation s ta ke the fo rm o f verifying th at

S*  R*
*
Where, S is the calculated factored load effect on the element (like bending moment,
shear force etc) and R* is the calculated factored resistance of the element being checked,
and is a function of the nominal value of the material yield strength.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 14
S* is a function of the combined effects of factored dead, live and wind loads.
(Other loads – if applicable, are also considered)

In accordance with the above concepts, the safety format used in Limit State Codes is
based on probable maximum load and probable minimum strengths, so that a consistent
level of safety is achieved. Thus, the design requirements are expressed as follows:

Sd  Rd

Where, Sd = Design value of internal forces and moments caused by the design Loads, Fd
Fd = f * Characteristic Loads.
f = a load factor which is determined on probabilistic basis

Rd = Characteristic Value of Resistance

m

Where, m = a material factor, which is also determined on a ‘probabilistic basis’

It should be noted that f makes allowance for possible deviation of loads and the reduced
possibility of all loads acting together. On the other hand m allows for uncertainties of
element behaviour and possible strength reduction due to manufacturing tolerances and
imperfections in the material.

Collapse is not the only possible failure mode. Excessive deflection, excessive vibration,
fracture etc. also contribute to Limit States. Fatigue is an important design criterion for
bridges, crane girders etc. (These are generally assessed under serviceability Limit States)

Thus the following limit states may be identified for design purposes:

• Ultimate Limit State is related to the maximum design load capacity under extreme
conditions. The partial load factors are chosen to reflect the probability of extreme
conditions, when loads act alone or in combination.

• Serviceability Limit State is related to the criteria governing normal use. Unfactored
loads are used to check the adequacy of the structure.

• Fatigue Limit State is important where distress to the structure by repeated loading is
a possibility.

The above limit states are provided in terms of partial factors reflects the severity of the
risks.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 15
An illustration of partial safety factors for applied load and materials as suggested in the
revised IS: 800 for Limit States of Strength and Limit States of Serviceability are given in
Table 2 and 3 respectively.

Table 2: Partial safety factors

Limit State of Strength Limit state of Serviceability
Combination D LL’ WL/ LL’ WL/
AL DL
L Leading Accompanying EL Leading Accompanying EL

DL+LL+CL 1.5 1.5 1.05 ⎯ ⎯ 1.0 1.0 1.0 ⎯

DL+LL+CL+ 1.2 1.2 1.05 0.6
⎯ 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8
WL/EL 1.2 1.2 0.53 1.2
1.5
DL+WL/EL ⎯ ⎯ 1.5 ⎯ 1.0 ⎯ ⎯ 1.0
(0.9)*
1.2
DL+ER 1.2 ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯
(0.9)
DL+LL+AL 1.0 0.35 0.35 ⎯ 1.0 ⎯ ⎯ ⎯ ⎯
*
This value is to be considered when the dead load contributes to stability against overturning is critical or
the dead load causes reduction in stress due to other loads.
‘
When action of different live loads is simultaneously considered, the leading live load is whichever one
causes the higher load effects in the member/section.
Abbreviations: DL= Dead Load, LL= Imposed Load (Live Loads), WL= Wind Load,
CL= Crane Load (Vertical/horizontal), AL=Accidental Load,
ER= Erection Load, EL= Earthquake Load.

Table 3: Partial safety factors

[Link]. Definition Partial Safety Factor
1 Resistance, governed by yielding m0 1.10
2 Resistance of member to buckling m0 1.10
3 Resistance, governed by ultimate stress 1.25
m1
4 Resistance of connection m1 Shop Field
Fabrications Fabrications
(i) Bolts-Friction Type, mf 1.25 1.25
(ii) Bolts-Bearing Type, mb 1.25 1.25
(iii) Rivets, mr 1.25 1.25
(iv) Welds, mw 1.25 1.50

Requirements for all Buildings to maintain Structural integrity are given below:
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 16
Structures should remain as complete integral units even when (due to an accident such
as explosion) one of the members fail or become inoperative. This requirement provides a
significant measure of safety for the occupants and is termed “Structural integrity
requirement”.
The buildings should be effectively tied together at each principal floor and roof level, in
both directions. The recommended minimum tie strengths are 75 kN at floor level, 40 kN
at roof level. Each section between expansion joints should be treated as a separate
building. These requirements are aimed at ensuring that the collapse of one element of a
structure does not trigger the failure of the structure as a whole. By tying the structure
together, it is possible to ensure that there is an alternative load path that would help to
enhance safety.

Suggested requirements for integrity of buildings of five storeys or more are given below:

• For sway resistance, no portion of structures should be dependent on only one bracing
system.
• The minimum tie strengths to be provided are 0.5 Wf St La internally and 0.25 Wf St
La externally.
Wf - total factored load / unit area
St - tie spacing
La - distance between columns in the direction
• At the edge of the structure, columns should be restrained by horizontal ties resisting
1% of column load.
• Columns should be continuous vertically through the floors, as far as possible.
• Collapse must not be disproportionate and the role of key elements should be
identified.
• Precast floors must be anchored at both ends.

6.0 FACTORS GOVERNING THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH

Stability is generally ensured for the structure as a whole and for each of its elements.
This includes overall frame stability against overturning and sway, as given below. The
structure as a whole or any part of it are designed to prevent instability due to
overturning, uplift or sliding under factored load as given below:
a) The actions are divided into components aiding instability and components resisting
instability.
b) The permanent and variable actions and their effects causing instability are
combined using appropriate load factors as per the Limit States requirements to
obtain maximum destabilizing effect.
c) The permanent actions (loads) and effects contributing to resistance shall be
multiplied with a partial safety factor 0.9 and added together with design resistance
(after multiplying with appropriate partial safety factor). Variable actions and their
effects contributing to resistance are disregarded

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 17
d) The resistance effect shall be greater than or equal to the destabilizing effect.
Combination of imposed and dead loads should be such as to cause most severe
effect on overall stability.

7.0 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY

As stated in IS: 800, Serviceability Limit State is related to the criteria, governing normal
use. Serviceability limit state is limit state beyond which service criteria, specified below,
are no longer met:

a) Deflection Limit
b) Vibration Limit
c) Durability Consideration
d) Fire Resistance

Load factor, f, of value equal to unity are used for all loads leading to Serviceability
Limit States to check the adequacy of the structure under serviceability limit states,
unless specified otherwise.

The deflection under serviceability loads of a building or a building component should be

such that, they do not impair the strength of the structure or components or cause damage
to finishing. Deflections are to be checked for the most adverse but realistic combination
of service loads and their arrangement, by elastic analysis, using a load factors as per
Table 3. Table 4 gives recommended limits of deflections for certain structural members
and systems.

As per IS: 800, suitable provisions in the design are required to be made for the dynamic
effects of live loads, impact loads and vibration due to machinery operating loads. In
severe cases possibility of resonance, fatigue or unacceptable vibrations shall be
investigated. Unusually flexible structures (generally the height to effective width of
lateral load resistance system exceeding 5:1) need to be investigated for lateral vibration
under dynamic wind loads. Structures subjected to large number of cycles of loading
shall be designed against fatigue failure as discussed in Chapter 2.
Durability or Corrosion resistance of a structure is generally, under conditions relevant to
their intended life as are listed below:

a) The environment
b) The degree of exposure
c) The shape of the member and the structural detail
d) The protective measure
e) Ease of maintenance
Fire resistance of a steel member is a function of its mass, its geometry, the actions to
which it is subjected, its structural support condition, fire protection measures adopted

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 18
 and the fire to which it is exposed. Design provisions to resist fire are briefly discussed
in Chapter 2.

Table 4: Partial safety factors [According to IS: 800 (2007)]

Type of Maximum
Deflection Design Load Member Supporting
Building Deflection
Live load/Wind Purlins and Girts Elastic cladding Span / 150
load Purlins and Girts Brittle cladding Span / 180
Live load Simple span Elastic cladding Span / 240
Live load Simple span Brittle cladding Span / 300
Live load Cantilever span Elastic cladding Span / 120
Live load Cantilever span Brittle cladding Span / 150
Vertical

Live load or Profiled Metal Sheeting Span / 180

Rafter supporting
Wind load Plastered Sheeting Span / 240
Crane load Gantry Crane Span / 500
(Manual operation)
Industrial building

Crane load
(Electric operation Gantry Crane Span / 750
up to 50 t)
Crane load
(Electric operation Gantry Crane Span / 1000
over 50 t)

No cranes Column Elastic cladding Height / 150

No cranes Column Masonry/Brittle cladding Height / 240

Crane + wind Gantry (lateral) Crane(absolute) Span / 400

Lateral

Relative displacement
10 mm
between rails
Column/frame Gantry (Elastic cladding; Height / 200
pendent operated)
Crane+ wind
Column/frame Gantry (Brittle cladding; Height / 400
cab operated)
Elements not susceptible
Other Buildings

Live load Floor & Roof Span / 300

to cracking
Vertical

Elements susceptible to
Live load Floor & Roof Span / 360
cracking
Elements not susceptible
Live load Cantilever Span / 150
to cracking

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 19
 Elements susceptible to
Live load Span / 180
cracking
Elastic cladding Height / 300
Wind Building

Lateral
Brittle cladding Height / 500
Storey height
Wind Inter storey drift ---
/ 300
8.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS
This chapter reviews the provisions of safety, consequent on uncertainties in loading and
material properties. The partial load factors employed in design to take into account these
variations are discussed and illustrated.

9.0 REFERENCES
1. Owens G.W., Knowles P.R : "Steel Designers Manual", The Steel Construction
Institute, Ascot, England, 1994
2. British Standards Institution : "BS 5950, Part-1 Structural use of steelwork in
building", British Standards Institution, London, 1985
3. IS: 800 (2007), General Construction in Steel – Code of Practice, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 2007.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 20
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet 1 of 2 Rev
Design Project Job Title: MAXIMUM FACTORED LOADS
Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-09-99
Calculation Sheet SSSR
Checked by Date 20-09-99
RN

A frame sketched in Fig. 2 is loaded by a dead load of 6 kN/m, imposed load

of 20 kN/m and wind load of 10 kN/m. The example below illustrates the
checks in respect of the following.

• Imposed load + Dead load

• Wind load + Dead load
• Imposed load + Wind load + Dead load

6.0 m
W
H1 H2
10.0 m
V1 V2
Fig. 2 Portal frame subject to loading

Dead Load (D) 6 kN/m

Imposed Load (I) 20 kN/m

Wind Load (W) 10 kN/m

Case 1- Dead plus imposed loads

V1 = V2 = (1.50 l + 1.50 D) * span/2

= (1.50 * 20 + 1.50 * 6) * 5 = 195.0kN

fDL = 1.50
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009fIL = 1.50
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 21
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet 2 of 2 Rev
Design Project Job Title: MAXIMUM FACTORED LOADS
Worked Example - 1
Made by Date 15-09-00
Calculation Sheet SSSR
Checked by Date 20-09-99
Case 2 - Dead plus wind RN
Taking moments about right support,

V1 = [1.50 D span2 / 2 – 1.50 W * height2 / 2] 1/10

= [1.50 * 6 * 100 / 2 – 1.50 * 10 * 36 / 2] 1/10
= 18.0 kN fDL = 1.50
V2 = 1.50 D * span - V1 fWL = 1.50

= 1.50 * 6 * 10 – 18.0 = 72.0 kN

H1 + H2 = 1.50 W * height = 1.50 * 10 * 6 = 90 kN
(Note: The evaluation of H1 and H2 will depend on the stiffness of the
members as the problem is statically indeterminate)

Case 3 -Dead plus imposed plus wind

V1 = 1.20 * D * span /2 + 1.20 * I* span/2 -1.20 * W * height2 / (2 * span)

= 1.20 * 6 * 5 + 1.20 * 20 *5 – 1.20 * 10 * 36/20
= 134.4 kN
V2 = 1.20 * D * span /2 + 1.20 * I * span/2 + 1.20 * W * height2/2 * span
fDL = 1.35
= 1.20 * 6* 5 + 1.20 * 20* 5 + 1.20 * 10 * 36/20 fIL = 1.50
= 177.6 kN fWL= 1.05
The worst value for design purposes are;
V1 = 195.0 kN ; V2 = 177.6 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 22
Lecture No. 2
Title: Design of Tension Member
Speaker: Dr. M. M. Ghosh, INSDAG, Kolkata.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Tension members are linear members in which axial forces act so as to elongate (stretch)
the member. A rope, for example, is a tension member. Tension members carry loads
most efficiently, since the entire cross section is subjected to uniform stress. Unlike
compression members, they do not fail by buckling (see chapter on compression
members). Ties of trusses [Fig 1(a)], suspenders of cable stayed and suspension bridges
[Fig.1 (b)], suspenders of buildings systems hung from a central core [Fig.1(c)] (such
buildings are used in earthquake prone zones as a way of minimising inertia forces on the
structure), and sag rods of roof purlins [Fig 1(d)] are other examples of tension members.

Suspenders
Rafter Purlin
Sag
Tie (a) Roof Truss rod
Stay
Top chord
cables
(c) Suspended Building (d) Roof Purlin System
Stayed
bridge X bracings

Suspenders
Suspension
Bridge
(b) Cable Supported Bridges (e) Braced Frame

Fig. 1 Tension Members in Structures

Tension members are also encountered as bracings used for the lateral load resistance. In
X type bracings [Fig.1 (e)] the member which is under tension, due to lateral load acting
in one direction, undergoes compressive force, when the direction of the lateral load is
changed and vice versa. Hence, such members may have to be designed to resist tensile
and compressive forces.
The tension members can have a variety of cross sections. The single angle and double
angle sections [Fig 2(a)] are used in light roof trusses as in industrial buildings. The
tension members in bridge trusses are made of channels or I sections, acting individually
or built-up [Figs. 2(c) and 2(d)]. The circular rods [Fig.2 (d)] are used in bracings
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 23
designed to resist loads in tension only. They buckle at very low compression and are not
considered effective. Steel wire ropes [Fig.2 (e)] are used as suspenders in the cable
suspended bridges and as main stays in the cable-stayed bridges.

(b)

(a) (c)

(d) (e)

Fig. 2 Cross Sections of Tension Members

2.0 BEHAVIOUR OF TENSION MEMBERS
Since axially loaded tension members are subjected to uniform tensile stress, their load
deformation behaviour (Fig.3) is similar to the corresponding basic material stress strain
behaviour. Mild steel members (IS: 2062) exhibit an elastic range (a-b) ending at
yielding (b). This is followed by yield plateau (b-c). In the Yield Plateau the load
remains constant as the elongation increases to nearly ten times the yield strain. Under
further stretching the material shows a smaller increase in tension with elongation (c-d),
compared to the elastic range. This range is referred to as the strain hardening range.
After reaching the ultimate load (d), the loading decreases as the elongation increases (d-
e) until rupture (e). High strength steel tension members do not exhibit a well-defined
yield point and a yield plateau (Fig.3). The 0.2% offset load, T, as shown in Fig. 3 is
usually taken as the yield point in such cases.

T
d

b c
a
0.2% 

Fig. 3 Load – Elongation of Tension Members

2.1 DESIGN STRENGTH OF TENSION MEMBERS

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 24
Although steel tension members can sustain loads up to the ultimate load without failure,
the elongation of the members at this load would be nearly 10-15% of the original length
and the structure supported by the member would become unserviceable. Hence, in the
design of tension members, the yield load is usually taken as the limiting load. The
corresponding design strength in member under axial tension is given by
Tdg = f y Ag /  m 0 (1)

Where, fy is the yield strength of the material (in MPa), Ag is the gross area of cross
section and m0 is the partial safety factor for failure in tension by yielding. The value of
m0 according to IS: 800 is 1.10.

2.2 PLATES UNDER TENSION

Frequently plates under tension have bolt holes. The tensile stress in a plate at the cross
section of a hole is not uniformly distributed in the elastic range, but exhibits stress
concentration adjacent to the hole [Fig 4 (a)]. The ratio of the maximum elastic stress
adjacent to the hole to the average stress on the net cross section is referred to as the
Stress Concentration Factor. This factor is in the range of 2 to 3, depending upon the
ratio of the diameter of the hole to the width of the plate normal to the direction of stress.
fy fu
fy

(a) Elastic (b) Elasto-Plastic (c) Plastic (d) Ultimate

Fig. 4 Stress Distribution at a Hole in a Plate under Tension

In statically loaded tension members with a hole, the point adjacent to the hole reaches
yield stress, fy, first. On further loading, the stress at that point remains constant at the
yield stress and the section plastifies progressively away from the hole [Fig.4 (b)], until
the entire net section at the hole reaches the yield stress, fy, [Fig. 4(c)]. Finally, the
rupture (tension failure) of the member occurs when the entire net cross section reaches
the ultimate stress, fu, [Fig. 4(d)]. Since only a small length of the member adjacent to
the smallest cross section at the holes would stretch a lot at the ultimate stress, and the
overall member elongation need not be large, as long as the stresses in the gross section is
below the yield stress. Hence, the design strength as governed by net cross-section at the
hole, Tdn, is given by
Tdn = 0.9 f u An /  m1 (2)

where, fu is the ultimate stress of the material, An is the net area of the cross section after
deductions for the hole [Fig.4(b)] and m1 is the partial safety factor against ultimate
tension failure by rupture (m1 = 1.25). Similarly threaded rods subjected to tension could
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 25
 fail by rupture at the root of the threaded region and hence net area, An, is the root area of
the threaded section (Fig.5).

droot

dgross
(a) elastic (b) elastic (c) Plastic
-Plastic

. Fig. 5 Stress in a threaded Rod

The design tension of the plates with hole or the threaded rod could also be governed by
yielding of the gross cross section beyond the thread (with area equal to Ag) above which
the member deformation becomes large and objectionable and the corresponding design
load is given by
Tdg = f y Ag /  m 0 (3)

where, m0=1.10. The lower value of the design tension capacities, as given by Eqn. 2
and 3, governs the design strength of a plate with holes.

(b) 1
(c)

2
g
3
(a)
p
Fig. 6 Plates with Bolt Holes under Tension
(d) 4

Frequently, plates have more than one hole for the purpose of making connections.
These holes are usually made in a staggered arrangement [Fig.6 (a)]. Let us consider the
two extreme arrangements of two bolt holes in a plate, as shown in Fig.6 (b) & 6(c). In
the case of the arrangement shown in Fig.6 (b), the gross area is reduced by two bolt

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 26
holes to obtain the net area. Whereas, in arrangement shown in Fig.6c, deduction of only
one hole is necessary, while evaluating the net area of the cross section.
Obviously the change in the net area from the case shown in Fig.6(c) to Fig.6 (b) has to
be gradual. As the pitch length (the centre to centre distance between holes along the
direction of the stress) p, is decreased, the critical cross section at some stage changes
from straight section [Fig.6(c)] to the staggered section 1-2-3-4 [Fig.6 (d)]. At this stage,
the net area is decreased by two bolt holes along the staggered section, but is increased
due to the inclined leg (2-3) of the staggered section. The net effective area of the
staggered section 1-2-3-4 is given by

An = (b − 2d + p 2 / 4 g ) t (4)
where, the variables are as defined in Fig.6(d). In Eqn. 4 the increase of net effective
area due to inclined section is empirical and is based on test results. It can be seen from
Eqn.4, that as the pitch distance, p, increases and the gauge distance, g, decreases, the net
effective area corresponding to the staggered section increases and becomes greater than
the net area corresponding to single bolt hole. This occurs when

p 2 / 4g  d (5)
When multiple holes are arranged in a staggered fashion in a plate as shown in Fig.6 (a),
the net area corresponding to the staggered section in general is given by
 p2 
Anet =  b − nd +  t
 (6)
 4 g 
where, n is the number of bolt holes in the staggered section [n = 7 for the zigzag section
in Fig. 6(a)] and the summation over p2/4g is carried over all inclined legs of the section
[equal to n-1 = 6 in Fig.6(a)]. Normally, net area of different staggered and straight
sections have to be evaluated to obtain the minimum net area to be used in calculating the
design strength in tension. An example analysis of a plate with holes under tension is
illustrated in Appendix I.
2.3 ANGLES UNDER TENSION
Angles are extensively used as tension members in trusses and bracings. Angles, if
axially loaded through centroid, could be designed as in the case of plates. However,
usually angles are connected to gusset plates by bolting or welding only one of the two
legs (Fig. 7).
This leads to eccentric tension in the member, causing non-uniform distribution of stress
over the cross section. Further, since the load is applied by connecting only one leg of
the member there is a shear lag locally at the end connections.

Fig. 7 Angles Eccentrically Loaded through Gussets

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 27
Kulak and Wu (1997) have reported, based on an experimental study, the results on the
tensile strength of single and double angle members. Summary of their findings is:

• The effect of the gusset thickness, and hence the out of plane stiffness of the end
connection, on the ultimate tensile strength is not significant.
• The thickness of the angle has no significant influence on the member strength.
• The effect of shear lag, and hence the strength reduction, is higher when the ratio of
the area of the outstanding leg to the total area of cross-section increases.
• When the length of the connection (the number of bolts in end connections)
increases, the tensile strength increases up to 4 bolts and the effect of further
increase in the number of bolts, on the tensile strength of the member is not
significant. This is due to the connection restraint to member bending caused by
the end eccentric connection.
• Even double angles connected on opposite sides of a gusset plate experience the
effect of shear lag.

Based on the test results, Kulak and Wu (1997) found that the shear lag due to connection
through one leg only causes at the ultimate stage the stress in the outstanding leg to be
closer only to yield stress even though the stress at the net section of the connected leg
may have reached ultimate stress. They have suggested an equation for evaluating the
tensile strength of angles connected by one leg, which accounts for various factors that
significantly influence the strength. In order to simplify calculations, this formula has
suggested that the stress in the outstanding leg be limited to fy (the yield stress) and the
connected sections having holes to be limited to fu (the ultimate stress). The design tensile
strength, Td, should be the minimum of the following:

Strength as governed by tearing at net section:

Tdn = 0.9Anc fu / m1+  Ago fy / m0 (7a)

Where, fy and fu are the yield and ultimate stress of the material, respectively. Anc and Ao,
are the net area of the connected leg and the gross area of the outstanding leg,
respectively. The partial safety factors m0 = 1.10 and m1 = 1.25. , accounts for the end
fastener restraint effect and is given by,
 = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy/fu) (bs/Lc )  (fu.mo / fy.m1) and   0.7
where w and bs are as shown in Fig 8
Lc = Length of the end connection, i.e., distance between the outermost bolts in the end
joint measured along the length direction or length of the weld along the length direction
and t = thickness of the leg

Alternatively, the rupture strength of net section may be taken as

Tdn =  An fu /m1

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 28
where
 = 0.6 for one or two bolts, 0.7 for three bolts and 0.8 for four or more bolts along the
length in the end connection or equivalent weld length
An = net area of the total cross section

w w

w1
Fig 8 Angles with End Connection

Strength as governed by yielding of gross section:

Tdg = Ag fy /m0 (7 b)

Where, Ag is the gross area of the angle section.

Strength as governed by block shear failure:

A tension member may fail along end connection due to block shear as shown in Fig. 9.
The corresponding design strength can be evaluated using the following equations. If the
centroid of bolt pattern is not located between the heel of the angle and the centreline of
the connected leg, the connection shall be checked for block shear strength given by

Fig. 9 Block Shear Failure

Tdb = ( Avg fy /( 3 m0) + 0.9Atn fu /m1 )

or
Tdb = (0.9Avn fu /( 3 m1) + Atg fy /m0 ) (7c)

where, Avg and Avn = minimum gross and net area in shear along a line of transmitted
force, respectively, and Atg and Atn = minimum gross and net area in tension from the hole
to the toe of the angle, perpendicular to the line of force, respectively.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 29
The design strength of an angle loaded in tension through a connection in one leg is given
by the smallest of the values obtained from Eqn. 7(a) to 7(c). These equations are valid
for both single angle and double angles in tension, irrespective of whether they are on the
same side or opposite sides of the gusset. A sample design of angle tension member is
given in worked example 2.
The efficiency,, of an angle tension member is calculated as given below:
 = Td /( Ag f y /  m 0 ) (8)
Depending upon the type of end connection and the configuration of the built-up
member, the efficiency may vary between 0.85 and 1.0. The higher value of efficiency is
obtained in the case of double angles on the opposite sides of the gusset connected at the
ends by welding and the lower value is usual in the bolted single angle tension members.
In the case of threaded members the efficiency is around 0.85.
In order to increase the efficiency of the outstanding leg in single angles and to decrease
the length of the end connections, some times a short length angle at the ends are
connected to the gusset and the outstanding leg of the main angle directly, as shown in
Fig. 10. Such angles are referred to as lug angles. The design of such end connections is
discussed in the chapter on connections.

lug angle

Fig. 10 Tension Member with Lug

Angle
3.0 DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS
In the design of a tension member, the design tensile force is given and the type of
member and the size of the member have to be arrived at. The type of member is usually
dictated by the location where the member is used. In the case of roof trusses, for
example, angles or pipes are commonly used. Depending upon the span of the truss, the
location of the member in the truss and the force in the member either single angle or
double angles may be used in roof trusses. Single angle is common in the web members
of a roof truss and the double angles are common in rafter and tie members of a roof
truss.
Plate tension members are used to suspend pipes and building floors. Rods are also used
as suspenders and as sag rods of roof purlins. Steel wires are used as suspender cables in
bridges and buildings. Pipes are used in roof trusses on aesthetic considerations, in spite
of fabrication difficulty and the higher cost of such tubular trusses. Built-up members
made of angles, channels and plates are used as heavy tension members, encountered in
bridge trusses.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 30
3.1 TRIAL AND ERROR DESIGN PROCESS
The design process is iterative, involving choice of a trial section and analysis of its
capacity. This process is discussed in this section. Initially, the net effective area
required is calculated from the design tension and the ultimate strength of the material as
given below.
An = Tdn / (0.9fu / m1) (9)
Using the net area required, the gross area required is calculated, allowing for some
assumed number and size of bolt holes in plates, or assumed efficiency index in the case
of angles and threaded rods. The gross area required is also checked against that required
from the yield strength of the gross sections as given below.
Ag = Tdg / (fy / m0) (10)
A suitable trial section is chosen from the steel section handbook to meet the gross area
required. The bolt holes are laid out appropriately in the member and the member is
analysed to obtain the actual design strength of the trial section. The design strength of
the trial section is evaluated using Eqs. 1 to 6 in the case of plates and threaded bars and
using Eqs. 7 in the case of angle ties. If the actual design strength is smaller than or too
large compared to the design force, a new trial section is chosen and the analysis is
repeated until a satisfactory design is obtained.

3.2 STIFFNESS REQUIREMENT

The tension members, in addition to meeting the design strength requirement, frequently
have to be checked for adequate stiffness. This is done to ensure that the member does
not sag too much during service due to self-weight or the eccentricity of end plate
connections. The IS: 800 imposes the following limitations on the slenderness ratio of
members subjected to tension:
(a) In the case of members that are normally under tension but may experience
compression due to stress reversal caused by wind / earthquake loading /r  250.
(b) In the case of members that are designed for tension but may experience stress
reversal for which it is not designed (as in X bracings) /r  350.
(c) In the case of members subjected to tension only /r  400
In the case of rods used as a tension member in X bracings, the slenderness ratio
limitation need not be check for if they are pretensioned by using a turnbuckle or other
such arrangement.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 31
4.0 SUMMARY
The behaviour and design of various types of tension members were discussed. The
important factors to be considered while evaluating the tensile strength are the reduction
in strength due to bolt holes and due to eccentric application of loads through gusset
plates attached to one of the elements. It was shown that the yield strength of the gross
area or the ultimate strength of the net area may govern the tensile strength. The effect of
connecting the end gusset plate to only one of the elements of the cross section was
empirically accounted for by the reduction in the effectiveness of the out standing leg,
while calculating the net effective area. The methods for accounting for these factors in
the design of tension members were discussed. The iterative method of design of tension
members was presented.

5.0 REFERENCES
1. AISC–LRFD. ‘Load and resistance factor design specification for structural steel
buildings’. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Chicago, III, 1993.
2. ASCE Manual No.52. ‘Guide for design of steel transmission towers’ American
Society of Civil Engineers, 1987.
3. BS-5950. ‘Code of practice for design in simple and continuous construction: Hot
rolled sections’ British Standards Institute, London, 1985.
4. CAN3-S16.1-M84. ‘Steel structures for buildings (limit states design)’, Canadian
Standards Assoc., Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, 48, 1984.
5. Eurocode 3. ‘Design of steel structures’, British Standards Institute 1992.
6. IS:800-2007. ‘Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel’ Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 2007.
7. Kulak and Wu, ‘Shear Lag in Bolted Angle Tension Members’, ASCE, Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol.123, No.9, Sept.1997, pp.1144-1152.
8. Mueller, W.H., and Wagner, A. L. ‘Plastic behaviour of steel angle columns’, Res.
Rept., Bonneville Power Admin., Portland, Oreg., 1985, pp 33-82.
9. Murty, Madugula and S. Mohan, ‘Angles In Eccentric Tension’, ASCE, Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol.114, No.10, October 1988, pp.2387-2396.
10. Nelson, H. M. ‘Angles in Tension’, Publication No.7, British Constructional
Steelwork Assoc., United Kingdom, 1953, pp 8-18.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 32
 Structural Steel
Job No:
Sheet: 1 of 1 Rev:
Job Title: Tension Member Example
Design Project Worked Example: 1
Made by Date: 3-1-
2000
Calculation Sheet SSSR
Checked by Date

VK
PROBLEM 1:
Determine the design tensile strength of the plate (200 X 10 mm) with the
holes as shown below, if the yield strength and the ultimate strength of the
steel used are 250 MPa and 420 MPa and 20 mm diameter bolts are used.
fy = 250 MPa
1
fu = 420 MPa 40
1 2
30
3 30
200 30
2 30
1 40
Calculation of net area, Anet:
1 50 50

An (section 11) = (200 − 3* 21.5 )* 10 = 1355 mm 2 (governs)

 2* 50 2 
An (section 1221) =  200 − 4* 21.5 + * 10 = 1557 mm 2

Td is lesser of 4 * 30
 
= 200 * 10 * 250 / 1 .10
i. [Link] / mo 4 * 50 2  = 454.55 kN 2
An (section 12321) =  200 − 5* 21.5
1000+ * 10 = 1758 mm

 4 * 30 
0.9 *1355 * 420 / 1.25
ii. [Link] / m1 = =409.75 kN
1000

Therefore Td = 409.75 kN

Td 409.75
Efficiency of the plate with holes = = = 0.90
Ag f y /γ m 0 454.55

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 33
 Structural Steel
Job No:
Sheet: 1 of 4 Rev
Job Title: Tension Member Example
Design Project Worked Example: 2
Made by Date 3-1-
2000
Calculation Sheet SSSR
Checked by Date

VK
PROBLEM 2:
Analysis of single angle tension members
A single unequal angle 100x 75x 8 mm is connected to a 12 mm thick gusset
plate at the ends with 6 nos. 20 mm diameter bolts to transfer tension.
Determine the design tensile strength of the angle. (a) if the gusset is
connected to the 100 mm leg, (b) if the gusset is connected to the 70 mm leg,
(c) if two such angles are connected to the same side of the gusset through
the 100 mm leg. (d) if two such angles are connected to the opposite sides of
the gusset through 100 mm leg.
12 mm
30 50 * 5

40
ISA 100x 75x 8

20 mm  bolts
a) The 100mm leg bolted to the gusset :
Anc = (100 - 8/2 - 21.5) *8 = 596 mm2.
Ago = (75 - 8/2) * 8 = 568 mm2
Ag = ((100-8/2) + (75 – 8/2)) * 8 =1336 mm2
Strength as governed by tearing of net section:

 = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy/fu) (bs/Lc ) ; (bs = w + w1 – t = 75 + 60 – 8 =127)

 = 1.4 – 0.076 * (75 / 8) * ( 250 / 420) * ( 127 / 250) = 1.18

Tdn = 0.9 Anc fu / m1 + Ago fy /m0

= 0.9 * 596 * 420 / 1.25 + 1.18 * 568 * 250 / 1.10
= 333145 N (or) 333.1 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 34
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 2 of 4 Rev
Job Title: Tension Member Example
Design Project Worked Example: 2
Made by Date 3-1-
2000
Calculation Sheet SSSR
Checked by Date

VK
Strength as governed by yielding of gross section:
Tdg = Ag fy /m0
=1336 * 250 / 1.10 = 303636 N (or) 303.6 kN

Block shear strength

Tdb = { Avg fy /( 3 m0 ) + 0.9Atn fu /m1 }
= {(5*50 + 30)*8*250 / ( 3 * 1.1) + 0.9*(40 - 21.5/2)* 8*420 / 1.25
= 364685 N = 364.7 kN
or
Tdb = {0.9Avn fu /( 3 m1) + Atg fy /m0 }
= {0.9*(5*50 + 30 – 5.5*21.5)*8*420 /( 3 *1.25) + 40*8*250 / 1.1}
= 298648 N = 298.65 kN
The design tensile strength of the member = 298.65 kN

The efficiency of the tension member, is given by

Td 298.5* 1000
= = = 0.983
Ag f y (100 + 75 − 8 )* 8* 250/1.10

b) The 75 mm leg is bolted to the gusset:

Anc = (75 - 8/2 - 21.5) * 8 = 396 mm2
Ago = (100 - 8/2) * 8 = 768 mm2

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 35
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 3 of 4 Rev
Job Title: Tension Member Example
Design Project Worked Example: 2
Made by Date 3-1-2000
SSSR
Calculation Sheet Checked by Date
VK

12 mm
ISA 100x75x8

20 mm  bolts ISA 100 X 75 X 88

Strength as governed b tearing of net section:

 = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy/fu) (bs/Lc ) ; (bs = w + w1 – t = 100 + 40 – 8 =132)

 = 1.4 – 0.076 * (100 / 8) * ( 250 / 420) * ( 132 / 250) = 1.101

Tdn = 0.9 Anc fu / m1 + Ago fy /m0

= 0.9 * 396 * 420 / 1.25 + 1.101 * 768 * 250 / 1.10
= 312000 N (or) 312.0 kN

Strength as governed by yielding of gross section:

Tdg = Ag fy /m0
=1336 * 250 / 1.10 = 303636 N (or) 303.6 kN

Block shear strength:

Tdb = { Avg fy /( 3 m0 ) + 0.9Atn fu /m1 }

= {(5*50 + 30)*8*250 / ( 3 * 1.1) + 0.9*(35 - 21.5/2)* 8*420 / 1.25
= 352589 N = 352.6 kN
or

Tdb = {0.9Avn fu /( 3 m1) + Atg fy /m0 }

= {0.9*(5*50 + 30 – 5.5*21.5)*8*420 /( 3 *1.25) + 35*8*250 / 1.1}
= 289557 N = 289.6 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 36
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 4 of 4 Rev
Job Title: Tension Member Example
Design Project Worked Example : 2
Made by Date 3-1-2000
SSSR
Calculation Sheet Checked by Date
VK

The design tensile strength of the member = 289.60 kN

The efficiency of the tension member, is given by

Td 289.6* 1000
= = = 0.954
Ag f y (100 + 75 − 8 )* 8* 250/1.10
Even though the tearing strength of the net section is reduced, the block
shear failure still governs the design strength.

The efficiency of the tension member is 0.954

Note: The design tension strength is more some times if the longer leg of an
unequal angle is connected to the gusset (when the tearing strength
of the net section governs the design strength).
An understanding about the range of values for
the section efficiency, , is useful to arrive at the
trial size of angle members in design problems.

(c & d)The double angle strength would be twice single angle strength as
obtained above in case (a)

Td = 2 * 298.65 = 597.30 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 37
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 1 of 1 Rev:
Design Project Job Title: Tension Member Example
Worked Example: 1
Made by Date: 3-1-2000
SSSR
Calculation Sheet Checked by Date

VK
PROBLEM 1:
Determine the design tensile strength of the plate (200 X 10 mm) with the
holes as shown below, if the yield strength and the ultimate strength of the
steel used are 250 MPa and 420 MPa and 20 mm diameter bolts are used.
fy = 250 MPa
1
fu = 420 MPa 40
1 2
30
3 30
200 30
2 30
1 40
Calculation of net area, Anet:
1 50 50

An (section 11) = (200 − 3* 21.5 )* 10 = 1355 mm 2 (governs)

 2* 50 2 
An (section 1221) =  200 − 4* 21.5 + * 10 = 1557 mm 2

Td is lesser of 4 * 30
 
= 200 * 10 * 250 / 1 .10
iii. [Link] / mo 4 * 50 2  = 454.55 kN 2
An (section 12321) =  200 − 5* 21.5
1000+ * 10 = 1758 mm
 4* 30 
0.9 *1355 * 420 / 1.25
iv. [Link] / m1 = =409.75 kN
1000

Therefore Td = 409.75 kN
Td 409.75
Efficiency of the plate with holes = = = 0.90
Ag f y /γ m 0 454.55

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 38
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 1 of 4 Rev
Design Project Job Title: Tension Member Example
Worked Example: 2
Made by Date 3-1-2000
SSSR
Calculation Sheet Checked by Date
VK

PROBLEM 2:
Analysis of single angle tension members
A single unequal angle 100x 75x 8 mm is connected to a 12 mm thick gusset
plate at the ends with 6 nos. 20 mm diameter bolts to transfer tension.
Determine the design tensile strength of the angle. (a) if the gusset is
connected to the 100 mm leg, (b) if the gusset is connected to the 70 mm leg,
(c) if two such angles are connected to the same side of the gusset through
the 100 mm leg. (d) if two such angles are connected to the opposite sides of
the gusset through 100 mm leg.
12 mm
30 50 * 5

40
ISA 100x 75x 8

20 mm  bolts

a) The 100mm leg bolted to the gusset :

Anc = (100 - 8/2 - 21.5) *8 = 596 mm2.
Ago = (75 - 8/2) * 8 = 568 mm2
Ag = ((100-8/2) + (75 – 8/2)) * 8 =1336 mm2
Strength as governed by tearing of net section:

 = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy/fu) (bs/Lc ) ; (bs = w + w1 – t = 75 + 60 – 8 =127)

 = 1.4 – 0.076 * (75 / 8) * ( 250 / 420) * ( 127 / 250) = 1.18

Tdn = 0.9 Anc fu / m1 + Ago fy /m0

= 0.9 * 596 * 420 / 1.25 + 1.18 * 568 * 250 / 1.10
= 333145 N (or) 333.1 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 39
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 2 of 4 Rev
Design Project Job Title: Tension Member Example
Worked Example: 2
Made by Date 3-1-2000
SSSR
Calculation Sheet Checked by Date

VK
Strength as governed by yielding of gross section:
Tdg = Ag fy /m0
=1336 * 250 / 1.10 = 303636 N (or) 303.6 kN

Block shear strength

Tdb = { Avg fy /( 3 m0 ) + 0.9Atn fu /m1 }
= {(5*50 + 30)*8*250 / ( 3 * 1.1) + 0.9*(40 - 21.5/2)* 8*420 / 1.25
= 364685 N = 364.7 kN
or
Tdb = {0.9Avn fu /( 3 m1) + Atg fy /m0 }
= {0.9*(5*50 + 30 – 5.5*21.5)*8*420 /( 3 *1.25) + 40*8*250 / 1.1}
= 298648 N = 298.65 kN
The design tensile strength of the member = 298.65 kN

The efficiency of the tension member, is given by

T 298.5* 1000
= d = = 0.983
Ag f y (100 + 75 − 8 )* 8* 250/1.10

b) The 75 mm leg is bolted to the gusset:

Anc = (75 - 8/2 - 21.5) * 8 = 396 mm2
Ago = (100 - 8/2) * 8 = 768 mm2

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 40
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 3 of 4 Rev
Design Project Job Title: Tension Member Example
Worked Example: 2
Made by Date 3-1-2000
Calculation Sheet SSSR
Checked Date
VK

12 mm
ISA 100x75x8

20 mm  bolts ISA 100 X 75 X 88

Strength as governed b tearing of net section:

 = 1.4 – 0.076 (w/t) (fy/fu) (bs/Lc ) ; (bs = w + w1 – t = 100 + 40 – 8 =132)

 = 1.4 – 0.076 * (100 / 8) * ( 250 / 420) * ( 132 / 250) = 1.101

Tdn = 0.9 Anc fu / m1 + Ago fy /m0

= 0.9 * 396 * 420 / 1.25 + 1.101 * 768 * 250 / 1.10
= 312000 N (or) 312.0 kN

Strength as governed by yielding of gross section:

Tdg = Ag fy /m0
=1336 * 250 / 1.10 = 303636 N (or) 303.6 kN

Block shear strength:

Tdb = { Avg fy /( 3 m0 ) + 0.9Atn fu /m1 }

= {(5*50 + 30)*8*250 / ( 3 * 1.1) + 0.9*(35 – 21.5/2)* 8*420 / 1.25
= 352589 N = 352.6 kN
or

Tdb = {0.9Avn fu /( 3 m1) + Atg fy /m0 }

= {0.9*(5*50 + 30 – 5.5*21.5)*8*420 /( 3 *1.25) + 35*8*250 / 1.1}
= 289557 N = 289.6 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 41
 Structural Steel Job No: Sheet: 4 of 4 Rev
Design Project Job Title: Tension Member Example
Worked Example : 2
Made by Date 3-1-2000
Calculation Sheet SSSR
Checked by Date
VK

The design tensile strength of the member = 289.60 kN

The efficiency of the tension member, is given by

Td 289.6* 1000
= = = 0.954
Ag f y (100 + 75 − 8 )* 8* 250/1.10
Even though the tearing strength of the net section is reduced, the block
shear failure still governs the design strength.

The efficiency of the tension member is 0.954

Note: The design tension strength is more some times if the longer leg of an
unequal angle is connected to the gusset (when the tearing strength
of the net section governs the design strength).
An understanding about the range of values for the
section efficiency, , is useful to arrive at the trial size of
angle members in design problems.

(c & d)The double angle strength would be twice single angle strength as
obtained above in case (a)

Td = 2 * 298.65 = 597.30 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 42
Lecture No. 3
Title: Design of Compression Member (Part 1- Angle Struts)
Speaker: Mr. Y. L. BHIRUD, Asst. Professor, Trinity COE, Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A structural member which is subjected to compressive force along its axis is called as
compression member. The compressive force acting on the member tries to decrease the
length of member.
The strength of compression member depends on parameters as material of compression
member, cross sectional configuration, length of member, support condition, residual
stresses and imperfections.

2.0 BASIC THEORY

Possible Failure Modes of Compression Member-

• Local buckling failure which take place due to one or more individual plate
element. This may be prevented by selecting suitable width to thickness ratio of
component plate.
• When length of compression member is small and its elements are prevented from
local buckling, then the member attend full strength (Squash load)
• Failure of member occurs by excessive deflection in the plane of weaker axis
(Overall flexural buckling) This is the most common type of failure.
• Torsional and flexural-torsional buckling – The failure occurs due to twisting
about shear centre or combination of flexure and twisting.

Behavior of Compression Member-

• Short compression member – No buckling occurs and hence failure stress will be
equal to yield stress.
• Long compression member – These members fail due to buckling only.
• Intermediate length compression member – These compression members fail both
by yielding and buckling. Some fibres may have yielding and some may still be
elastic.

As the column is integral part of a structure, it can not behave independently. Due to
imperfections, load deflection curve of column do not match with ideal curve. There are
different imperfections as-
• Initial out of straightness
• Eccentricity of applied load
• Residual stress effect
• Strain hardening and absence of well defined yield point

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 43
All these effects occur simultaneously and hence determination of maximum strength of
column is a complex process. As this involves lengthy calculations, these are not suitable
for design. Hence it is necessary to develop simplified design formulae.

There are four basic methods used to develop design curves and charts.

• Empirical formulae based on results of column tests – As these are entirely based
on tests and as these do not account end restrains, these are not accepted in
modern codes. In IS 800 – 1984, Merchant-Rankine approach was used which
was based on this type.
• Formulae based on yield limit state – In this type, strength of column is expressed
in term of axial load which gives elastic stress for initially imperfect column. In
IS 800 – 2007, formula based on Perry-Robertson is used which is example of this
type.
• Formula based on tangent modulus theory – In this case, the effect of
imperfections are accounted by considering maximum strength reduced to
tangent-modulus strength.
• Formula based on maximum strength – Column design curves are obtained from
maximum strength analysis.

3.0 MULTIPLE COLUMN CURVES IN IS 800 CODE

IS 800 adopted a multiple column curve as shown. This curve is based on Perry-
Robertson approach.

λ
Fig. 1 column buckling curves

The design compressive strength of a member is calculated in IS 800 – 2007 as

Pd = Ae fcd

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 44
 Where Ae = Effective sectional area and
fcd is design compressive stress.

Imperfection Factor, α

Buckling A B C D
α 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

In older version of code (IS 800 – 1984), permissible axial compressive stress, was
calculated using formula
σac = 0.6 fcc fy / [(fcc)n + (fy)n ]1/n
Where,
σac = permissible axial compressive stress;
fy = Yield stress of steel;
fcc = Elastic critical stress in compression = π2 E / λ2
E = Modulus of elasticity
n = factor assumed as 1.4

Whereas in new code (IS 800 – 2007), multiple column curves are used which depend on
buckling class classification of section. (Clause 3.7.2) Hence, there are four tables [table
9(a), 9(b), 9(c) and 9(d)] for calculation of design compressive stress for various values
of slenderness ratio and yield stress depending on class of cross section.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 45
4.0 SECTIONS USED FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Sections for compression member are decided depending upon availability of section,
connection and type of structure. Single sections as well as combination of various
sections can be used as compression member.
As strength of compression member varies inversely proportion to square of slenderness
ratio, sections like bars and plates are not much suitable.

Single Angle Double Angle Tee Section Channel Section

Section Section

I Section Round Tube Square tube

Rectangular Tube Channels Back to Back Channels Face to Face

Four Angle Box Section I Section With I Section With

Box Section Cover Plates Channel Section

The section chosen is classified in different buckling curve a, b, c and d. This is done
with the help of table provided in code. (Table No 10)

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 46
The stress reduction factor χ and design compressive stress fcd for different buckling
curves and slenderness ratio are given in table no 8 (a) to 8 (d) and 9 (a) to 9 (d)
respectively in code.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 47
5.0 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF COMPRESSION MEMBER
Buckling of compression member is depending on end condition. This is considered in
design with the help of effective length.
Effective length is calculated from actual length of member considering rotational and
relative translational boundary condition at the ends. The actual length is taken as centre
to centre of its intersections with the supporting members in the plane of buckling
deformation or in the case of member with a free end, the free standing length from
centre of intersection.
Effective length of prismatic compression member can be calculated as given in table 11
in IS 800 – 2007.

Compression Members in Trusses

As the trusses are loaded at joints, effective length factor K of truss member does not
exceed unity. Effective length of truss member varies between 0.7 to 1 times length
which depend on end connection.

Maximum Slenderness Ratio

The value of maximum slenderness ratio is limited depend upon how the compressive
load is resulting. It is given in table 3 (Section 3.8.1) of IS 800 – 2007.

6.0 DESIGN OF ANGLE STRUTS

Angle struts can be designed using single angles, double angles placed back to
back on same side or opposite side of gusset plate and star formation. Single angles are
used in bracing or as a smaller discontinuous member in trusses. Double angles or Tee
sections are used as continuous chord members of trusses.

Design of single angle section

IS 800 – 2007 provides following clauses for design of single angle section –

• When single angle is loaded concentrically in compression, design strength is

calculated using equation 7.1.2 Pd = Ae fcc
• When single angle is loaded eccentrically in compression by connecting its one of
leg to gusset plate, the flexural torsional buckling strength is calculated using
equivalent slenderness ratio,

λe = (k12 + k2 λvv2+ k3 λФ 2 ) 0.5

where k1 , k2 and k3 are constants depending upon end condition as given in table.
λvv = (l / rvv) / ε (π2 E / 250) 0.5
λФ = (b1 + b2) / (ε (π2 E / 250) 0.5 X 2t
l = centre to centre length of supporting members;
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 48
 rvv = radius of gyration about minor axis;
b1 and b2 = width of the two legs of the angle
t = thickness of angle
ε = yield ratio

Constants k1 , k2 and k3

No of bolts at Gusset/connecting k1 k2 k3
each end member fixity
connection
2 Fixed 0.20 0.35 20
Hinged 0.70 0.60 5
1 Fixed 0.75 0.35 20
Hinged 1.25 0.50 60

Stiffeness of in-plane rotational restraint provided to the gusset/connecting member. For

partial restraint, the λe can be interpolated between the λe results for fixed and hinged
cases.

Design of double angle section

• Double angle discontinuous struts, connected back to back on opposite sides of
gusset plates by two or more bolts/rivets or equivalent welding, effective length
ratio K = 0.7 to 0.85 is taken depending upon end restrained and K = 1 for plane
perpendicular to the truss.
• Double angle discontinuous struts, connected back to back on same sides or one
side of gusset plates by two or more bolts/rivets or equivalent welding, effective
length ratio K = 0.7 to 0.85 is taken depending upon end restrained and K = 1 for
plane perpendicular to the truss.
• Double angle continuous struts such as flanges, chords or ties of trusses, legs of
tower, value of K = o.7 to 1 shall be taken depending upon end restrained and for
buckling in plane perpendicular to the plane of truss K = 1 shall be taken.

Design procedure of the compression member

• Determine axial force in the member and calculate factored load by multiplying
appropriate partial safety factor for load.
• Select a trial section.
• Find appropriate effective length depending upon end condition.
• Calculate slenderness ratio. This should not be greater than values provided in
Table 3 in IS 800 – 2007.
• Compute load carrying capacity as Pd = Ae fcd and show that it is greater than
actual load.

PROBLEM 1
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 49
Design a single angle discontinuous strut which is caring factored load of 100 KN.
Unsupported length of member is 3m. Use Fy = 250 MPa.

Assume section ISA 75X75X10mm @ 11.0 kg/m

A = 1402 mm2 , rvv = 14.5 mm

ISA 75X75X10mm

Yield ratio, ε = (250/Fy) 0.5 = 1

b / t =75 / 10 = 7.5 < 15.7 ε

d / t = 75 / 10 = 7.5 < 15.7 ε
b + d / t = (75 + 75) / 10 = 15 < 25 ε
Hence the section is semi-compact.

Assuming 2 or more bolts and fixed condition ( Table no 12 )

k1 = 0.2, k2 = 0.35, k3 = 20

λvv = (l / rvv) / ε (π2 E / 250) 0.5

= (3000/14.5) / (1 (π2 X 2 X105 / 250) 0.5
= 2.328
λФ = (b1 + b2) / (ε (π2 E / 250) 0.5 X 2t
= ( 75 +75) / (1 (π2 X 2 X105 / 250) 0.5 X 2X10
= 0.0844

λe = (K12 + K2 λvv2+ K3 λФ 2 ) 0.5

= (0.22 + 0.35 X 2.3282 + 20 X 0.08442)
= 1.442

fcd = (Fy/γmo) / ( Ф + (Ф2 – λe2) 0.5)

Ф = 0.5[1 + α(λe – 0.2) + λe2]

For buckling class c, α = 0.49 (Table 7)

Ф = 0.5[1 + 0.49(1.442 – 0.2) + 1.4422]

= 1.884

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 50
 fcd = (250/1.1) / ( 1.884 + (1.8842 – 1.4422) 0.5)
= 75.927 N/ mm2
Load caring capacity, Pd = 75.927 X 1402 / 1000 = 106.45 > 100 KN
Hence safe.

PROBLEM 2
A double angle discontinuous strut is to carry factored load of 275 kN. The length of
strut between intersections is 2.7m. The angles are tack bolted throughout the
length. Design the section with
a) angles placed back to back on opposite side of gusset plate.
b) angles placed back to back on same side of gusset plate.
Assume Fy = 250 MPa.

a) angles placed back to back on opposite side of gusset plate.

Try 2 ISA 80X80X8 mm @ 9.6 kg/m

A = 1221 X 2 = 2442 mm2
Iy = 72.5 X 104 mm4
rz = 24.4 mm
cy = 22.7 mm

d / t = 80 / 8 = 10 < 15.7 ε

y
10 mm thick gusset plate

z z

2 ISA 80X80X8 mm

Iy = 2[ 72.5 X 104 + 1221 X (5+22.7) 2]

= 3323.7222 103 mm3
ry = (3323.7222 103 /2X1221) 0.5
= 36.89 mm

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 51
 As per [Link] for buckling in the plane of truss, effective length constant
K = 0.7 to 0.85 depend upon end rigidity.
Assuming K = 0.85
l = 0.85 X 2700 = 2295 mm
Slenderness ratio, (KL/r)z = 2295 / 24.4
= 94.06
For buckling in the plane perpendicular to truss, l = 2700mm
(KL/r)y = 2700 / 36.89
= 73.19
(KL/r)max = 94.06 < 180 (Table 3.2)
for (KL/r) = 94.06 and Fy = 250 using table 7.4 class c
fcd = 115.32 N/ mm2
Load caring capacity = 115.32 X 2442 / 1000
= 281.6 KN > 275 KN
Hence safe.

b) angles placed back to back on same side of gusset plate.

Try 2 ISA 90X90X8 mm @ 10.8 kg/m

A = 1379 X 2 = 2758 mm2
ry = 27.5 mm, cx = cy = 25.1 mm
Iy = 104.2 X 104 mm4
y
10 mm thick
gusset plate

2 ISA 90X90X8 mm

z z

Iz = [104.2 X 104 + 1379 X 25.12] X 2

= 3821.5676 X103 mm4

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 rz = (3821.5676 X103 / 2 X 1379)0.5
= 37.22 mm
(KL/r)z = 0.85 X 2700 / 37.2 = 61.69
(KL/r)y = 2700 / 27.5 = 98.18
(KL/r)max = 98.18 < 180 (Table 3)

for (KL/r) = 98.18 and Fy = 250 using table 7.4 class c

fcd = 109.55 N/ mm2
Load caring capacity = 109.55 X 2 X 1379 / 1000
= 302.13KN > 275 KN
Hence safe.

7.0 EXERCISE

1. A single angle discontinuous strut having section as ISA 100x75x8 mm and

length between intersections as 3m. Calculate load caring capacity if it is
connected at the ends with welding.
2. Design a double angle discontinuous strut to carry factored load of 300 kN. The
length of member is 3.5m. The angles are to be placed back to back on both sides
of gusset plate.
3. A strut consists of two ISA 100x100x8 mm, placed back to back on same side of
gusset plate. Length of member is 2.5m. Calculate the safe load it can carry.

8.0 REFERENCES
1. IS:800 – 2007 Indian Standard General Construction in Steel – Code of Practice.
2. IS:800 – 1984 Indian Standard Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel.
3. Design of Steel Structures – N Subramanian
4. INSDAG Study material.

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Lecture No. 4
Title: Design of Compression Member (Part II- Building Column)
Speaker: Mr. Awari Uttam R, Asst. Professor, AISSMS COE, Pune.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A structural member which is subjected to compressive forces along its axis is called a
compression member. Thus, compression members are subjected to loads that tend to
decrease their length. Except in pin jointed trusses, under external loads, experience
bending moment and shear forces. If the net end moment are zero, and load acting
concentric to the original longitudinal axis of the member then it is known as axially
loaded column or simply column. Different terms are used for a compression member
depending upon its position in a structure.
It is well known from basic mechanics of materials that only very short columns can be
loaded up to their yield stress. For long column buckling occurs prior to developing the
full material strength of the member. Hence, a sound knowledge of stability theory is
necessary for designing compression members in structural steel.
Since compression members have to resist buckling, they tend to be stocky and square
and circular tubes are found to be the ideal section, since their radius of gyration is same
in the two axis. This situation is contrast to the slender and more compact tension
members and deep beam sections. Unlike the member subjected to tension, a
compression member is design on the assumption that its gross cross sectional area will
be effective in resisting the applied loads. Bolts may be used to connect column to
adjacent members. As the load is applied, the member will contract. It is assumed that
the action of bolts is such that they will replace the material removed for holes. Thus, the
bolt holes are often ignored in the design. Since compression members comprise of thin
plates, they also experience local buckling.

BASIC CONCEPT
7.1. Design strength.
7.1.1. Common hot rolled and built up steel members used for compression members,
usually fail by flexural buckling. The buckling strength of these members is affected by
residual stresses, initial and accidental eccentricity of load. The strength of members
subjected to axial compression considering above factors is defined by buckling class a,
b, c and d as given in Table 7.
7.1.2 The design Compressive strength Pd of a member is given by:
P < Pd, Pd = Acfcd, where,
Ac = effective sectional area as defined in 7.3.2
fcd = design compressive stress as per [Link]
iii. The design compressive stress, fcd of a axially loaded compression shall be
calculated using the following equation.

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 Table
7
Imper
fectio
n
Factor, α

Buckling Class a b c d
α 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

[Link]. The classification of different sections under different buckling class a, b, c and d
is given in Table 10. The stress reduction factor and design compressive stress fcd for
different buckling class, yield stress and effective slenderness ratio is given in table 8 for
convenience. The curve corresponding to different buckling class is presented in non-
dimensional form, in Fig. 8.

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 1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7 a
b
0.6 c
fcd/fy d
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
λ
Fig. 8 Column Buckling Curve

7.2 Effective Length of Compression Members.

7.2.1 The effective length KL, is determine considering the rotational and relative
translational boundary conditions at the ends. The actual length shall be taken as the
length from centre to centre of its intersections with the supporting members in the plane
of buckling deformation. In the case of member with a free end, the free standing length
from the centre of the intersecting member at the supported end, shall be taken as a actual
length.

7.2.2. Effective length.

Where the boundary conditions in the plane of buckling can be assessed, the effective
length, KL can be calculated on the basis of Table 11. Where frame analysis does not
consider the equilibrium of a framed structure in the deformed shape, the effective length
of compression members in such case can be calculated using the procedure given in D-1.
The effective length of the stepped

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 Table 11 Effective Length of Prismatic Compression Members

Boundary condition Schematic Effective

At one end At the other end Representation Length
1. Translation 2. Rotation [Link] 2. Rotation
Restrained Restrained Free Free

2.0 L

Free Restrained Free Restrained

2.0 L

Restrained Free Restrained Free

1.0 L

Restrained Restrained Free Restrained

1.2 L

Restrained Restrained Restrained Free

0.8 L

Restrained Restrained Restrained Restrained

0.65 L

column in single storey building can be calculated using the procedure given in D-2.

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7.2.3 Eccentric beam connection.
In cases where the beam connections are eccentric in plan with respect to the axis of
column, the same conditions of restrain as in concentric connection shall be deemed to
apply, provided the connection are carried across the flange or web of the column as the
case may be, and the web of the beam lies within, or in direct contact with the column
section. Where practical difficulties prevent this, the effective length shall be taken as
equal to the distance between point of restrain, in non-sway frames.
7.3 Design Details.
7.3.1 Thickness of Plate Elements.
Classification of members on the basis of thickness of constituent plate elements shall
satisfy the width-thickness ratio requirement specified in Table 2.
7.3.2 Effective Sectional Area.
Except as modified in 3.7.2(clause 4), the gross sectional area shall be taken as the
effective sectional area for all compression members fabricated by welding, bolting and
riveting so long as the section is semi-compact or better. Holes not filled with rivet, bolts
or pins shall be deducted from gross area to calculate effective sectional area.

Procedure for the design of axially loaded column.

1. Determine the axial force in the member and the factored load Pu multiplying by the
appropriate partial load factor.
2. Select the trial section considering width/thickness limitation to prevent local buckling.
3. Determine KL/r for the section selected and it should be within the maximum limiting
value.
4. Determine fcd and design strength Pd = Aefcd.
5. Compare Pd with Pu. Pd should be more than Pu.

Example: 1 Calculate the compressive resistance of a compound column consisting of

ISHB 300 with one cover plate of 350 mm x 20 mm on each flange and having a length
of 5 m. Assume that the bottom of the column is fixed and top is pinned and fy = 250
MPa.
Solution:
Cover plate 350 mm x 20 mm
y
10.6 mm

300 mm
z z
ISHB @ 58.8 kg/m

y
Cross section of column

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 Fig. 1
Properties of ISHB 300 @ 58.8 kg/m are,
Area = 7485 mm2, Izz = 12545.2 x 104 mm4, Iyy = 2193.6 x 104 mm4.
Cross sectional area of section, A = 7485 + 2 x 350 x 20 = 21,485 mm2
Izz of plate = 2[350 x 203/12 + 350 x 20 x 1602]
= 35886.67 x 104 mm4
M I of section @ z-z axis = 48431.86 x 104 mm4,
(
rz = 484867 x 10 /21485
4
)
= 150.14 mm
Iyy of plate = 2 x 20 x 3503/12
= 14291.67 x 104 mm4
M I of the section @ y-y axis = 16485.27 x 104 mm4,
ry = (16491.7 x 10 /21485 4
)
= 87.60 mm
For built up section using curve c. Since ry is small buckling about yy axis, effective
length = 5000 x 2 = 10000 mm
λ = 5000 x 2/87.60
= 114.13 < 180
From Table 9 c of IS 2007, for fy = 250 MPa and λ = 114.13, fcd = 90.1 MPa
Hence design strength = (21480 x 90.1)/1000
= 1935.35 kN.

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Example 2: A part of an office floor and the elevation of internal column stack A are
shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (b). The roof and floor loads are given as follows:
Roof: Dead load (total) = 5kN/m2
Imposed load = 1.5 kN/m2
Floors: Dead load (total) = 5kN/m2
Imposed load = 4 kN/m2
Design column A for axial load only. The self weight of column, including fire protection
may be taken as 1kN/m. The roof and floor have the same layout. Use Fe 415 grade steel.
The slabs for the floor and roof are pre-cast one way spanning slab.

7.5 m 7.5 m
Roof

4m
B1 B1 2 nd floor
6m

B2

4m
B1 B1

1 st floor
B2
6m

B1 B1
5m

Base

Fig. 2 a Fig. 2 b
Part floor plan Column stack A
Solution:

Loading calculation: Four floor beams are supported at column A. These are B1 and B2,
the reaction from these beams in terms of uniformly distributed load
is 7.5 x 3 x w = 22.5 w kN, where w is the uniformly distributed load. The dead and
imposed loads are calculated separately to apply the reduction in imposed loads as per IS

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875. The self weight of beam B2 is included in the reaction from beam B1. The loading
calculations are shown in the table.

Calculation of axial load for the column.

Dead Load in kN Imposed Load in kN, Total Design

Reduction Load in kN
0% 10% 20%
Column between roof and 2nd floor
w = 5 kN/m2 w = 1.5 kN/m2
2 No. B1: 112.5 33.75
2 No. B2: 112.5 33.75
self weight of column 4.0
Total load = 229 kN 67.5
Design load = 1.5(229 + 67.5) 444.77
Column between first & second floor
w = 5 kN/m2 w = 4 kN/m2
2 No. B1: 112.5 90 81
2 No. B2: 112.5 90 81
self weight of column 4.0 162
Total load = 229 kN 1031.25
Design load = 1.5(229+162)+ 444.75
Column between 2nd floor & base
w = 5 kN/m2 w = 4 kN/m2
2 No. B1: 112.5 90 72
2 No. B2: 112.5 90 72
self weight of column 5.0 144
Total load = 229 kN
Design load = 1.5(230 + 144)
+ 1031.25 1592.5

Column Design:
A. Column between roof and second floor.
Design load Pu = 444.75 kN.
Selecting ISHB 200 37.3 kg/m, the geometrical properties are,
A = 4754 mm2
ry = 45.1 mm
h = 200 mm
b = 200 mm

Assuming shear type beam connection and the frame is prevented from sway using
bracing. Shear type connection will permit end rotations but will restrain translation.
Le = 4000 mm
λ = 4000/45.1
= 88.69 < 180. Hence O. K.

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From table 10 of code, since h/b = 1.0 and tf < 40, for buckling about y-y axis using curve
c, fcd = 122.66 MPa.
Pd = (4754 x 122.66)/1000
= 583.15 > 444.75 kN. Hence O. K.
B. Column between second and first floor.
Design load Pu = 1031.25 kN.
Selecting ISHB 300 @ 58.8 kg/m, the geometrical properties are,
A = 7485 mm2
ry = 54.1 mm
h = 300 mm
b = 250 mm

Assuming shear type beam connection and the frame is prevented from sway using
bracing. Shear type connection will permit end rotations but will restrain translation.
Le = 4000 mm
λ = 4000/54.1
= 73.93 < 180. Hence O K
From table 10 of code, since h/b = 1.2 and tf < 40, for buckling about y-y axis using curve
b, fcd = 159.7 MPa.
Pd = (7485 x 159.7)/1000
= 1195 > 1031.25 kN. Hence O. K.

C. Column between first floor and base.

Design load Pu = 1592.25 kN.
Selecting ISHB 450 @ 87.2 kg/m, the geometrical properties are,
A = 11114 mm2
ry = 51.8 mm
h = 450 mm
b = 250 mm
Le = 0.8 x 5000 mm
λ = 0.8 x 5000/51.8
= 77.22 < 180. Hence O. K.
From table 10 of code, since h/b = 1.8 and tf < 40, for buckling about y-y axis using curve
b, fcd = 154.45 MPa.
Pd = (11114 x 154.45)/1000
= 1716.55 > 1592.25 kN. Hence O. K.

7.6 Laced Column:

7.6.1 General
[Link] Compression members comprising two main components laced and tied, its radius
of gyration about the axis perpendicular the plane of lacing not less than the radius of
gyration about the axis parallel to the plane of lacing( see Fig. 10 A and B).

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 A A

B B

Lacing on Lacing on Lacing on Lacing on

Face A Face B Face A Face B

Preffered Lacing Arrangement Preffered Lacing Arrangement

Fig. 10 A Single Laced System Fig. 10 B Double Laced System

Fig. 10 C Double laced and Single Laced system combined with Cross Numbers

[Link] As far as practicable, the lacing system shall be uniform throughout the length of
the column.

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[Link] Except for tie plates as specified in 7.7, double laced system (see Fig. 10 B) and
single laced system (see Fig. 10 A) on opposite sides of the main components shall not be
combined with cross members (ties) perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the strut(see
Fig. 10 C).

[Link] Single laced systems, on opposite faces of the components being laced together
shall preferably be in the same direction so that one is the shadow of the other.
[Link] The effective slenderness ratio, (KL/r)e, of laced column shall be taken as 1.05
times the (KL/r)0, the actual slenderness ratio, in order to account for shear deformation
effects.

7.6.2 Width of Lacing Bars.

In bolted/riveted connection, the minimum width of lacing bars shall be three times the
nominal diameter of the end bolt/rivet.

7.6.3 Thickness of Lacing Bars.

The thickness of flat lacing bars shall not be less than one-fortieth of its effective length
for single lacings and one-sixtieth of the effective length for double lacings.
[Link] Rolled sections or tubes of equivalent strength may be permitted in stead of flat
for lacings.

7.6.4 Angle of Inclination.

Lacing bars, whether in double or single system, shall be inclined at an angle not less
than 400 nor more than 700 to the axis of the built up members.

7.6.5 Spacing
[Link] The maximum spacing of lacing bars, whether connected by bolting, riveting or
welding, shall also be such that the maximum slenderness ratio of the components of the
main member(a1/r1), between consecutive lacing connections is not greater than 50 0r 0. 7
times the most favorable slenderness ratio of the members as a whole, whichever is less,
where a1 is the unsupported length of the individual member between lacing point, and r1
is the minimum radius of gyration of the individual member being laced together.
[Link] Where lacing bars are not lapped to form the connection to the components of the
members, they shall be so connected that there is no appreciable interruption in the
triangulation of the system.

7.6.6 Design of Lacing.

[Link] The lacing shall be proportioned to resist a total transverse shear, V at any point in
the member, equal to at least 2.5 % of the axial force in the member and shall be divided
equally among all transverse lacing system in parallel planes.
[Link] For members carrying calculated bending stress due to eccentricity of loading,
applied end moment and/or lateral loading, the shall be proportioned to resist the actual
shear due to bending, in addition to that specified in [Link].

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[Link] The slenderness ratio, KL/r, of the lacing bars shall not exceed 145. In
bolted/riveted construction, the effective length of lacing bars for the determination of the
design strength shall be taken as the length between the inner end fastener of the bars for
single lacing and of this length for double lacing effectively connected at intersections. In
welded construction, the effective length shall be taken as 0.7 times the distance between
the inner ends of welds connecting the lacing bars to the members.

7.6.7 Attachment to Main Members

The bolting, riveting or welding of a lacing bars to the main members shall be sufficient
to transmit the force calculated in the bars. Whenever welded lacing bars overlap the
main members, the amount of lap measured along either edge of the lacing bar shall be
not less than four times the thickness of the bar or the thickness of the element of the
members to which it is connected, whichever is less. The welding should be sufficient to
transmit the load in the bar and shall, in any case, be provided along each side of the bar
for the full length of lap.

7.6.8 End Tie Plate

Laced compression members shall be provided with tie plates as per 7.7 at the ends of
lacing systems and at intersection with other members/stays and at points where the
lacing systems are interrupted.

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Example 3: Design a laced column 10 m long to carry a factored load of 1100 kN. The
column is restrained in position but not in direction at both ends. Design the column by
using two channels back to back and single lacing with bolted connection.
Solution:
Design of column
Factored load, Pu = 1100 kN
Length, L = 10 m
Assuming a design stress of 125 MPa, required area, A = (1100 x 1000/125)
= 9200 mm2
Select two ISMC 300 @ 363 N/m. The sectional properties of ISMC 300 are:
A = 4564 mm2, rzz = 118.1 mm, ryy = 26.1 mm, tf = 13.6 mm, cyy = 23.6 mm
g = 50 mm, Ixx = 6362.6 x 104 mm4, Iyy = 310.8 x 104 mm4.
Area provided = 2 x 4564 = 9128 mm2
L/r = 10000/118.1 = 84.67
L/r for built up section is taken as = 1.05 x 10000/118.0
= 88.9 for KL/r = 88.98 and fy = 250 MPa, using Table
9 c of IS 800- 2007,
fcd = 122.53 MPa.
Design Strength = fcd x A
= (122.53 x 9128/1000
= 1118.45 kN > 1100 kN. Hence design is safe.
Let us provide two channels back to back at a spacing S and providing single lacing as
shown in Fig. 3

ISF 50 mm x
12 mm
570 mm
ISMC 300 @
363 N/m

300 mm

285 mm

300 mm

Fig. 3

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Spacing of channels:
Equating moment of inertia about two principal axes so the radius of gyration about two
principal axes should be same.
2 Izz = 2[Iyy + A(S/2 + cyy)2]
2 x 6362.6 x 104 = 2[310.8 x 104 + 4564 (S/2 + 23.6)2]
S = 183.1 mm
Provide two channels at S = 185 mm back to back.

Lacing System:
Providing single lacing system with an inclination of lacing bar 450.
Spacing of lacing bar, L0 = 2(185 + 50 + 50) cot 45
= 570 mm
L0/ry < 0.7 x L/r of built up section.
21.92 < 62.28. Hence safe.
Maximum Shear, V = (2.5/100) x 1100
= 27500 N.
Compressive force in lacing bar = (V/N) cosec 45
= 27500/2 x 1.414
= 19442.5 N.
Assuming 16 mm diameter of bolts,
Minimum width of lacing bar, b = 50 mm
Minimum thickness = 1/40 x (185 + 50 + 50) cosec 45
= 9.898 mm
Provide 50 mm x 12 mm lacing bar.
Minimum r of lacing bar, rmin = t/(12)1/2
= 3.464 mm.
L/rmin of lacing bar = 285 x cosec 45/3.464
= 116.34 < 145. Hence safe.
For L/rmin = 116.34 and fy = 250 MPa, using Table 9 c, fcd = 87.68 MPa
Load carrying capacity = 87.68 x 50 x 12 = 52613.64 N > 19442.5 N.
Tensile strength of the lacing bar = (B – d) t fy/γ1 or fyAg/γ0
= 250 x 55 x 12 /1.1
= 150000 N > 19442.5 N.
Hence the lacing bar is safe.
Check
L/r of the built up section = 84.74
L/r of the individual chords = 21.92
λ for the built up column = λ 2
(
+ π2(A/A d ) L3d/ L0d2 )
= 84.74 2
(
+ π2(9260/600 ) 400.22 3/ 570 x 232 2 )
= 86.59 < 88.98
Hence, the column is safe.

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7.7 Battened Columns
7.71 General
[Link] Compression members composed of two main components battened should be
preferably have the individual members of the same cross section and symmetrically
disposed about their major axis. Where practicable, the compression members should
have a radius of gyration about the axis perpendicular to the plane of the batten not less
than the radius of gyration about the axis parallel to the plane of batten (see Fig. 11).

z z

y
S
Fig. 11
[Link] Battened compression members, not complying with the requirements specified in
this section or those subjected to eccentricity of loading, applied moments or lateral
forces in the plane of batten (see Fig. 11), shall be design according to the exact theory of
elastic stability or empirically, based on verification by test.
[Link] The battened shall be placed opposite to each other at each end of the member and
at points where the member is stayed in its length and as far as practicable, be spaced and
proportioned uniformly throughout. The number of battens be such that the member is
divided into not less than three bays within its actual length from centre to centre of end
connections.

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[Link] The effective slenderness ratio (KL/r)e of battened column, shall be taken as 1.1
times the (KL/r)o, the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column, to account for
shear deformation effect.

7.7.2 Design of Battens

7.72.1 Battens
Battens shall be designed to carry the bending moments and shear forces arising from
transverse shear force V1 equal to 2.5 percent of the axial force on the whole compression
member, at any point in the length of the member, divided equally between parallel
planes of battens. Battened member carrying calculated bending moment due to
eccentricity of axial loading, calculated end moments or lateral loads parallel to the plane
of battens, shall be designed to carry actual shear in addition to the above shear. The main
members shall also be checked for the same shear force and bending moments as for the
battens.
Battens shall be plates, angles, channels, or I-sections and at their ends shall be riveted ,
bolted or welded to the main components so as to resist simultaneously a shear Vb =
V1C/NS along the column axis and a moment M = V1C/2N at each connection,
Where
V1 = transverse shear force as defined above
C = centre to centre longitudinal distance of battens
N = number of parallel plane of battens
S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid of connection of the battens to the
main members.

[Link] Tie Plates

Tie plates are members provided at the end of battened and laced members, and shall be
designed by the same method as batten. In no case shall a tie plate and its fastening be
incapable of carrying the forces for which the lacing or batten has been designed.

[Link] Size
When plates are used for battens, the end battens and those at points where the member is
stayed in its length shall have an effective depth, longitudinally, not less than the
perpendicular distance between the centroid of the main members. The intermediate
battens shall have an effective depth of not less than three quarters of this distance, but in
no case shall be effective depth of any batten be less than twice the width of one member,
in the plane of the battens. The effective depth of the batten shall be taken as the
longitudinal distance between outermost bolts/rivet or weld at the ends. The thickness of
batten or the tie plates shall be not less than one – fiftieth of the distance between the
innermost connecting lines of rivet, bolt or welds, perpendicular to the main member.
[Link] The requirements of bolt size and thickness of batten specified above does not
apply when angles, channels, or I- sections are used for battens with their legs or flanges
perpendicular to the main members. However, it should be ensured that the ends of the
compression members are tied to achieve adequate rigidity.

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7.7.3 Spacing of Battens
In battened compression members where the individual members are not specifically
checked for shear stress and bending moments, the spacing of battens, centre to centre of
its end fastening, shall be such that the slenderness ratio (KL/r) of any component over
that distance shall be neither greater than 50 nor greater than 0.7 times the slenderness
ratio of the members as a

7.7.4 Attachment to main members

[Link] Welded connections
Where tie batten plates overlap the main members, the amount of lap shall be not less
than four times the thickness of the plate. The length of weld connecting each edge of the
batten plate to the member shall, in aggregate, be not less than half the depth of the batten
plate. T least one – third of the weld shall be placed at each end of this edge. The length
of weld and depth of batten plate shall be measured along the longitudinal axis of the
main members.
In addition, the welding shall be return along the two edges of the plates transversely to
the axis of the main member for a length not less than the minimum lap specified above.

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Example 4: Design a batten system for the column in example 3 assuming that two
channels are placed back to back.
Solution:
Design of column
Factored load, Pu = 1100 kN, Length, L = 10 m
Assuming a design stress of 125 MPa, required area, A = 1100 x 1000/125
= 9200 mm2
Select two ISLC 350 @ 38.8 kg/m. The sectional properties of ISLC 350 are:
A = 4947 mm2, rzz = 137.2 mm, ryy = 28.2 mm, tf = 7.4 mm, cyy = 24.1 mm
g = 60 mm, Izz = 9312.6 x 104 mm4, Iyy = 394.6 x 104 mm4.
Area provided = 2 x 4947 = 9894 mm2
L/r = 10000/137.2 = L/r for built up section is taken as = 1.10 x 10000/137.2
= 80.17
for KL/r = 80.17 and fy = 250 MPa, using Table 9 c of IS 800- 2007,
fcd = 135.76 MPa.
Design Strength = fcd x A
= (135.76x9894)/1000, Pd = 1343 kN > 1100 kN. Hence design is safe.
Let us provide two channels back to back at a spacing S and providing single lacing as
shown in Fig. 4
Spacing of channels:
Equating moment of inertia about two principal axes so the radius of gyration about two
principal axes should be same.

274 mm
Batten plate of
274 mm x 8 mm

1200 mm
ISLC 350 @
38.8 kg/m

340 mm
Batten plate of
340 mm x 8 mm
340 mm

350 mm

Fig. 4
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2 Izz = 2[Iyy + A(S/2 + cyy)2]
2 x 9312.6 x 104 = 2[394.6 x 104 + 4947 (S/2 + 24.1)2], S = 220.33 mm
Provide two channels at S = 220 mm back to back.
Spacing of battens
(L0/ryy) should be less than the slenderness ratio of the built up column.
L0/ryy < 0.7 (L/r)
L0 < 0.7 x 28.2 x 80.17 = 1582.56 mm
Also, L0/ryy < 50, L0 < 50 x 28.2 = 1410 mm
Hence provide batten at spacing at 1200 mm
Size of End Batten
Provide 20 mm bolt at a edge distance of 32 mm
Effective depth = 220 + 2 x 24.1 = 268.2 mm > 2 x 100
Effective depth of 270 mm.
Overall depth = 270 + 2 x 32 = 334 mm
Required thickness of batten = 1/50(220 + 2 x 60) = 6.8 mm
Length of batten = 220 + 2 x 100 = 420 mm
Hence provide end batten plate of 420 x 340 x 8 mm.
Size of Intermediate Batten.
Effective depth 3/4 x 270 = 202.5 mm > 2 x 100
Effective depth 210
Over all depth = 210 + 2 x 32 = 274 mm
Hence provide end batten plate of 420 x 274 x 8 mm.
Design Force and Moment.
Transverse Shear V1 = 2.5 % of the axial load.
= 27500 N
Longitudinal shear, Vb = V1C/NS
= 27500 x 1200/[2 x (220 x + 2 x 60)] = 48529.4 N
Moment M = V1C/2N = 27500 x 1200/ (2 x 2) = 8.25 x 106 Nmm
Check
(a) For end battens
Shear stress = 48529.4/(270 x 8) = 22.46 MPa < (250 x 31/2 x /1.1)
Bending Stress = 6 M / td2) = 6 x 8.25 x 106/ (8 x 2702)
= 84.88 MPa < 250/1.1
(b) For Intermediate battens
Shear stress = 48529.4 /(210 x 8) = 28.88 MPa < (250 x 31/2 x /1.1)
Bending Stress = 96 M / td2) = 6 x 8.25 x 106/ (8 x 2102)
= 140.48 MPa < 250/1.1
Hence safe.
Check for slenderness ratio
L/r of the built up column = 80.17
rmin of the individual chords = 28.2 mm
L/r = 1200/26.2 = 45.8

λ of built-up column = 77.88 + (π /12) x 45.8
2 2
( 2
= 88.26 )
Connection
The connection should be designed to transmit both shear and bending moment.

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Strength of bolt in double shear = 2 x Asb(fu/31/2)/γmb
= 2 x 3.14 x 202/4(400/31/2)/1.25
= 58041.58 N
Strength of bolt in bearing = 2.5dtfu/γm
= 2.5 x 20 x 12 x 410/1.25
= 196800.00 N
Hence strength of bolt = 58041.58 N
Required no. of bolt = 48529.4/58041.58 = 0.836
Provide two bolt to take into account stresses due to bending moment.
Check
Force in each bolt due to shear = 48529.4/2 = 24264.7 N
Adopting a pitch of 120 mm, force due to moment = Mr/Σr2
= 8.25 x 106 x 138/(1382 + 1382)
= 29891.30 N
Resultant force = 24264 .7 + 29891 .3
2 2

= 38500.2 N > 58041.58 N Hence OK

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Lecture No. 5
Title: Design of Bolted Connection
Speaker: Dr. V. L. Shah

5.1 CONNECTION BETWEEN MEMBERS

The structural members are required to be connected through fasteners so that they can
act as a composite unit. Connections between different members facilitate transfer of
forces and moments, from one member to another, also up to the foundation level.
Connection is a weaker link between the structural members. The connection failure is
not ductile and therefore, leads to sudden collapse giving no warning.
Therefore, the connection requires proper designing and detailing. The basic aim in
designing connection is to produce a joint that is safe, simple and economical.
5.2 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
The structural connections are broadly classified into three types:
1) Hinged or Pinned or simple shear connection
2) Rigid connection 3) Semirigid connection

6.2.1 Hinged or Pinned or Simple Shear Connection

It is a connection at a joint which offers no restraint to rotation. This means that
original angle between the connected members changes during loading causing relative
rotation between connected members. It transfers shear and/or axial forces and no
moments. Ideally in a hinged connection two members are connected by a single
rivet/bolt or pin. Connection which transfers only shear can be classified as simple
connection. For example, beam to column connection or beam to beam connection are
simple connections are shown in Fig. 5.1. Actually a small amount of moment will be
developed but that is normally neglected.

Shear

+
+ +
+
+
Beam

Angle Section
Beam to Column Beam to Beam

Fig 5.1 Simple / Pinned Connection

5.2.2 Rigid Connection

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 A rigid joint is a joint which transfers not only the axial and shear forces but also
moments. Rigid connection transfers significant moment to the supporting structure and
undergoes negligible deformation at the joint. Fig.5.2c shows a
t-stub connection transferring shear and moment from beam end to column.

Group
+ B
Group
+ A
+
Beam
+

( a ) ( b ) ( c )

Fig5.2 Rigid Connection a) Connection Subjected to Shear and Torsion

b) Connection Subjected to Shear and Bending c) T - Stub Connection

In a rigid joint, the ends of the member framing into it undergo the same displacement
with the result the angle between them remains the same even on loading i.e. it does not
allow relative rotation between the members as in the case of portal frame , even though
the joint may undergo rotation after loading Fig.5.3(1). Brackets attached to columns are
also examples of rigid connections which transfer bending/ torsion and shear. Fig. 5.2a
shows the connection which transfers eccentric load by torsion and shear. In Fig.5.2b
eccentric load is transferred by bending tension and shear by bolts group A and bolts
group B transfer load by torsion and shear.
5.2.3 Semirigid Connection
M
B
A 1) Rigid Joint
AA’ Joint +B, Members BA and BC Joint B Rotates through AA’
90o due to Moment M
A’ AA’’ = CC’ Rotations equal
CC’ 2) Semi-rigid Joint
CC’ < AA’ and A’BC’ < 90o
and moment transfered is slightly less than M
C’ C

Fig.5.3

It is a connection which transfers the axial force and shear force fully but the moments
only partially Fig 5.3). In reality, all the connections are semirigid.
In semirigid joint the ends of the member framing into it under go small rotation so that
the angle between them gets slightly reduced.

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5.3 CONNECTION AT JOINTS
5.2.1 Truss Member Joint
The truss joints are assumed to be hinged. The ideal hinged connection is one at which
the members are connected by a single bolt. However, when members are joined by two
or more than two bolts or welding , some amount of fixity exists inducing the moment at
the joint . In practice these secondary moments induced at the joint are neglected and the
joint is assumed to be hinged.
The joint of the truss is designed based on the number of fasteners required to transfer
the force, using equations given in Sect. 5.7.
5.2.2 Design of Connection between Members
The connection between members are broadly classified into two types:
1) Connection subjected to shear and tension
2) Connection subjected to eccentric loading causing torsion or bending

5.2.3 Connection Subjected to Shear and Tension

Connection subjected to shear and tension are of two types:
1) Framed connection 2) Seat connection

[Link] Framed connection

In this case the beam is connected to column or other beam by angle section/ flat
attached to flange or web (Fig 5.1) .This connection is also called as web cleat
connection wherein the force is transferred through the web angles either to the flange or
to the web of the supporting member. The clearance between the beam and the
supporting member is kept about 2 to 5 mm to provide sufficient distance in the web.
The beam reaction is transferred by shear and bearing from the web of the beam
through the web bolts and angle cleats. These are further transferred by cleat angle to the
bolts of the supporting member, and finally to the supporting member by shear and also
by tension and compression. Even in such connection a plate can be bolted to the flange
of the column and welded to the web of the beam and vice-versa.

[Link] Unstiffened Seat Angle Connection

The simple seat connection consists of an angle with its horizontal leg at its top, to
receive the reaction from the beam and transfer it to the column or beam Fig 6.4. The
seat connection requires more space in the vertical direction and hence it becomes
difficult to make beam to beam connection. But this type of connection is more suited for
making beam to column connection. In this case the reaction from the beam is
transferred to the column through the seat angle by bearing, shear and bending of
horizontal leg of angle.

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 Cleat angle

Column Clearance
Beam ISMB 250 Beam
ISHB
200 b1
b1
250 R ( R x b2 / b1)
R

50 b2
Seat angle R = Reaction distributed
60 over length b1

b1 = Bearing length of beam

16 mm bolt on seat angle
40
150 x 75 x10 b2 = Length of seat angle
200 subjected to BM

Fig 5.4
Steps for Design of Unstiffened Seat Angle ( see Fig. 5.4)
Assume the unequal section of seat angle .
Shorter leg to be joined to the beam and longer leg to be connected to the flange of the
column The maximum edge distance to the nearest line of fasteners from an edge of any
un-stiffened part should not exceed 12 x  ( 250 / fu ) x t where t is the thickness of the
thinner outer plate .
1) Calculate the number of bolts required for connection
i) Compute Design strength of Bolt
in single Shear using Eq. 5.2 , in bearing using Eq.5.4d
Compute least bolt value Bv = least value from above
Number of required bolts = Reaction / Bv
2) Length of angle supporting beam = width of beam bf
3) Bearing length required at root line of beam for web crippling ,
b = R / [ tw x ( fyw / mo ) ] ( 5.7 )
where , R = beam reaction
tw = thickness of web
fyb = yield strength of web of beam
mo = partial safety factor for material = 1.1
Length of angle connecting beam = b + clearance (=10 mm )
Calculate bearing length of beam on seat angle, bl = b - (tf + R1) (5.8)
where, tf = thickness of flange
R1 = root radius of beam flange
4) Calculate length b2 of seat angle subjected to bending moment :
b2 = distance from end of bearing on cleat to root angle
= b1+ end clearance - (root of angle+ thickness of angle) (5.9)
5) Bending moment to which seat angle is subjected :
Mu = load on seat angle x b2 / 2 = ( R x b2 / b1 ) x b2 /2 (5.10a)
Moment resisting capacity of angle = Md = 1.2 x (bf x ta2 /6) (5.10b)

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 = 1.2 x Z x fy /mo
where bf = flange width of beam
ta = thickness of angle
If Md > Mu then safe , else revise the section
6) Calculate shear capacity of outstanding leg of cleat angle
= wf x ta x fy /√3mo > load , then shear capacity is sufficient
where, wf = width of outstanding leg
ta = thickness of angle
7) Calculate shear strength of beam
Vd = Aw fyw /(√3mo ) > load. then the stiffeners are not required
where, Aw = area of beam web
fyw = yield strength of web
(see Fig 2.17, Ex. 2.12.11)
Stiffened Seat Connection
When the beam reaction is large ( >100 kN) the angle alone cannot support it. In such a
case the horizontal leg of an angle is stiffened (strengthened) by means of one or two
tight fitting angles . Such connection is called as stiffened seat connection See Fig 6.5

Clip angle

550
ISWB 550
ISSC250
Clearance 10mm

A
Packing Plate 180
250
250
Fig 5.5
[Link] Steps for Design of Stiffened Seat Connection ( see Fig. 5.5 )
1) Assume size of the seat angle such that necessary bearing area is provided by its
outstanding leg.
Required length of bearing = Lbr = R / ( tw x fy /mo )
where, R = reaction from beam
mo= 1.1 ,
tw = thickness of web of beam
The thickness of stiffener should be greater than the thickness of web of beam
2) It can be assumed that the reaction from the beam acts at the middle of the outstanding
leg of the angle so that the bolts in the connecting leg are subjected to shear force and
moment.

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3) Calculate total moment M’ resisted by bolts in tension,
M
M '=
2h  y
1+
21  y 2
M = beam reaction x eccentricity
4) Obtain the maximum tensile force in the extreme bolt T = M’x yn/ y2
5) Use the interaction Eq. 2.6 to check the safety of bolt.
6) Provide nominal cleat angle at top connected by nominal size of bolt on each leg of
cleat.

5.4 Connection through Fasteners

5.4.1 Types of FAsteners

Structural members are connected to one another through bolts/rivets or weld.
1) Rivets
Use of rivets is becoming obsolete . This is because riveting requires preheating,
more labor , supervision and is noise polluting . Hence, more stress is given on the design
of bolted connections .However, it may be mentioned that the design of riveted
connection is similar to the design of bolted connection.
2) Bolts
The bolts connecting structural members are broadly classified into two types :
1) Black bolt 2) High Strength Bolt

Black Bolt
Black bolts are made from mild steel rods with a square or hexagonal head and
nuts as shown in Fig 2.4 conforming to IS: 1363. Black bolts are ordinary, rough,
unfinished and commonly used bolts. They are the least expensive bolts. They are
mainly used for light structures and not recommended for connections subjected to
impact, fatigue or dynamic loads.
The advantages of black bolts over riveted or welded connections are as under:
1) Requires simple tools and unskilled labor.
2) No specialized equipment required.
3) Minor discrepancies in dimensions get eliminated.
4) Noiseless.
5) As soon as the bolts are tightened the connection starts supporting loads
6) Lapse of time for cooling ( as in case of riveting or welding ) not required
.
7) Progress of work is fast.
8) Easy to dismantle and reuse the materials.

High Strength Bolts:

High strength bolts are made from bars of medium carbon steel. The bolts of
property class 8.8 and 10.9 are commonly used in steel construction. They are identified

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by class identification symbol 8.8S, 10.9S etc. which is embossed on the head of these
bolts. The suffix ‘S’ denotes a high strength bolt with a hexagon head.

The bolts with induced initial tension are called High Strength Bolts. In high
strength bolt initial pretension in bolt develops clamping force at the interfaces of
elements being joined . High Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts are commonly used in
practice . They slip into bearing at ultimate load only. The frictional resistance to slip
between the plate surfaces subjected to clamping force opposes slip due to externally
applied shear. High strength friction grip bolts (HSFG) and nut shall conform to IS: 3757.
HSFG bolts are tightened by part-turn method, direct tension indicator tightening, or
wrench tightening (torque control method)
The advantages of HSFG bolts are given as under:
1) Do not allow slip between the connected members.
2) Loads are transferred by friction only.
3) Due to high strength less number of bolts are required, with the result the
size of the gusset plate gets reduced.
4) No noise pollution.
5) Deformation is minimized,
Where slip in the serviceability limit state is to be avoided in the connection, high
strength bolts in friction type joint, fitted bolts or welds shall be used.
5.4.2 Net Tensile Stress Area
The ratio of net tensile area at threads, to nominal plain shank area of bolt is taken
as 0.78. But IS: 800 specifies that where the net tensile stress area is not defined, it shall
be taken as the area at the root of the threads. Where it can be shown that threads do not
occur in the shear plane the area may be taken as the cross section area As at the shank.

In steel construction, in general, bolts of property class may be expressed

symbolically as a.b In property class number ‘a‘ represents 1/100th of the nominal
tensile strength in N/mm2 and number ’b‘ indicates the ratio of yield stress to ultimate
stress.

For example: class 4.6 in which number 4 is 1/100th of nominal ultimate stress of
bolt i.e. fub = 4 x 100 = 400 N/mm2 and yield stress, fyb is 0.6 x 400 = 240 N/mm2.
Similarly, for bolt property class 8.8 has ultimate stress of fub = 8 x 100 =800 N/mm2 and
yield strength fyb = 0.8 x 800 = 640 N/mm2

5.5 Types of Joints

Lap joint - When one member is placed above the other and both are connected
by means of bolts /weld the joint is known as lap joint. The minimum lap shall not be less
than four times thickness of the thinner part joined or 40 mm, whichever is less. The lap
joints have single row chain bolting or staggered bolting
Butt joint - In butt joint the plates to be connected shall butt against each other
and connected by providing a cover plate on one side or on both sides of the joint . If
cover plate is provided on one side it is called as single cover butt joint and where cover
plates are provided on both sides it is called as double cover butt joint

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5.6 FAILURE OF BOLTED JOINT
The bolted joint may fail in one of the following modes:
1) Shear failure mode - Shear failure of bolt or tearing failure of Plate
2) Tensile failure mode - Tensile failure of bolt or tensile failure of plate
3) Bearing failure mode - Bearing failure of bolt or bearing failure of plate

DESIGN STRENGTH OF BOLT

5.6.1 Bolts in shear
The Nominal Shear capacity of the Bolt is given by:
Vnsb = (fu /  3) ( nn Anb + ns Asb ) ( 5.1 )
Where Asb = nominal plane shank area of the bolt,
Anb = net shear area of bolt at threads, may be taken as the area
corresponding to root diameter at the thread,.
fu = ultimate tensile strength of a bolt ,
nn = number of shear planes with threads intercepting the shear
plane,
ns = number of shear planes without threads intercepting shear plane .

The Design Shear capacity of Bolt is ,

Vdsb = Vnsb / mb = ( fu / √ 3 ) ( nn Anb + ns Asb ) / 1.25 (5.2a)
= 0.462 fu ( nn Anb + ns Asb ) (5.2b)
For ns= 0, Vdsb= (fu /√3 )(nn Anb )/1.25 = 0.462 fu (nn Anb) (5.2c)

The design shear capacity gets reduced due to

i) Long joints, ii) Long grip length, iii) Packing plates

5.6.2 Bolts in Tension ( clause 10.3.5)

Nominal Tension capacity of Bolts is given by :

Tntb = 0.9 fub An , < fyb Asb ( mb / mo ) (5.3a)
where, An = Net tensile stress area as specified by IS: 1367
(for bolts where tensile stress is not defined. An shall be
taken as the area at the root of threads) ,
Asb = shank area of the bolt ,
fub = ultimate tensile stress of the bolt ,
fyb = yield stress of bolts .

Factored tensile force Tb ≤ Tnb / mb

≤ 0.9 fub An/mb ≤ fyb Asb(mb /mo) /mb£ fyb Asb/mo

≤ 0.72 fub An ≤ 0.91 fyb Asb (5.3b)

If any of the connecting plate is flexible, additional prying force is induced

in the bolt ( see clause 10.4.7).
5.6.3 Bolts in Bearing ( clause 10.3.4).
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 Design bearing strength of bolt on any plate is given by :
Vdpb = Vnpb / mb ( 5.4a)
Nominal bearing capacity of the Bolt on any Plate is given by ,
Vnpb = 2.5 kb d tp fu (5.4b)
where, kb is smaller of [ e/(3do) , (p/3do) - 0.25 , fub/fu , 1.0 ]
In design kb is normally taken equal to unity
e ,p = end and pitch distances of fastener along bearing direction,
do = diameter of the bolt hole ,
d = nominal diameter of the bolt ,
fub = ultimate tensile stress of bolt ,
fu = ultimate tensile stress of plate ,
tp = S thckness of connected plates experiencing bearing stress
in the same direction
For countersunk bolt t = thickness of plate - 1/2 x depth of countersinking

Thus ,Design bearing strength of Bolt on any Plate

Vdpb = Vnpb/ mb = 2.5 kb d tp fu / 1.25
= 2 kb d tp fu (5.4c)
= 2 x d x tp x fu ( for kb =1 ) (5.4d)
Due to presence of holes the plate may fail through the weakest section.
The tension capacity of plate governed by rupture of net cross
sectional area ,An , at bolts is given by
Tdn = 0.9 fu An / m1 (5.5)
where , m1 = partial safety factor for failure at ultimate stress
An = net effective area of plate
An = ( b - n dh ) x t for chain bolting (5.5a)
An = [b - n dh + (S p2/4 g )] x t for zig - zag bolting (5.5b)
b,t = width and thickness of plate
dh = diameter of bolt hole ( 2 mm in addition to the diameter
of bolt for directly punched holes )
g = gauge distance i.e. the distance between the two consecutive
rivets / bolts in a chain measured at right angles to the
direction of tension (stress) in the member
p = pitch length parallel to the tensile force
n = number of bolt hole
5.6.4 Combined shear and Tension ( clause.10.3.6)
The interaction equation for a bolt required to resist both design shear force Vsb
and design tensile force Tb acting simultaneously shall satisfy
( Vsb / Vdb )2 + ( Tb / Tdb )2 ≤ 1 (5.6 )
Where, Vdb = design shear capacity of bolt ( smaller of Vdsb or Vdpb)
Vsb = factored shear force acting on the bolt

5.7 EFFICIENCY OF A JOINT

It is obvious that if the reduction of cross sectional area of any member is minimum the
joint will be more efficient. For better efficiency the section should have the least number
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of holes at critical section. The efficiency of the joint is the ratio of actual strength of
connection to the gross strength of connected member, expressed in % as
Efficiency at the joint = (Least actual strength of the joint / Gross strength of solid
plate member) x 100

Strength of solid plate = 0.9 x fu x cross-sectional area of plate

5.8 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Ex 5.8.1 Design the lap joint between plates of sizes 100 x 16 mm thick and 100
x 10 mm thick so as to transmit a factored load of 100 kN using single row of bolts of
grade 4.6 and grade 410 plate.
Assume e = 30 mm and area of bolt = 157 mm2

Cover Plate 8 mm
8 mm Packing
8 mm
18 mm 10 mm

Fig 5.6 Lap Joint

Solution: Diameter of bolt = 16 mm , Diameter of hole = 16 + 2 = 18 mm

Single shear capacity of bolt
= Vdsb = Vnsb / mb = ( fu / √3 ) ( nn Anb + ns Asb )/1.25 ... (Eq.5.2a)
= 0.462 fu nn Anb ... (Eq.5.2c )
= 0.462 x 400 x 1x157/1000 = 29 kN
Bearing capacity of thinner plate
= Vdpb = Vnpb / mb = 2.5 kb d tp fu / 1.25
= 2 kb d tp fu
kb is smaller of :
0.63 [ = 30/(3x16)] or 0.49 = [40/(3x18)-0.25 ] or 0.98 ( = 400 /410)
Therefore kb = 0.49, Vdpb= 2 kb d tp fu = 2 x 0.49 x 16 x 10 x 410/1000 = 64.29 kN
Least bolt value Bv = 29 kN
Required number of bolts = 100 / 29 = say 4 bolts
Therefore Provide 4 - 16 mm bolts at 40 mm pitch with 30 mm end distance

Remarks : The forces transferred by upper plate and the lower plate are not colinear
and cause moment but such small moment is neglected

Ex. 5.8.2 A bridge truss diagonal carries an axial pull of 300 kN . Two plates of 200
x 10 mm and 200 x 18 mm of diagonal member are required to be joined together .
design a suitable splice . Assume fe410 plate and grade [Link] of diameter 20 mm

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Solution : The plates will be joined by double cover butt joint .
Thickness of cover plate = ( 5 / 8 ) x 10 = 6.25 mm say 8 mm
Since the thickness of the plates is different thickness of packing plate will be
18 -10 = 8 mm
Design strength of the bolt in double shear Vdsb
= 2 x ( 0.462 x 400 x 245 / 1000 ) = 90.55 kN
Design strength of bolt in bearing Vdpb= 2x 20 x 10 x 410 / 1000 = 164 kN
Since the joint has a packing plate having thickness greater than 6 mm the bolt
strength shall be reduced by ( 1 - 0.125 x t ) = ( 1 - 0.0125 x 8) = 0.9
Reduced strength of bolt in double shear = 0.9 x 90.55 = 81.5 kN
Bolt value Bv = 81.5 kN
Required number of bolts assuming two rows of bolts
= 300 / 81.5 = 3.7 say 4 Nos
Two bolts are provided in two rows

Ex 5.8.3 Fig. 5.8 shows the joint in the bottom chord continuous member of the
truss. Design the connection using M16 black bolt of property class 4.6 and grade
Fe410 steel. Assume edge distance of 35 mm and minimum pitch.

Solution : As the maximum thickness of the angle is 8 mm , assume the thickness of

the gusset plate equal to 10 mm ( > 8 mm ) .
Minimum pitch = 2.5 x 16 = 40 mm
For the bottom chord member the gusset plate is sandwiched between the
angles , the connecting bolts will be in double shear . Also the angle is continuous
the net force to which the bolts will be subjected will be = 100 kN ( = 305 - 205).

Design strength of bolt in double shear Vdsb from Table 2.2 = 2 x 29 = 58 kN

Design strength of bolt in bearing on any plate Vdpb= 2 kb d t fu
kb = 0.65 (= 35/(3 x 18 ) or 0.49 [= 40/ (3 x 18 ) - 0.25] or 0.97 (= 400/410) or 1
kb = 0.49
Therefore Design strength of bolt in bearing on any plate
= 2 x 0.49 x 16 x 10 x 410 / 1000 = 64.3 kN
Least bolt value (LBV) = Bv = 58 kN
No of bolts required for member ACB = 100 / 58 = 2 Nos
The other members will be in single shear , hence Bv = 29 kN
No. of bolts required for CD = 60 / 29 = say 3 Nos
No. of bolts required for CE = 112 / 29 = say 4 Nos
The details of the joint are shown in Fig 5.8

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 84
 kN D kN
60 12
8 1
x E
7 5
x

50
75

x
50
A

x
8
305 kN 205 kN N
C B 2k
2 Ls 100 x 100 x 8 11
60 kN

8
x

x
75

50
x
75

x
50
Gusset 10 mm

305 kN 205 kN

100 x 100 x 8
Fig.5.8
Remarks: 1) The strength of bolts in shear can be obtained directly from Eq.2.2c
2) If the bottom chord member is discontinuous then number of bolts on AC
will be 6 ( = 305 / 58 ) and for CB it will be 4 ( = 205/58)

Ex 5.8.4 Two secondary beams ISLB350 at 495 N/m and ISLB 550 at 863 N/m
carrying factored load of 280 kN and 540 kN respectively are connected to the web
of the main beam ISMB600 at 1225 N/m . Design the bolted connection Use M20
bolts of 4.6 grade and steel Fe410
Solution :
For ISLB350 tw = 7.4 mm, For ISLB550 tw = 9.9 mm , For ISMB600 tw = 12 mm
Assume connecting angle 90 x 90 x 10 mm
Connection between angles and beam ISLB350 , End reaction = 140 kN
Strength of bolts in double shear = 2 x ( 0.462 fu ( nn Anb ) ... ...(Eq 5.2c)

= 2 x 0.462 x 400 x 245/1000 = 90.55 kN

Strength of bolts in bearing on 7.4 mm web = 2 d tp fu ... ...(Eq 5.4d)

= 2 x 20 x 7.4 x 410 x /1000 =121 kN

Bolt value = 90.55 kN, No. of bolts = 140 / 90.55 = say 2 bolts
Connection between angles and beam ISLB550 , End reaction = 270 kN
Strength of bolts in double shear = 90.55 kN ( as before )
Strength of bolts in bearing on 9.9 mm web = 2 d tp fu ... ... (Eq 5.4d)
= 2 x 20 x9.9 x 410 x 1000 =162 kN
Bolt value = 90.55 kN , No. of bolts = 270 / 90.55 = 3 bolts

Bolt value = 90.55 kN , No. of bolts = 270 / 90.55 = 3 bolts

Connection between angles and main beam ISMB600
Strength of bolts in double shear = 90.55 kN ( as before )
Strength of bolts in bearing on 10mm angle
= 2 d tp fu ... ...(Eq 5.4d)

= 2 x 20 x10x 410 x /1000 =164 kN

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 85
 Bolt value = 90.55 kN
Reaction of beams from both sides = 140 + 270 = 410 kN
bolts connecting both angles are in double shear
Therefore strength of 4 bolts in double shear = 90.55 x 4 = 362.2 kN
Balance reaction = 410 - 362.2 = 47.8 kN to be resisted by angle of ISLB550
+with web.
Required No of bolts in single shear = 47.8 / (90.55 /2) = say 2 Nos
Provide 2 bolts on each side at 50 mm pitch connecting both angles with web of main
beam and 1 bolt on each side at 50 mm pitch connecting angle of ISLB550 with web.
The details of connections are shown in Fig. 5.8

90 x 90 x 10
90 x 90 x 10

Fig. 5.8

Ex.5.8.5 Design the seat angle connection between the beam ISMB 250 and column
ISHB 200 x 37.32 kg/m for a reaction from beam equal to 85 kN (factored)
Use M16 bolts of 4.6 grade and steel 410 with fy = 250 MPa

Solution :
For beam ISMB 250 ,width of flange wf= 125 mm , flange thickness
tf = 12.5 mm , thickness of web = 6.9 mm and R1= 13 mm
For column ISHB 250 , width of flange = 250 mm , flange thickness= 9.7 mm
and web thickness = 6.9 mm
1) Number of bolts required for connection
Strength of bolt in single shear = 29 kN
strength of bolt in bearing = 2 x 16 x 9 x 410 = 118 kN
Least bolt value = 29 kN
Required number of bolts = 85 / 29 = say 4 Nos two on each side
2) Calculation of outstanding leg of seat angle
Width of ISMB = 125 mm
Length of outstanding leg of seat angle = 125 mm

3) Check for web crippling

Length of bearing at the root line of beam
b = R / [ tw x ( fyw / gmo ) = 85 x 1000 / [ 6.9 x 250 / 1.1 ) ... ...( Eq. 5.7)
= 54.2 mm < 75 mm \ OK.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 86
4) Calculation of bearing length seat angle
Assume end clearance of 10 mm
Length of outstanding leg = 54.2 + 10 = 64.2 mm
Use 75 mm outstanding leg of seat angle
Length of bearing on seat angle b1 = 54.2 - ( tf +R1 ) ... ...( Eq. 5.8)

= 54.2 - ( 12.5 + 13 ) = 28.7 mm

Assume size of angle 150 x 75 x 10 mm , ta = 10 mm , ra = 10 mm

5) Length of seat angle subjected to bending moment

b2 = b1 + 10 - ( t + ra ) of angle ... ...( Eq. 5.9)
= 28.7 + 10 - ( 10 + 10 ) = 18.7 mm

6) Calculation of bending moment to which seat angle is subjected

Assuming UDL on length b1
Bending moment on the root of angle
= load on seat angle x b2 / 2
= R x ( b2 / b1 ) x b2 /2 ... ...( Eq. 5.10a)
= 85 x ( 18.7 / 28.7 ) x 18.7 / 2
= 536 N .m
Moment capacity = 1.2 x fymo x Z ... ...(Eq. 5.10b)

= 1.2 x (250/1.1) x (125 x 102 / 6) / 1000

= 568.2 N.m > 536 N .m. Therefore Safe

7) Shear capacity of outstanding leg of seat angle

= wf ta fy /( √3 x 1.1) = 125 x 10 x 250/(√3 x 1.1 x
1000
= 164 kN > 85 kN Therefore safe
8) Shear strength of beam
= Aw fyw / (√3 x 1.1
= ( 250 x 6.9 ) x 250 / (√3 x 1.1x 1000)
= 226.4 kN > 85 kN Therefore safe
Provide seat angle 150 x 75 x 10 mm with 4 No. 16 mm bolts 4.6 grade
two on each side at 60 mm pitch
Cleat angle

Column Clearance
Beam ISMB 250 Beam
ISHB
200 b1
b1
250 R ( R x b2 / b1)
R

50 b2
Seat angle R = Reaction distributed
60 over length b1

b1 = Bearing length of beam

16 mm bolt on seat angle
40
150 x 75 x10 b2 = Length of seat angle
200 subjected to BM

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 87
 Fig.5.9
Ex.5.8.6 A beam ISWB550 , having equal flange width to that of column,
transfers a factored end reaction of 275 kN to the flange of the column ISSC250.
Design the stiffened seat angle connection using 20 mm bolts of grade 4.6. fy = 250
N/mm2

Solution : For beam ISWB550 , Flange width =250 mm, web thickness = 10.5 mm
For column ISSC250 , Flange width = 250 mm
Length of bearing required = R / ( tw fyw /mo )
= 275 x 103 / ( 10.5 x 250 / 1.1 ) = 115.2 mm
Provide clearance of 10 mm
Required length of outstanding leg = 115.2 +10 = 125.2 mm
Provide seat angle of 150 x150 x 8 mm of length equal to width of the beam i.e.
250 mm connected to beam by 2- 20 mm bolts
Bearing area required for stiffener angle = 275 x 1000/(250/1.1) = 1210 mm2
Provide 2 angles 90 x 90 x 8 mm area provided 1379 mm2 > 1210 mm2
Length of outstanding leg = 90 - 8 = 82 mm
b / t = 82 / 8 = 10.25 < 14 \safe ( clause [Link] )
Distance of reaction from column flange = 150 / 2 = 75 mm
Provide 20 mm 4.6 grade bolts at 55 mm pitch with end distance of 45mm
Bolt value in single shear = 0.462 x 245 x 400 / 1000 = 45.3 kN
Bolt value in bearing = 2 x 20 x 8 x 410 / 1000 = 131 kN (Eq. 5.4d)
least bolt value Bv = 45.3 kN
Approximate required number of bolts in two rows ,
n = (6M/mpR)
= ( 6 x ( 275 x 75 ) / ( 2 x 55 x 45.3 )
\ n = 4.98 say 5 nos .
Provide 5 bolts in each row with edge distance of 45 mm
Depth of the stiffener angle = 4 x 55 + 2 x 45 = 310 mm
Depth from the bottom of bracket to the top most bolt in connection

= 310 - 45 = 265 mm

The position of neutral axis depends of the degree of rigidity of bracket connection. In
practice , neutral axis is assumed to lie at a height of 1 / 7 th of the depth of the bracket
from the base of the bracket.

\ Position of neutral axis = h / 7 = 265 / 7 = 37.86 mm

Distance of the nearest bolt from the neutral axis = y1 = 45 - 37.86 = 7.14 mm
y = 2 x ( 7.14 + (7.14+55) + (7.14+2x55) + (7.14+3x55) + (7.14+4x55)
= 7.14 +62.14 +117.14 + 172.14 +227.14
= 1171.4 mm
 y2 = 7.142 +62.142 +117.142 + 172.142 +227.142 = 197717 .8 mm2
M’ = M / [ 1 + ( 2 x h / 21 ) x ( y /  y2 ) ] ( Eq. 5. 11 )
= ( 275 x 75 x 103 ) / [ 1 + ( 2 x 265 / 21 ) x ( 1171.4 / 197717.8 )
= 23708 .96 x 103 kN mm
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 88
 = 23708 .96 x 103 kN mm
Tensile force in critical bolt = M’ yn / S y2
= (23708.96 x 103) x 227 14 / 197717.8
= 27.23 kN
Tensile strength of 20 mm bolt = 68.5 kN
Direct shear in bolt = R / No. of bolts = 275 / 10 = 27.5 kN
Using interaction equation ( 27.5 / 45.3 )2 + ( 27.23 / 68.5 )2 = 0.53 < 1 \ safe

The details are shown in Fig 5.10

Clip angle 60 x 60 x 6

550
ISWB 550
ISSC250
Clearance 10mm
10.5
8
ISA 150 x 150 x 8

55 55
ISA 90 x 90 x 8
55 55
55 h = 265
55

55 55
A 45
Packing Plate 160 x 180 x 8 180
250
250
Fig 5.10

Ex 5.8.7 Fig 5.11 shows the bolted connection supporting an eccentric load P.
If the load on any bolt is not to exceed 29 kN calculate the maximum value of the
load P.

120

30
60 90o
Pd + Pt 45o
C.G
60
P

60 150 mm

Fig.5.11

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 89
Solution : It will be seen from the figure that the bolt ‘a’ will be subjected to maximum
resultant force because it is lying on the same side of load at a maximum distance.
The horizontal and vertical component of P is
Px = P /√ 2 = Py
Torsional moment T = ( P / √ 2 ) x 30 + ( P /√ 2 ) x 210
= ( P / √ 2 ) ( 30 + 210 ) = (240 / √ 2 ) x P
r = ( 602 + 602 ) = 60 √2 mm and S r2 = 4 x ( 602 + 602 )
Shear due to torsion = T x r / S r2
= [(240 / √2 ) x P ] x ( 60√2 ) / [4 x ( 602 + 602 ]
= P/2 kN
Direct shear load = P/4
Total shearing load = P/2 + P/4 = 3 / 4 P = 29
P = 29 x 4 / 3 = 38.7 kN

Ex.5.8.8 Design the bracket connection as shown in Fig.5.12

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 90
 A 150kN
220
25.1 194.9

50 60
B B

60 90 x 90 x 8 60

60
60 60
230

60 25.1 375 60

8 mm Plate 1.14
50 50 N A
2.86

90 x 90 x 8

A
Fig 5.12
Connection between flange and angles
As the applied load does not lie in the plane of group of bolts connecting the
flange and angle of rotation does not pass through the c. g. of the bolt group the bolts are
subjected to direct shear and bending tension.
Using 20 mm bolts in two rows
Bolt value in single shear = 0.462 x 400 x 245/1000 = 45.3 kN (Eq. 5.2c)
Assuming angle 90 x 90 x 8 mm with gauge distance of 50 mm
Bolt value in bearing = 2 x 20 x 8 x 410 / 1000 = 131 kN
Least bolt value Bv = 45.3 kN
Bending moment to be resisted = 150 x 220 = 33000 [Link]
Using 20mm , 4.6 grade bolts at 60 mm c/c ,
No. of bolts required = [ 6 M / n p R ]0.5
= [ 6 x 33000 / ( 2 x 60 x 45.3 ) ]0.5
= 6.03 say 8 No. with 4 on each side
Try 4 Nos. at 60 mm pitch from bottom with 50 mm end distance
Total height of the plate = 2 x 50 + 3 x 60 = 280 mm
h = 280 - 50 = 230 mm
The N.A. is assumed at h /7 from bottom of the plate
i. e. h/7 = 230 / 7 = 32.86 mm
Distance of the first bolt from bottom y1= 50 - 32.86= 17.14 mm
y1 = 17.14 mm
y2 = 17.14 + 60 = 77.14 mm
y3 = 77.14 + 60 = 137.14 mm
y4 = 137.14 + 60 = 197.14 mm ,
 y= 2 x (17.14 + 77.14 + 137.14 + 197.14) = 857.12 mm,
 y2= 2 x (17.142 + 77.142 + 137.142 +197.142 ) = 127831.8 mm2
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 91
 M
M '=
2h  y
1+
21  y 2

150 x300 x10−3

M '=
2 x 230 857.14
1+ x
21 127831.12

Clip angle

550
ISWB 550
ISSC250
Clearance 10mm

A
Packing Plate 180
250
250

Fig. 5.12

= 39.24 kN.m
Maximum tensile force in extreme bolt

M’ x yn /  y2= (39.24 x 197.14) / 127831.8

= 60.51 kN
Direct shear = 150 / 8 = 18.75 kN
Tension capacity of bolt = 0.909 x 314 x 245 / 1000 = 68.5 kN (Eq.5.3b)

Combined shear and tension using interaction equation we get ,

( 18.75 / 45.3 ) 2 + ( 60.51 / 68.5 ) 2 = 0.171 + 0.78

= 0.951 < 1 safe

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 92
5.9 QUESTIONS

5.9.1 ISLB350 @ 495 N/m has to transfer a factored end reaction of 250kN to the web
of ISMB500@ 870N/m . Design framed connection. Use 22 mm diameter 4.6 grade bolts
. fy for steel is 250 MPa

5.9.2 ISLB325 @431 N/m has a factored end reaction pf 150 kN. It is connected to the
flange of a column ISHB300 @ 630 N/m. Design an unstiffened seat connection. Use 4.6
grade bolts and steel Fe 410

5.9.3 ISMB550 beam has to transfer factored end reaction of 280 kN. It is connected to
the flange of column ISSC250. Design the stiffened seat connection using M20 bolts of
grade 4.6 . Assume Fe410 grade of steel with fy = 250MPa

5.9.4 ISLB350 @ 495 N/m has to transfer a factored end reaction of 250kN to the web
of ISMB500@ 870N/m . Design framed connection. Use 22 mm diameter 4.6 grade bolts
.fy for steel is 250 MPa

5.9.5 Fig6.13 shows a bolted connection supporting an eccentric load P. If the factored
load on any bolt is not to exceed 45 kN calculate the maximum value of P.
b
120

+ +
60
45o 30 45o
a
60 30 P
+ +

60 60 150
Fig 5.13

Lecture No. 6

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 93
Title: Design of Welded Connection
Speaker: Dr. V. L. Shah

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Welding is one of the popularly used methods of connecting structural members.
Welding is a bonding of two pieces of metals at faces rendered plastic or liquid by
pressure or heat or both. The reference codes for welding are IS: 816, IS: 9595 and IS:
800 (Sect. 10.5)

6.2 DIFFERENT PROCESSES OF WELDING

The various processes of welding available at present are:
1) Electric arc welding 2) Gas welding 3) Thermite welding 4) Forged welding 5)
Reistance welding

6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDS

Welds are classified into three different ways namely,
i) According to their position such as, flat, horizontal, vertical, edge weld etc.
ii) According to their type - groove, plug, slot etc.
iii) According to the method of joining - filet weld, butt weld etc.

6.4 FILLET WELD

Fillet welds are widely used in construction due to ease of fabrication, economy
and adaptability at site. They do not require any special preparation and even minor
adjustment can be made easily or error can be corrected. Fillet welds are provided when
the connections intersect at right angles they are approximately triangular in section. Fig
3.3 shows the details of standard triangular fillet weld.

A Throat Thickness B - Root of fillet weld

C - Toe of fillet weld
D Fuston Zone BD - Throat Thickness
Root Toe AB or BC - size of weld
ABC = 90o
B C

size

Fig. 6.1: 900 Fillet Weld

In Fig 6.1, B represents the root of fillet, C toe of fillet, size of fillet AB = BC, angle
ABC is 90o, and the fusion zone. In rare cases the angle may vary between 60o to 120o
and also AB may not be equal to BC in which case minimum of leg side of weld is taken
as size of weld (i.e. minimum of AB and BC). Such unequal legged fillet welds are used
when the vertical leg of weld cannot be increased. (e.g. shear connectors in composite
construction)

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 94
6.4.1 Properties of Fillet Weld (clause 10.5)
1) End returns - The fillet welds terminating at the ends or sides of parts shall
be returned continuously around the corners for length not less than 2 x size of weld.

2) Size of weld - The size of normal fillet weld shall be taken as minimum
weld leg size .The size of fillet weld shall not be less than 3 mm.

The minimum size of the first run or of a single run fillet weld shall be as given in
Table 6.1 to avoid the risk of cracking in the absence of preheating.

Table 6.1 Minimum Size of First run or of a Single Run Fillet Weld

Sr. Thickness of Thicker Part Minimum Size

No. mm mm
Over Up to and Including

1 ... 10 3
2 10 20 5
3 20 32 6
4 32 50 8 of first run
10 for minimum weld size

Notes:
• When the minimum size of fillet weld given in the table is greater than the
thickness of the thinner part, the minimum size of the weld should be equal to the
thickness of the thinner part. The thicker part shall be adequately preheated to
prevent cracking of the weld
• Where thicker part is more than 50 mm thick, special precautions like preheating
should be taken
• Throat thickness
It is the perpendicular distance from the root of fillet on the hypotenuse i.e.
distance BD in Fig 7.1 The effective throat thickness shall not be less than 3 mm
and generally not to exceed 0.7 t or 1.0 t under special cases ,
Where, t is the thickness of thinner plate of elements being welded .
• Effective length or Area of weld
Effective length Leff of fillet weld is the length required for resisting the
applied external force . It is that length which is of specified size and required
throat thickness. In practice the actual length of the weld consists of effective
length shown on drawing + 2 x weld size .
• Minimum length - The effective length of fillet weld shall not be less than 4 x
size of the weld

• Intermittent Weld
Fillet welds can be provided continuously or intermittently.
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 95
 Effective Length of Intermittent weld > larger of (4 x size of weld or 40 mm)
• Clear spacing between effective lengths
Clear spacing between effective length of intermittent fillet weld < 12t and 16t
for compression and tension joint respectively
AND in no case clear spacing shall be more than 200 mm
Where, t = thickness of the thinner part joined

Comments:
1) Choose minimum size of weld
Smaller size of weld is cheaper than the larger size weld for the same strength .
For example - 5 mm weld 200 mm long ( strength= 0.462 x 410 x ( 0.7x5) x 200
/1000=132.6 kN) and 10 mm weld 100 mm long ( strength= 0.462 x 410 x ( 0.7x10) x
100 /1000 =132.6 kN) will have the same strength of 132.6 kN but volume of 10 mm
weld is 5000 mm3 (= 100 x 7.07 x14.14/2 ) which is twice that of 5 mm weld ( 200
x3.535x7.07/2= 2500 mm3 )
2) Maximum size of weld is stipulated to prevent the melting of base material at the
corner of the plate if fillet is provided to the full plate thickness .
a) For the plate thick less < 8 mm thick , provide maximum size of weld equal to
plate thickness

• At the square edge of plate of thickness > 6 mm,size of weld should be 1.5 mm
less than the edge thickness .
size of weld = edge thickness - 1.5 mm
This is specified to avoid washing down of arris ( Fig. 3.4a )
• For rounded corners weld shall be 3/4 of the thickness of the section at the toe
6.4.2 Stresses in Fillet Weld ( clause 10.5.7)

Shop weld
Design Strength/ stress of fillet Weld
Fwd = fwn / mw = fu/(√3mw) = 0.462 fu ( 6.1 )
Where, partial safety factor mw = 1.25 , and fwn = fu / √3 ,
And fu = smaller of ( ultimate stress of weld or of parent material )
But ultimate stress of parent material < ultimate stress of weld

Site weld
For design strength in Shear and Tension for site weld made during erection
of structural members
fwd = fwn / 1.5 = 0.666 fu /√3 = 0.385 fu (6.2)

6.4.3 Reduction in design capacity of weld for long joints

The joint is classified as long joint when the length of the joint Lj (in the direction
of the force transfer) is greater than 150 tt
In the case of long joint fwd is reduced by
Lw = 1.2 - 0.2 Lj / (150 x tt ) <= 1.0 ( 6.3 )
Where, tt = thickness of throat ,
Lj = Length of joint in the direction of force transfer
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 96
6.5 STRESS DUE TO INDIVIDUAL FORCE
When the weld is subjected to either tensile or compressive or shear force alone,
the stress in the weld is given by :
fa or q = P / ( Lw tt )
Where, fa = calculated normal stress due to axial force in MPa
q = shear stress in MPa
Lw = effective length of weld in mm
tt = effective throat thickness in mm
P = force being transmitted (axial force or shear force)

6.6 COMBINATION OF STRESSES (clause 10.5.10)

Fillet weld:
When fillet welds are subjected to axial forces and shear forces simultaneously
equivalent stress fe shall satisfy the following,
fe = √fa2 + 3 q2 < = fu /(√ 3 mw ) i.e. <=0.462 fu ( 6.4 )
Where, fa = normal stresses, compression or tension, due to axial for or bending moment
q = shear stress due to shear force or tension

Check for the combination of stresses need not be done for:

(i) side fillet welds joining cover plates and flange plates
(ii) fillet welds where sum of normal and shear stresses does not exceed
fu/( √3 mw)

6.7 BUTT JOINT

Butt joint is used to join flat plates of nearly equal sizes (Fig 3.5)
Butt joint minimizes the size of connection and gives aesthetically pleasing
appearance.

6.7.1 Stresses in Butt Welds

Butt weld shall be treated as parent metal with thickness equal to throat thickness
and stresses shall not exceed those permitted in the parent metal. .

6.8. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

6. 8.1 Truss Member Connections

The truss joints are assumed to be hinged .When the connection using welding is done
some amount of fixity is introduced. But in practice the joint is assumed to be hinged.
Here are different ways of joining the angle to the gusset.
i) Fillet weld provided at the heel and toe of the angle. (Fig. 3.6 a)
ii) Fillet weld provided at the heel and toe of the angle adding transverse fillet
symmetrical about the c.g. of the angle. (Fig. 3.6b)
iii) Fillet weld provided along the length and width of the angle (Fig 3.6c)

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 97
 iv) When the length is limited, the required weld length may not be available even
though the weld is provided along the width of the angle. In such a case fillet welds in
slots are provided. (Fig. 3.6d).

When the slots are provided then,

Width of the slots 3 x thickness of the web of the angle or 25mm whichever is greater
The Distance between the edge of the part and the edge of the slot or hole,or
Between adjacent sot or hole should not be less than twice the thickness and
not less than 25 mm for holes.

6. 8. 2 Framed Connections
In welded framed connections two plates or two angles are used. The welding of
the plate with the beam is made in the shop. To allow for the rotation at the end of the
beam the length of the plates is limited to 2/3 the depth of the beam. The size of the weld
connecting plates to the web of the beam is provided equal to 4/5 of the web thickness.

6. 8.3 Unstiffened Seat Connection

The steps for design of unstiffened seat connection are as follows,
Assume an unequal seat angle
1) Length of the seat angle supporting beam = width of beam bf to provide full
support to the beam
2) Calculate bearing length required at root line of beam for web crippling,
b = R / [ tw x ( fyw / gmo ) ] (Eq. 6.7 )
Where, R = beam reaction
tw = thickness of web
fyw = yield strength of web of beam
gmo = partial safety factor for material = 1.1
Length of angle connecting beam = b + clearance (10 mm)

3) Calculate bearing length of beam on seat angle,

bl = b - ( tf + rb ) ( Eq.6.8 )
Where, tf = thickness of flange of beam
rb = root radius of beam
`
4) Calculate length of seat angle subjected to bending moment
b2 = distance from end of bearing on cleat to root angle
= b1+end clearance - ( root of angle+ thickness of angle) (Eq 6.9)

5) Bending moment to which seat angle is subjected:

Mu = load on seat angle x b2 /2 =( R x b2 / b1) x b2 /2 (Eq. 2.10a)
Moment resisting capacity of angle = Md = 1.2 x (bf x ta2 / 6) fy/gmo ( Eq. 2.10b)
Where, bf = flange width of beam
ta = thickness of angle
If Md > Mu safe else revise the section

6) Calculate shear capacity of outstanding leg of seat angle

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 = wf x ta x fy /√3mo > load then shear capacity is sufficient
Where, wf = width of outstanding leg
ta = thickness of angle

7) Calculate shear strength of beam

Vd = Aw fyw/ (√3√mo) > load. Then the stiffeners are not required
Where, Aw = area of beam web
fyw = yield strength of web

8) Determine the required length of weld

Length of weld = R / (2 x strength of weld)

6. 8.4 Stiffened Seat Connection

A stiffened seat connection consists of two plates forming a T or split I-section
The width of the plate shall be equal to required bearing length + tolerance.
The width shall be twice the size of the weld to facilitate welding on each side
of the flange of the beam.
The length of the plate shall not be greater than width of the beam
The thickness of the seat plate shall be > thickness of the beam web to avoid
buckling of vertical stem (see Table 5.10)
The depth of the T depends on the length of the vertical weld required and it
should be kept short to avoid local buckling.
The steps for design of seat connection are as follows:
1) Calculate the size of the seat plate
a) Width of the seat plate width of the flange + twice size of the weld
b) Thickness of the seat plate flange thickness
2) Stiffening Plate: Thickness of stiffening plate=thickness of web of the beam
3) Calculate bending moment due to eccentricity of load
4) Calculate combined stresses due to S.F. and B.M.
The resultant shear is obtained as a vector sum from which the size of the weld is
determined.

6.9 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Ex 6 .9.1 : ISA 100 x 100 x 10 mm angle is to be welded in shop to 12 mm gusset

plate The angle carries an ultimate pull of 300 kN applied along its centroidal axis
which is 28.4 mm from the back of the angle .
a) Determine the length of side fillet weld required at the heel and toe of the
angle.
b) Determine the length of side fillet weld if the transverse fillet weld is
added at the end of the angle .
Solution:
(a) Weld along the length
Let P1, P2 be the resisting forces exerted by the weld at the heel and
toe of an angle section respectively as shown in Fig 3.6. They are
assumed to act along the edges of the angle.

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 Taking moment of forces about P2,
P1 x 100 = 300 x (100 - 28.4) = 300 x 71.6
P1 = 214.8 kN
P2 = 300 - 214.8 = 85.5 kN
Maximum size of the weld at the rounded corner = 3/4 x 10 = 7.5 mm
Using 6 mm weld > 5mm (see Table 3.1)
Throat thickness = 0.707 x 6 = 4.24 mm
Strength of 6 mm weld = 4.24 x fu / (√3mw) = 4.24 x (0.462 fu ) ( Eq. 6.1)
= 4.24 x 0.462 x 410 = 803.1 N / mm
Effective length L1 of the weld required
= (214.8 x 1000)/803.1 = 267 mm say 270 mm
Provide 6 mm weld 270 mm weld at the heel of the angle
Effective length L2 of the weld required
= 85.5 x 1000 / 803.1 = 106.4 mm say 110 mm
Hence, provide 6 mm weld 110 mm long at the toe

110
P1
100 x 100 x 10
P = 300
P2
270

Fig 6.2Fillet Weld at Heel and Toe of Angle

b) Transverse weld added at the end of the angle
If transverse weld is added at the end of the angle, it should be applied
symmetrically about the c.g. of the section to avoid eccentricity of loading
Remarks:
1) Normally this accuracy is not considered in the design and weld is added
to the full width of the angle. The resisting force becomes eccentric but the
moment due to this eccentricity is neglected.
2) The weld thickness is approximately taken as 0.7 size of weld instead of
0.707 of size of weld

Therefore Length of transverse weld = 2 x 28.4 = 56.8 mm

Therefore, force resisted by 56.8 mm length of 6 mm weld
= 56.8 x (0.707 x 6) x 0.462 x 410 x 10-3 = 45.64 kN
Balance load = 300 - 45.64 = 254.36 kN
P1 x 100 = 254.36 x 71.6
P1 = 182.1 kN
P2 = 254.36 - 182.1 = 72.2 kN
Effective length L1 = 182.1 x 1000 / 803.5 = 226.6 say 230 mm
Effective length L2 = 72.2 x 1000 / 803.5 = 89.8 mm say 90 mm

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 12 mm Gusset plate

12 mm Gusset

L2 = 90
P2

71.6
100
28.4
300 kN
28.4 28.4
P1
L1 = 230
100 x 100 x 10

Fig 6.3

Ex. 6.9.2 A tie member consisting of ISMC225 @ 25.9 kg/m is connected to either
side of the gusset plate of 12 mm thick . Design the welded joint to develop full
strength of the tie if the overlap is limited to 400 mm
Solution:
For ISMC225, tf = 12.4 mm, tw = 6.5 mm, A = 3330 mm2
Tensile strength of each channel:
Strength due to yielding of gross section,
Tdg = Ag fy / mo = 0.91 Ag fy ....... (Eq. 6.3)
= 0.91 x 3330 x 250 / 1000 = 757.6 kN
Strength due to rupture,
Tdn = a An fu / m1 = 0.8  An fu ... ... (Eq. 6.5c)
= 0.8 x (0.8 x 410) / 1000 = 873.3 kN
Design strength = 757.6 kN
Minimum size of weld = tw - 1.5 = 6.5 - 1.5 = 5.0 mm
Using 4 mm weld, throat thickness = 0.707 x 4 = 2.83 mm
Strength of weld / mm = 2.83 x 0.462 x 410 / 1000 = 0.535 kN/mm
Total length of fillet weld required to connect the channel section
= 757.6 / 0.535 = 1416 mm
The overlap is limited to 400 mm.
The maximum length of weld that can be provided in the channel
= 2 x 400 + 225 = 1025 mm
Try two slots
Width of the slot not less than 3 tw = 3 x 6.5 = 19.5 mm not less than 25 mm
Provide two slots of 25 mm
Let x be the length of the slot,
Total length of the weld req. = 2 x 400 + 225 + 4x = 1416 mm, x = 98 mm say
100 mm The details of weld is shown in Fig. 6.9.4

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 400

55 100
25
65 Channel ISMC 225 225
25
55

Gusset Plate 12 mm
Fig.6.9.4 Slot weld
Ex. 6.9.3 ISMB300 carries a factored reaction of 90 kN. It is connected to a
column ISHB200. Design welded connection using unstiffened seat angle. Assuming
Fe410 and site welding.

Solution:
For ISMB300, flange thickness tf = 13.1 mm, thickness of web tw = 7.7 mm,
radius at the root R1 = 14 mm, breadth of flange bf = 140 mm
For ISHB200 , flange thickness tf = 9.0 mm , thickness of web tw = 7.8 mm,
radius at the root R1 = 9 mm breadth of flange bf = 200 mm
Since seat angle is to be welded to the bottom flange of the beam
Assume width of the angle = 140 +2x 10 = 160 mm

Check for web crippling

Length of bearing at the root line of beam
b = R / [ tw x ( fyw / gmo ) = 90 x 1000 / [ 7.7 x 250 / 1.1 ) ] ... ( Eq. 6.7)
= 51.43 mm < 125 mm Hence o.k.
Calculation of bearing length of seat angle
Assume end clearance of 10 mm
Length of outstanding leg = 51.43+ 10 = 61.43 mm
Use 75 mm outstanding leg of seat angle
Length of bearing on seat angle b1 = 51.43 - ( tf + R1 ) ... ... ( Eq. 6.8)

= 51.43 - ( 13.1+ 14) = 24.33 mm

Assume size of angle 100 x 75 x 10 mm , ta = 10 mm , R1 = 8.5 mm
Length of seat angle subjected to bending moment
b2 = b1 + 10 - ( ta+ R1 ) of angle ( Eq. 6.9)
= 24.33 + 10 - ( 10 + 8.5 ) = 15.83 mm
Calculation of bending moment to which seat angle is subjected
Assuming UDL on length b1
Bending moment on the root of angle ... ... ( Eq. 6.10)
= load on seat angle x b2 / 2 = R x ( b2 / b1 ) x b2 /2
= 90 x ( 15.83 / 24.33 ) x 15.83 / 2
= 463.48 N .m

Moment capacity = 1.2 ( fy / mo ) x Z

= 1.2 x (250/1.1) x (160 x 102 / 6) / 1000
= 727.3 N.m > 463.48 N .m. Hence safe

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Design of weld
Maximum size of weld = 10 - 1.5 = 8.5 mm
Minimum size of weld = 5 mm, Using 5 mm weld
Strength of 5mm weld = ( 0.7 x 5 ) x 410 x 0.385 = 552 N/mm
Length of weld required = 90 x 1000 / ( 2 x 552 ) = 81.52 mm say 90 mm
Provide clip angle 60 x 60 x 6 mm at top with 3 mm weld
The details are shown in Fig. 3.15
60 x 60 x 6
140

3 60

Beam ISMB 300

Column
ISHB 200
5 90

5 90
Seat angle
100 x 75 x 10
160

Ex.6.9.4 A beam ISMB 450 transfers a factored load of 260 kN to a column

ISHB250. Using Fe410 grade steel design the stiffened seat connection

Solution :
For ISMB500 bf = 150 mm , tf = 17.4 mm , tw = 9.4 mm
For ISHB250 bf = 250 mm , tf = 9.7 mm , tw = 6.9 mm
Bearing length = R / [tw x ( fyw /gmo ) = 260 x 1000/[9.4 x 250/ 1.1 )] ( Eq. 2.7)
= 121.7 mm
Providing tolerance of 10 mm
Required width of seat plate = 121.7 + 10 = say 140 mm
Length of seat plate along beam flange = 150 + 2 x 10 = 170 mm
Thickness of bearing plate = 18 mm ( thickness of beam flange = 17.4 mm)
Provide seat plate of size 140 x 170 x 18 mm
Thickness of stiffening plate thickness of beam web ( = 9.4 mm )
Provide thickness of 12 mm

Provide thickness of 12 mm
To avoid buckling of vertical stem d / t < 18.9 ( Table 5.10 )
d = 18.9 x 12 = 229.8 mm
Provide stiffening plate 220 x 12 mm
Distance of end reaction from outer end of seat plate 140 - 121.7 / 2 = 79.15 mm
Bending moment M = 260 x 79.15 = 20579 [Link]
Computation of c.g of the weld group assuming unit thickness of weld
y1 = 2 x 220 x 110 / [ 2 x 220 + (170 - 12 )] = 81 mm
Distance from the bottom end = 220 - 81 = 139 mm
Ixx of weld = (170 - 12 ) x 812 + 2 x 2203 / 12 + 2 x 220 x ( 110 - 81 )2
= 31.81x 106 mm4

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 Vertical shear = 260 x 1000 / [2 x 220 + ( 170 - 12 )] = 434.78 N/mm
Bending stress = 20579 x 81 x 1000 / ( 3.18 x 106) = 524.18 N/mm
Resultant stress = (434.782 + 524.182)
= 681 N / mm = 0.7 x s x 410 / ( Ö 3 x 1.25 )
Therefore s = 5.13 mm Provide 6 mm weld
Provide nominal size of top cleat angle 60 x 60 x 6 mm using 3 mm weld
The details are shown in Fig. 3.16
250 250
3 mm weld
150
Clip angle 60 x 60 x 6 mm

Beam ISMB 450

Column
tf = 17.4 mm
ISHB250
tw = 9.4 mm
Seat Plate
140 x 170 x 18mm

Seat Plate y1= 81

140 x 170 x 18 mm
220
220 x 12 mm stiffener

12
140 170
ISHB 250

6.10 QUESTIONS

6. 10 .1 ISA 50 x50x 6 mm acting as a tension member in a roof truss is

connected to a gusset plate 8 mm thick by welding . The member carries an
axial factored load of 105 kN. Design the welded connection using site welds.
Steel used is Fe410

6. 10.2 A rolled steel beam ISMB 400 is connected to the flange of the column
ISHB200. The beam carries a factored reaction of 120 kN. Design welded seat
angle connection. Use Fe410 with fy = 250 MPA

6. 10 .3 A bracket is connected to the flange of ISHB300 @ 588 N/m shown in

Fig. [Link] carries a factored load of 180 kN. Design the welded
180 kN
40 80

100

connection

Fig.6.7
Lecture No. 7
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Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 104
Title: Introduction to Plastic Analysis
Speaker: Mrs. Jyoti P. Bhusari, Asst. Professor, SCOE, Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In plastic analysis and design of a structure, the ultimate load of the structure as a whole
is regarded as the design criterion. The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the
ultimate load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. This method is rapid
and provides a rational approach for the analysis of the structure. It also provides striking
economy as regards the weight of steel since the sections required by this method are
smaller in size than those required by the method of elastic analysis. Plastic analysis and
design has its main application in the analysis and design of statically indeterminate
framed structures.
2.0 ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOR OF STEEL
This section first describes the structural behavior of a cross section from its elastic state
to a fully plastic state under increasing load. Most structural materials undergo an elastic
state before a plastic state is reached. This applies to both material behavior of a cross
section and the structure as a whole.
For a simply supported steel beam with a cross section symmetrical about a horizontal
axis under an increasing load applied at midspan, the general stress and strain variations
in the cross section at midspan from a fully elastic state to fracture are shown in Figure 1.
The beam is initially loaded producing an elastic stress f = fe corresponding to an elastic
strain ε = εe for loading between points A and B shown in Figure 1. When point B is
reached, the maximum stress in the top and bottom fibers of the cross section becomes
yielded such that f = fy, corresponds to a yield strain ε = εy. As the load is increased
further, the cross section undergoes a plastification process in which the yielded area
becomes larger and larger, spreading inward toward the center of the cross section. This
plastification with a relatively constant yield stress fy occurs between B and C, at which
the stress corresponding to strain εst starts to increase again. From point C, the cross
section enters into a strain-hardening stage until an ultimate stress fu at D is reached.
From point D, the stress starts to decrease with increasing strain until the material
fractures at point E. The plastification process is important for steel in plastic design as it

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ensures that the material has adequate ductility for the cross section to sustain loading
beyond its elastic limit at B.

Fig. 1 Stress-strain behavior of a cross section

Fig. 2 Elastic perfectly plastic behavior for steel

For design purposes, it is prudent to ignore the extra strength provided by strain
hardening, which becomes smaller in magnitude as the grade strength of steel becomes
greater. Hence, for simplicity, steel is always idealized as an elastic-perfectly plastic
material with a stress–strain relationship shown in Figure 2 and the corresponding cross-
section plastification of a symmetric section in Figure 3. In Figure 2, the stress–strain
relationship for the elastic part AB is linear and its slope is equal to the modulus of

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elasticity. According to the idealized stress–strain relationship, the continuous
plastification of a cross section shown in Figure 3 under increasing loading induces
continuous increase in bending moment of the cross section. When the extreme fibers of
the cross section reach the yield strain, εy, with a yield stress, fy, a yield moment My
corresponding to a yield curvature  y at point B, a moment–curvature relationship shown

in Figure 4 exists in the section. A further increase in loading causes partial plastification
in the cross section, which signals the start of its elastic–plastic state. This elastic–plastic
state corresponds to an increase in bending moment from B to D shown in Figure 4.
When the cross section becomes fully plastic at point D, the maximum moment capacity,
called plastic moment Mp, is reached. A further increase in loading increases the strains
and hence the curvature in the cross section, whereas the plastic moment remains
unchanged. It should be noted that the line DE in Figure 4 is not truly horizontal and the
point D is difficult to define for most cross-sectional shapes. Unless deflection is a prime
consideration, for design purposes the curved part BD of the moment–curvature
relationship is often ignored and the bending moment is assumed to increase linearly
from A to C, at which time the plastic moment is reached. The ratio of the plastic
moment to the yield moment is called the shape factor. The shape factor varies for
different cross-sectional shapes as given in next section.

Fig. 3 Plastification of a cross section

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3.0 MOMENT CURVATURE RELATIONSHIP IN AN ELASTIC-PLASTIC
RANGE
A cross section under increasing bending moment undergoes three stages of
transformation in its plastification process. As shown in Figure 4, they are elastic (AB),
elastic–plastic (BD), and fully plastic (DE).

Fig. 4 Moment Curvature relationship of a cross section

Elastic Behavior
The moment –curvature relationship within the elastic behavior is based on the simple
M
bending theory yielding the equation f = y
I
Elastic–Plastic Behavior
To illustrate the calculation of the moment–curvature relationship beyond the elastic limit,
a symmetric, rectangular section of dimensions bxd is used. When the extreme fibers of a
rectangular section start to yield with f = fy, the corresponding yield moment My, shown in
My
Figure 4, is fy = y max with standard notations
I
In this case, the yield strain εy is related to the yield curvature  y by

d
εy =  y
2

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 Fig. 5 Elastic-plastic behavior

A further increase in bending moment of the cross section spreads the yielding inward
toward the neutral axis. Suppose that the yielding is extended to the point where the
elastic core is within a distance βd from the neutral axis. The corresponding strain
distribution can be calculated by the constant curvature  shown in Figure 5. Hence,
fy = E  βd
From Figure 5
d 
F1 = fyb  − d 
2 
fy
F2 = b d
2
Total bending moment, M,about the neutral axis is
 d d  2 
M=2 F1  +  + 2 F2  d 
4 2  3 
bd 2 3 2
= fy  − 2 
6 2 

3  bd 2
= My  − 2 2  as My = fy x Z; and Z=
2  6
The moment–curvature relationship for a rectangular section has been established
through the above equations. A fully plastic section is achieved only when β→0. In this
case,  →∞ and the plastic moment for the section is M = Mp = 1.5 My. It should be
noted that when the section starts to yield at β= 0.5, the yield curvature is

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  fy 
 y = 2 
 Ed 
Since fy = E  βd
 0.5
=
y 
Substituting the above equation in the equation of total bending moment M, a
dimensionless moment–curvature relationship in terms of the moment ratio M/My and

curvature ratio 
 y can be established.

Fig. 6 Dimensionless moment-curvature relationship for rectangular sections

This relationship for rectangular sections is shown in Figure 6.
The plastic moment of any cross-sectional shape can be derived similarly in the
aforementioned manner and the plastic moment can be expressed generally as Mp = SMy
where S = shape factor of the section. The shape factors for some common cross-
sectional shapes are given in Table 1.
Shape Shape factor
Rectangle 1.5
Circular solid 1.7
Circular tube 1.27
Triangle 2.34
I – sections 1.1 – 1.14
Diamond 2
Table 1 Shape factors for common sections
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4.0 REGION OF YIELD
Theoretically, the plastic hinges are assumed to form at points at which plastic rotations
occur. Thus the length of a plastic hinge is considered as zero. However, the values of
moment, at the adjacent section of the yield zone are more than the yield moment upto a
certain length ΔL, of the structural member. This length ΔL, is known as the hinged
length. The hinged length depends upon the type of loading and the geometry of the
cross-section of the structural member. The region of hinged length is known as region of
yield or plasticity.

L/2 L/2 b

My Mp My

Fig. 7 Region of Yield

In a simply supported beam as shown in Figure 7 with central concentrated load, the
maximum bending moment occurs at the centre of the beam. As the load is increased
gradually, this moment reaches the fully plastic moment of the section Mp and a plastic
hinge is formed at the centre.
Let x (= ΔL) be the length of plasticity zone.
From the bending moment diagram shown in Figure 7
(L-x)Mp=LMy
x=L/3

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Therefore the hinged length of the plasticity zone is equal to one-third of the span in this
case.
Example: Determine the inelastic zone length xp of the simply supported beam shown
below, when the section under the load becomes fully plastic. The beam has a uniform
rectangular section with a plastic moment capacity of 165 kNm.

Solution. The section starts to yield at a bending moment of My = Mp/ 1.5 = 110 kNm. If
the lengths of the inelastic zone are xp1 to the left and xp2 to the right of the applied load,
then from the geometry of the bending moment diagram,

(6- xp1)/6=110/165
So xp1= 2 m
Also (4- xp2)/4=110/165
So xp2= 1.33 m
Total length of the inelastic zone is 3.33 m

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5.0 FULLY PLASTIC SECTION
Suppose that the stress distribution of a cross section is as shown in Figure 8 so that the
total tensile force above the neutral axis X–X is T and the total compressive force below

Fig. 8 Stress distribution for a fully plastic section.

the neutral axis is C. For a fully plastic section of arbitrary shape under pure bending,
equilibrium requires that the net axial force be zero.
Hence,
T=  fyA = C
A'

where A’ is the area above or below the neutral axis. This Equation is used to find the
location of the neutral axis.
Assume that the yield stress fy is the same throughout the section, then the above
Equation becomes
At =  A = Ac =  A
At Ac

Where,
At and Ac are areas above and below the neutral axis, respectively. Therefore, for
sections made of materials with uniform yield stress, the neutral axis X–X is also called
the equal area axis, which divides the cross section into two equal parts. For symmetric
sections, the equal area axis coincides with the centroid of the section about which the
plastic section modulus is calculated. For nonsymmetrical sections, the locations of the
equal area axis and the centroid of the section are different.
By taking the moment about X–X,

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 Mp = Tyt + Cyc

= ( At y t + Ac y c ) f y = Z s f y

Where,
Zs = the first moment of area about the equal area axis = plastic section modulus.

Fig. 9 Plastic section modulus of a rectangular section.

.For the rectangular section shown in Figure 9, the plastic section modulus is given by
2
 bd d  bd
Z s = 2 x x =
 2 4 4
Comparing this Equation with the elastic section modulus Z,we can obtain the shape
factor,
Mp Z s f y
S= = = 1.5
My Zf y

6.0 PRINCIPLES OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS

Fundamental conditions for plastic analysis
• Mechanism condition: The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a
mechanism is formed. The number of plastic hinges developed should be just
sufficient to form a mechanism.
• Equilibrium condition: ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣMxy = 0
• Plastic moment condition: The bending moment at any section of the structure
should not be more than the fully plastic moment of the section.

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Collapse mechanisms: When a system of loads is applied to an elastic body, it will
deform and will show a resistance against deformation. Such a body is known as a
structure. On the other hand if no resistance is set up against deformation in the body,
then it is known as a mechanism.
Various types of independent mechanisms are identified to enable prediction of possible
failure modes of a structure. Here only Beam Mechanism is discussed.
• Beam mechanism
Figure 10 shows a simply supported, propped and a fixed beam and the corresponding
mechanisms. Each ‘black dot’ represents a plastic hinge at a section in a fully plastic
state; the plastic hinge has attained a bending moment equal to its plastic moment

Fig. 10 Beam Mechanism for Simply supported, Propped, and Fixed beams.

A simply supported beam has to form one plastic hinge at the point of maximum bending
moment. Redundancy, r = 0
A propped cantilever requires two hinges to form a mechanism .Redundancy, r=1

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No of plastic hinges formed = r+1 = 2
A fixed beam requires three hinges to form a mechanism
Redundancy, r=2
No of plastic hinges = 2+1 =3
From all the above examples, it is seen that the number of hinges needed to form a
mechanism equals the statical redundancy of the structure plus one.
7.0 LOAD FACTOR
The load factor at rigid plastic collapse (λp) is defined as the lowest multiple of the
design loads which will cause the whole structure, or any part of it to become a
mechanism
In a limit state approach, the designer is seeking to ensure that at the appropriate factored
loads the structure will not fail. Thus the rigid plastic load factor λp must not be less than
unity.
The number of independent mechanisms (n) is related to the number of possible plastic
hinge locations (h) and the number of degree of redundancy (r) of the frame by the
equation.
n=h–r
8.0 THEOREMS OF PLASTICITY
There are three basic theorems of plasticity from which manual methods for collapse load
calculations can be developed. The basic theorems of plasticity are kinematic, static, and
uniqueness, which are outlined next.

• Kinematic Theorem (Upper Bound Theorem)

This theorem states that the collapse load or load factor obtained for a structure that
satisfies all the conditions of yield and collapse mechanism is either greater than or equal
to the true collapse load. The true collapse load can be found by choosing the smallest
value of collapse loads obtained from all possible cases of collapse mechanisms for the
structure. The method derived from this theorem is based on the balance of external work
and internal work for a particular collapse mechanism. It is usually referred to as the
mechanism method.

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 • Static Theorem (Lower Bound Theorem)
This theorem states that the collapse load obtained for a structure that satisfies all the
conditions of static equilibrium and yield is either less than or equal to the true collapse
load. In other words, the collapse load, calculated from a collapse mode other than the
true one, can be described as conservative when the structure satisfies these conditions.
The true collapse load can be found by choosing the largest value of the collapse loads
obtained from all cases of possible yield conditions in the structure. The yield conditions
assumed in the structure do not necessarily lead to a collapse mechanism for the
structure. The use of this theorem for calculating the collapse load of an indeterminate
structure usually considers static equilibrium through a flexibility approach to produce
free and reactant bending moment diagrams. It is usually referred to as the statical
method.

• Uniqueness Theorem
It is quite clear that if a structure satisfies the conditions of both static and kinematic
theorems, the collapse load obtained must be true and unique and here the resulting load
factor corresponds to its value at rigid plastic collapse (λp). Therefore, the uniqueness
theorem states that a true collapse load is obtained when the structure is under a
distribution of bending moments that are in static equilibrium with the applied forces and
no plastic moment capacity is exceeded at any cross section when a collapse mechanism
is formed. The collapse load obtained from an elastoplastic analysis is, in general, unique.

• Mechanism Method
This method requires that all possible collapse mechanisms are identified and that the
virtual work equation for each mechanism is established. The collapse load Pw is the
minimum of the solutions of all possible collapse mechanisms for the structure. In
establishing the virtual work equation, the total internal work as sum of the products of
the plastic moment, Mp, and the corresponding plastic rotation, θ, at all plastic hinge
locations j (j =A, B, . . ., etc.) must be equal to the total external work. The total external

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work is expressed as the sum of the products of the externally applied load, λp P, and the
corresponding distance, δ, it displaces for all loads i (i = 1, 2, . . ., etc.). Mathematically,
∑ Mp θ = λp ∑ P δ
For the above equation , a relationship between θ and δ can be established so that λp is
evaluated independently of these two terms.
9.0 ILLUSTRATIONS
Example 1: A fixed-end beam, of length L and plastic moment capacity Mp, is
subject to a point load P as shown in following figure. Determine the collapse load P
= Pw.

Solution: -
The first step is to guess the possible collapse mechanism. In this case, it is obvious that
the collapse mechanism is induced by the formation of three plastic hinges at A, B, and C
shown in Figure. From Figure, the load displacement can be related approximately to the
angles of plastic rotation by
L 2L
= = 
3 3
Hence  =2  .At B, the total plastic rotation is (  +  ). The internal work Wi of the
system due to the plastic rotations at A, B, and C is
Wi = Mp  +Mp (  +  ) + Mp  =Mp6 
The external work, We, is
2L
We=Pw δ=Pw 
3
9 Mp
The Virtual work equation is We = Wi, which gives Pw=
L

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Example 2: A cantilever beam ABCD is subject to two point loads of 30a kN and 50a
kN shown in Figure. The plastic moment capacity of the beam is Mp. Calculate the
collapse load factor λ = λp.

Solution: - This is an indeterminate structure with 1 degree of indeterminacy. If the

bending moment M at the fixed support A is made redundant, then the free and reactant
bending moment diagrams can be constructed as shown in following Figure.

This structure requires the formation of two plastic hinges to induce a collapse
mechanism. There are two possibilities: (a) plastic hinges at A and B or (b) plastic hinges
at A and C. It is unlikely to have a collapse mechanism with plastic hinges at B and C
because of the larger moment at A.
Case a: Plastic hinges at A and B.
2
M = Mp and Mp = 86.6 α- M
3
Mp
Therefore, α=
52
1 Mp 1
Check: Bending moment at C = 73:4 α - M = 73.4 x - Mp = 1.08Mp.
3 52 3
This case is not valid because the yield condition is violated at C.
Case b: Plastic hinges at A and C.
1
M = Mp and Mp = 73:4α- M
3

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 Mp
Therefore, α=
55
2 Mp 2
Check: Bending moment at B = 86:6α- Mp = 73.4 x - Mp = 0.67 Mp
3 55 3
The yield condition has not been violated at B. Hence, case b is critical
Mp
And α =αc = .
55
It should be noted that, according to the static theorem, the true collapse load from the
statical method is the largest of all possible solutions only if the yield or equilibrium
condition is not violated.
Example 3: A fixed-end beam shown in following Figure is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load of w (load/length). Determine the collapse load w = wc.

Solution: -
By Statical Method
Fixed-end moments, which are equal because of symmetry, are chosen as the redundant
forces. The free and reactant bending moment diagrams are shown in following Figure.
For this problem, three plastic hinges, two at the ends and one at mid-span of the beam,
are required to induce a collapse mechanism.
From Figure which shows free and reactant bending moment diagrams for a fixed-end
beam,

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 wL2
M = Mp at the supports and - M = Mp at mid-span.
8
16Mp
Therefore, w = wc =
L2
By Mechanism Method
The collapse mechanism is shown in following Figure.

For the two straight segments of the beam (half of the beam in this case),
L
2
Total external work = 2 x  (wx )x = wL 
2

4
0

Internal work= Mpθ + 2Mpθ + Mpθ = 4Mpθ.

Because total external work = internal work,
16Mp
Therefore, w = wc =
L2
Example 4: Determine the collapse load P = Pw for the continuous beam shown in
following Figure. Plastic moment of the beam is Mp.

Solution: -
The mechanism method is used for the solution.
For left span AB, the plastic hinge occurs at midspan and B as shown in Figure

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The virtual work equation is,
3PwLθ = Mp(3θ)
Mp
Therefore, Pw =
L
Similarly, for right span BC with two plastic hinges shown in following Figureure,

the virtual work is

1.5Mp
Pw2Lθ = Mp(3θ); therefore Pw = .
L
Hence, the left span is critical and Pw = Mp/L
10.0 REQUIREMENTS AS PER IS 800: 2007
When a plastic method of analysis is used, all of the following conditions shall be
satisfied, unless adequate ductility of the structure and plastic rotation capacity of its
members and connections are established for the design loading conditions by other
means of evaluation:
• The yield stress of the grade of the steel used shall not exceed 450 MPa.
• The stress-strain characteristics of the steel shall not be significantly different
from those obtained for steels complying with IS 2062 or equivalent and shall be
such as to ensure complete plastic moment redistribution. The stress-strain
diagram shall have a plateau at the yield stress, extending for at least six times the
yield strain. The ratio of the tensile strength to the yield stress specified for the
grade of the steel shall not be less than 1.2. The elongation on a gauge length
complying with IS 2062 shall not be than 15 percent, and the steel shall exhibit
strain-hardening capability. Steels conforming to IS 2062 shall be deemed to
satisfy the above requirements.

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 Fig. 9 Ductility requirements for Plastic Design
• The members used shall be hot-rolled or fabricated using hot-rolled plates and
sections.
• The cross-section of members not containing plastic hinges should be at least that
of compact section, unless the members meet the strength requirements from
elastic analysis.
• Where plastic hinges occur in a member, the proportions of its cross-section
should not exceed the limiting values for plastic section.
* The above two points ensure that for plastic design, all cross-sections will be able to
sustain the plastic moment Mp without showing any signs of local buckling.
• The cross-section should be symmetrical about its axis perpendicular to the axis
of the plastic hinge rotation.
• The members shall not be subject to impact loading, requiring fracture assessment
or fluctuating loading, requiring a fatigue assessment (see Section 13)
11.0 EXERCISES
1. Using the mechanism method, determine the collapse load factor a for the propped
cantilever beam ABCD shown in Figure .Mp = 80 kNm.

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2. Using the mechanism method, calculate the plastic moment Mp required to support the
beam shown in Figure before it collapses. Assume that the plastic hinges occur at A, B,
and C.

3. Find the common collapse load factor λ applied to the loads for the structure with
Mp = 100 kNm shown in Figure.

12.0 REFERENCES
1. [Link],(1977), “The Plastic Methods of Structural Analysis”, Chapman and
Hall Ltd, London
2. Augustin Mrazik, (1987), “Plastic Design of Steel Structures”, Ellis Horwood
Ltd, Chicester
3. IS 800: 2007 “General Construction in Steel-Code of Practice (Third Revision)”
4. Teaching Resource for Structural Steel Design Prepared by IIT Madras, Anna
University ,Chennai, Structural Engineering Research Centre Madras, INSDAG

Lecture No. 8
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Title: Design of Flexural Member – Laterally Supported
Speaker: Dr. M. R. Shiyekar, Convenor and HOD Civil Engg Dept,
SCOE, Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Flexural members are labeled in different names, such as
Purlin – Member carrying load from sheetings of roof truss
Girt – Member carrying load from side sheetings
Joist – Light member carrying load from floor in a building
Girder – Mostly member carrying heavy loads
Lintel – Member carrying load over window, door opening
Stringer – Mostly member in bridges aligned in the direction of traffic.
Flexural members are prime members in a structure. Flexural effect occurs almost in all
types of structural members even sometimes in members of trusses. This is due to joint
restraints and load not applied at joints. Column supported to carry axial compressive
load is also subjected to bending due to eccentricity of load, the way in which beam is
connected and lateral load due to wind/earthquake.
IS:800 – 2007 recommended design procedure of members subjected to flexure in
mainly four categories.
1) Laterally supported beam with low and high shear
2) Laterally unsupported beam producing lateral torsional buckling
3) Plate Girders
4) Beam under uniaxial/biaxial bending alongwith axial force i.e. beam-column
In this session, brief design provisions for first category are highlighted with illustrations.
Codal Provisions:
Factored bending moment M ≤ Md Design bending strength
where Md = b fy ZP / mo ≤ 1.2 Ze fy/mo ……………… Cl. [Link] (p. no. 53)
b = 1 for plastic and compact section.
b = Ze /ZP for semicompact section
Slender beams are avoided.
The above expression for Md is true when factored shear ‘V’ due to loads on beams is
less than 0.6 Vd
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Where Vd = Design shear strength of web
= Av fyw/(√3 mo) ……………. Cl 8.4 (p. no. 59)
fyw./√3 = shear strength at yield of web.
If V exceeds 0.6 Vd then, for plastic and compact section
Mdv = Md –  (Md - Mfd) ≤ 1.2 Ze fy /mo ………… Cl. 9.2.2 (p. no. 70)
And for semicompact section Mdv = Ze fy /mo.
A separate emphasis for beam with high shear will be discussed later.

Lateral Restraints
Ideal Lateral restraint helps bending of beam in the plane of load only. For
example I section with web vertical will bend in vertical plane if loads act in a plane
containing web or yy axis of section. In absence of lateral restraint, due to compressive
stresses in flange, Buckling occurs. At the same time tension flange tries to remain
straight. The result is, entire cross section get rotates @ longitudinal axis of beam. This is
lateral torsional, buckling. Capacity of section in resisting bending reduces. To avoid this,
full lateral support is essential. For beam receiving load from RC floor slab; compression
flange is embedded in RC slab. Lateral restraint can be also provided by welding studs on
top of compression flange before RC slab is cast.
In absence of RC slab, to reduce lateral torsional buckling, restraints can be provided
intermittently by means of bracing members to be provided in plane of compression
flange or by other structural cross member for example, secondary – main beam
arrangement.
Lateral restraint in such cases is at some specified locations. Hence it is known as local
lateral restraint. Length of beam in between local lateral restraint is to be checked for
unsupported condition.
Limit state of serviceability
After check for bending and shear, the designed section of beam shall satisfy condition
for deflection. Table 6 (p. no. 31) shows for various types of beams and their functional
use, limiting deflection values. Partial safety factor for load for this limit state is 1 and in
some load combination it is 0.8 also. Refer Table 4 (p. no. 29).

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Secondary Design considerations
a) Web buckling (Cl. [Link] p. no. 67)
This is overall buckling of web due to load or support reaction fig 1 shows web
buckling. The web acts as a column of height l = depth of web =h
Cross section of column = (b1 + n1)tw
b2 = stiff bearing length for flange
n1 = dispersion of load through web at 450 to the level of half the depth of section
effective length = 0.7 h , M.I. @ // to web = (1/12) (b2 + n1)tw3
slenderness ratio = 0.7h/(tw/2√3) = h/tw 0.7 x 2√3 ~ 2.5 (h/tw)
using class ‘C’ curve fcd is obtained
Concentrated load should not exceed capacity of web as a column
= fcd (b2 + n1) tw

Fig 1 Web Buckling

b) Web Crippling – (Cl. 8.7.4 p. no. 67) Heavy concentrated load or support reaction is
transferred by flange to thin web. Effect of concentrated action shall not cause local
buckling of web in the vicinity of load. Fig 2 shows web local buckling also known as
web crippling.
In no case concentrated load should exceed the value of local capacity of web yielding Fw
where Fw = (b1 + n2) tw fyw / mo
b1 = stiff bearing length,
n2 = length due to dispersion at flange web junction at a slope 1:25

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tw = thickness of web
fyw = Yield stress of web material.

Fig 2 Web Crippling

Example
Laterally supported simply supported beam of span 4m is subjected to factored
column load of 400 kN. Load is transformed through base plate of 200 mm length.
Check Limit State. Section available is ISMB 400.

Fig 3
Plastic moment MP = 400 x (4/4) = 400 kNm
Assuming plastic section i.e. b = 1
Md = b fy ZP / mo
400 x 106 = 1 x 250 x ZP / 1.1

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Therefore ZP = (440/250) x 106 mm3 = 1760 x 103 mm3
Available section is ISMB 400 for which ZP = 1176.18 x 103
As ZP required > ZP available
ISMB 400 section alone is not suitable
Provide cover plate on flanges
Let AP is the area of each plate then,
(1760 x 103 – 1176.18 x 103) = AP x 400
Therefore AP = (583.82 x 103)/400 = 5838.2/4
= 1459.5 mm2
Provide plate of width = 200 mm
Therefore tP = 1460/200 = 7.3 mm say 10 mm

Fig 4 Section Design

Actual ZP = ZP by ISMB 400 + AP x (d + tp)
= 1176.18 x 103 + 200 x 10 x (400 + 10)
= (1176.18 + 820) x 103 mm3
= 2096.18 x 103 > 1760 x 103 OK

Maximum shear = 200 kN

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Design shear capacity Vd = Av fyw / (√3 x mo)
= (400 x 8.9 x 250) / (√3 x 1.1)
= 467.14 kN
0.6 Vd = 280.28 > 200 kN
Reduction in Md not required.

Check for web

a) Web buckling
Concentrated load = 400 kN on flange
b1 = 200 mm

Fig 5 Web buckling

tw = 8.9 mm
rmin = tw / 2√3 = 8.9/2√3 = 2.57 mm
Height of web = Height of ISMB 400
= 400 mm
KL/r = (0.7 x 400) / 2.57 = 108.94
Using class ‘C’ buckling curve for fy = 250 MPa
fcd = 95 N/mm2
therefore Web capacity as a column = 620 x 8.9 x 95 = 524.2 kN > 400 kN OK

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b) Web Crippling

Fig 6 Web Crippling

Fw = 414 x 8.9 x 250 / 1.1 = 837.41 > 400 kN
Check for deflection
Working load = 400 / 1.5 = 266.66 kN
 = Wl3 / 48 EI
= 266.66 x 103 x (4000)3 / 48 x 2 x 105 x 20458.4 x 104
= 266.66 x 64 x 1012 / 96 x 20.458 x 1012 = 8.68 mm
Limiting  = span /360 = 4000/360 = 11.11 mm
Therefore as actual  = 8.68 < limiting  = 11.11 OK

-----------X----------

Lecture No. 9
Title: Design of Flexural Member – Laterally Unsupported
Speaker: Mr. Kodag Pradeep B., Lecturer, SCOE, Pune

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Generally a beam resists transverse loads by bending action. In a typical building frame,
main beams are employed to span between adjacent columns; secondary beams when
used – transmit the floor loading on to the main beams. In general, it is necessary to
consider only the bending effects in such cases, any torsional effects being relatively
insignificant are ignored.

2.0 BASIC THEORY

The laterally unsupported beams are also called as laterally unrestrained beams. The
symmetrical beams even if loaded in the plane containing principal axis may bend out of
the plane of load under certain conditions. The rolled steel beams have large M.I.
(Moment of Inertia) about XX-axis (Ixx). Such shapes have comparatively less resistance
to bending and torsion about YY-axis (Iyy).
The beam may bend about minor axis if it is not supported in the direction normal to the
minor axis. For laterally unsupported beams the compression flange is laterally
unsupported and the compression flange may buckle sideways, leading to the failure at
the elastic limit or even below it. The bending of the beam is accompanied by twisting.
This phenomenon is called as lateral buckling or lateral torsional buckling. This tendency
of lateral buckling of compression flange increases as the ratio (Ixx/Iyy) increases. This
tendency further increases when the supported length of the compression flange
increases.
Lateral buckling of the beams has to account for at all stages of construction, to eliminate
the possibility of premature collapse of the structure or component. For example, in the
construction of steel-concrete composite building, steel beams are designed to attain their
full moment capacity based on the assumption that the flooring will provide the necessary
lateral restraint to the beams. However during erection stage of the structure, beams may
not receive as much as lateral support from the floors as they get after the concrete
hardens. Hence, at this stage, they are prone to lateral buckling, which has to be
prevented.

3.0 LATERAL BUCKLING

It is well known that slender members under compression are prone to instability. When
slender structural elements are loaded in their strong planes, they have a tendency to fail
by buckling in their weaker planes. Axially loaded columns and transversely loaded
beams exhibit closely similar failure characteristics due to buckling.
Consider a simply supported and laterally unsupported (except at the ends) beam of
“short span” subjected to incremental transverse load at its mid section as shown in Fig.
1(a). The beam will deflect downwards Fig. 1(b).

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 Fig. 1 (a) Short span beam, (b) Vertical deflection of the beam.
The direction of the load and direction of the movement of the beam are the same. On the
other hand, a “long-span” beam Fig. 2(a), when incrementally loaded will first deflect
downwards, and when the load exceeds the particular value, it will tilt sideways due to
instability of the compression flange and rotate about the longitudinal axis Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2 (a) Long span beam, (b) Laterally deflected shape of the beam.

Lateral torsional buckling of the I-section is considered with the following assumptions.

• The beam is initially undistorted.

• Its behavior is elastic.

• It is loaded by equal and opposite end moments in the plane of the web.

• The load act in the plane of the web only.

• The beam does not have residual stresses.

• Its ends are simply supported vertically and laterally.

4.0 DESIGN OF LATERALLY UN-SUPPORTED BEAM

Problem 1: Design a suitable I beam for a simply supported span of 5 m. and

carrying a dead load of 20 kN/m and imposed load of 40 kN/m. Take fy = 250 MPa

Design load calculations:

Factored load = γD Lx 20 + γLL x 40

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 Using partial safety factors for D.L γLD = 1.50 and for L.L γLL = 1.5
(Cl. 5.3.3 Table 4, Page 29)
Total factored load = 1.50 x 20 + 1.5 x 40 = 90 kN/m
Factored Bending Moment M = 90 x 5 x 5 / 8
= 281.25 kN.m
Assuming fbd = 120 MPa
Md
Z p (req.) = = 2343.70 cm3
βb * fbd
Options ISWB 500 @ 95.2 kg/m Zp = 2351.35 cm3
OR ISLB 600 @ 99.5 kg/m Zp = 2798.56 cm3

Try ISWB 500 @ 95.2 kg/m Zp = 2351.35 cm3

Geometrical Properties: ISWB 500 @ 95.2 kg/m

D = 500 mm, B =250 mm, tf = 14.7 mm, tw = 9.9 mm, ry= 49.6 mm, Iyy =
2987.8cm4,
h1= 431 mm
250
As fy = 250 MPa , ε = Yield Stress Ratio= =1 (Page 48)
fy
Section Classification:
B/2tf = 125 / 14.7 = 8.50  9.4ε Flange is “Plastic”
d / tw = 431 /9.9 = 43.53 < 83.9 ε Web is “Plastic”
Therefore section is classified as Plastic
0.5
  LLT  
2

1.1  2 E  1  ry  
Calculation for fcr,b: fcr,b= 1 +  
 LLT   20  hf  
2

 ry    
 tf  
0.5
  5000  
2

1.1 3.142  2 105  1  49.6  

fcr,b=  1 +   
 20  485.3  
2
 5000   
 49.6    14.7  

fcr,b= 258.46 MPa

Now, from Table no. 13(a) (Page 55)
For the value of αLT = 0.21 for rolled steel section (Page 54)
\f
fcr,b y 250
250 152.3
300 163.5
 fbd =154.21 MPa
Now,
The design bending strength of Laterally Unsupported Beam is given by:
M d =  b Z p fbd
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 M d = 1.0  2351.35 103 154.21
M d = 362.61kN − m  281.25kN − m

Hence, safe
Check for Shear:
The factored shear force V, in a beam due to external action should satisfy,
V  Vd
Where,
Vd = Design Strength = Vn / γmo
γmo = partial safety factor against shear failure = 1.10 (Table 5, Page 30)
Vn = Nominal shear strength of c/s is governed by plastic shear resistance
Nominal plastic shear resistance under pure shear is given by:
Vn = Vp
Where,
Av  fyw ( 500  9.9 )  250
Vp = = = 714.47kN
3 3
Vp 714.47
Vd = = = 649.519kN
 mo 1.1
Now,
w  l 90  5
V= = = 225kN
2 2

V  Vd

i.e 225 kN  649.519 kN Hence, safe

Check for Serviceability – Deflection:

Load factor = γDL and γLL = 1.00 both,
Design load = 20 + 40 = 60 kN/m
5 x60 x(5000) 4
Actual deflection,  = = 4.668 mm
384 x 2 x105 x 52290.9 x10 4
Limiting deflection = Span/360
= 5000/360 = 13.889 mm….OK
Hence Use ISWB 500 @ 95.2 kg/m

5.0 DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Problem 2: Design a suitable I beam for a simply supported span of 5 m. and

carrying a dead load of 20 kN/m and imposed load of 40 kN/m. Take fy = 250 MPa

Design load calculations:

Factored load = γD Lx 20 + γLL x 40
Using partial safety factors for D.L γLD = 1.50 and for L.L γLL = 1.5
(Cl. 5.3.3 Table 4, Page 29)
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 Total factored load = 1.50 x 20 + 1.5 x 40 = 90 kN/m
Factored Bending Moment M = 90 x 5 x 5 / 8
= 281.25 kN.m
Zp required for value of fy = 250 MPa and
γmo = 1.10 (Table 5, Page 30)
Zp = (281.25 x 1000 x 1000 x 1.1) / 250 = 1237500 mm3
= 1237.50cm3
Using shape factor = 1.14, Ze = 1237.50/1.14 =1085.52 cm3
Options ISWB 400 @ 66.7 kg/m Ze = 1171.3 cm3
OR ISLB 450 @ 65.3 kg/m Ze = 1223.8 cm3
Try ISLB 450@ 65.3 kg/m
Ze = 1223.8 cm3  1085.52 cm3

Geometrical Properties: ISLB 450 @ 65.3 kg/m

D = 450 mm, B = 170 mm, tf = 13.4 mm, tw = 8.6 mm, h1 = 384 mm, h2 = 33 mm
Ixx = 27536.1 cm4
As fy = 250 MPa,

Section Classification:
B/2tf = 85 / 13.4 = 6.34  9.4ε Flange is “Plastic”
h1 / tw = 384/8.6 = 44.65 < 83.9 ε Web is “Plastic”
Therefore section is classified as Plastic
Zp = 1.14 x 1223.8 = 1395.132 cm3

Design Bending Strength: Md

 Z fy 1.0 x1395.132 x1000 x250
Md = b p = = 317.075 kN .m > 281.25 kN.m
 mo 1.10
βb = 1.0 for plastic section (Cl. [Link], Page 53)

Check for Shear:

The factored shear force V, in a beam due to external action should satisfy,
V  Vd
Where,
Vd = Design Strength = Vn / γmo
γmo = partial safety factor against shear failure = 1.10 (Table 5, Page 30)
Vn = Nominal shear strength of c/s is governed by plastic shear resistance
Nominal plastic shear resistance under pure shear is given by:
Vn = Vp
Where,
Av  fyw ( 450  8.6 )  250
Vp = = = 558.58kN
3 3
Vp 558.58
Vd = = = 507.80kN
 mo 1.1
V< (0.6*Vd) i.e 225 kN< (0.6*507.80=304.68kN)…………OK

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 136
Check for Serviceability – Deflection
Load factor = γDL and γLL = 1.00 both,
Design load = 20 + 40 = 60 kN/m
5 x60 x(5000) 4
= = 8.866 mm
384 x 2 x105 x 27536.1 x104
Limiting deflection = Span/360
= 5000/360 = 13.889 mm………...OK
Hence Use ISLB 450 @ 65.3 kg/m
6.0 REMARK
Unrestrained beams that are loaded in their stiffer planes may undergo lateral torsional
buckling. The prime factors which influence the lateral stability of the beam in actual
practice are cross sectional shape, loading conditions, support condition, effective length,
and distribution of moment. In order to avoid the lateral buckling due to a load in the
plane of the major axis of the member, the beam should have enough torsional stiffness to
resist the torsional forces induced and the beam should be laterally supported in the
direction perpendicular to the minor axis.

7.0 REFERENCES

1. S K Duggal, “Design of Steel Structures” Tata McGraw-Hill Book Co., New

Delhi, 3rd edition 2008.

2. L S Negi, “Design of Steel Structures” Tata McGraw-Hill Book Co., New

Delhi, 7th edition 1991.

3. Ram Chandra & Virendra Gehlot, “Design of Steel Structures-I” Scientific

Publishers, Jodhpur, 12th edition 2007.

4. IS:800-2007, “General Construction in Steel – Code of Practice”

5. IS:800-1984, “General Construction in Steel – Code of Practice”

6. INSDAG Teaching Resourses Manual Version II

8.0 EXERCISE

Find the moment resisting capacity is ISMB 450. Both ends of the beam are
attached to the flanges of the column by double web cleat.

Geometrical Properties: ISMB 450 @ 72.4 kg/m

D = 450 mm, B = 150 mm, tf = 17.4 mm, tw = 9.4 mm, h1 = 379.2 mm, ry = 30.1
mm

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 137
 Ixx = 30390.8 cm4, Iyy= 834 cm4, E= 2*105MPa, Zp = 1556.33 cm3, KL = 6000
mm.
As fy = 250 MPa,

Section Classification:
B/2tf = 75 / 17.4 = 4.31  9.4ε Flange is “Plastic”
h1 / tw = 379.2/9.4 = 40.3 < 83.9 ε Web is “Plastic”
Therefore section is classified as Plastic
Elastic critical torsional buckling moment Mcr for prismatic member made of
standard rolled I section symmetrical about both axes is given by:
0.5
  L LT 
2

 
 EI y h f  1  ry
2 

Mcr= 1+   (Cl. [Link], Page 54)
2L LT
2  20  h f  
  t  
  f  
Design Bending Strength M d =  b Z p fbd (Cl. 8.2.2, Page 54)
 b = 1.0 for plastic section
Where,
 LT  f y
fbd = (Cl. 8.2.2, Page 54)
 mo
 LT - Reduction factor to account for torsional buckling
1
 LT =  1.0 (Cl. 8.2.2, Page 54)
 LT +  2 LT −  2 LT 
0.5

LT = 0.5 1 +  LT ( LT − 0.2 ) +  2 LT  (Cl. 8.2.2, Page 54)
Where,
 LT = Imperfection factor = 0.21 for rolled section
Non-dimensional slenderness ratio LT is given by
b Z p f y 1.2Z e f y
LT =  (Cl. 8.2.2, Page 54)
M cr M cr
fy
LT =
f cr ,b
0.5
  LLT  
2

1.1  2 E  1  ry  
fcr,b= 1+   = 112.064 MPa (Cl. [Link], Page 54)
 LLT   20  hf  
2

 ry    
 tf  

Now,

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 138
 b Z p f y
LT = = 1.38
M cr
LT = 0.5 1 +  LT ( LT − 0.2 ) +  2 LT  = 1.576
1
 LT = = 0.427

LT +  2 LT −  2 LT 
0.5

fbd = 0.427*250/1.1 = 97.234
M d =  b Z p fbd =1.0*1556.33*103*97.234 =151.32 kN.m

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 139
Lecture No. 10
Title: Design of Gantry Girder
Speaker: Mr. Vishal A. Nalwar, Neilsoft India Ltd., Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Given Data
Basic Design Data:-
1. Crane Capacity = 200 kN (EOT)
2. Weight of crab/trolley = 30 kN
3. Span of gantry `L’ = 8.0 m
4. Self weight of crane girder = 150 kN Assumed
5. Span of crane girder = 20.0 m
6. Minimum hook approach = 1.0m
7. Yield stress of steel ‘fy’ = 250 N/mm²
8. Wheel spacing `a’ = 3.5 m

Self weight of gantry section along with rails = 2 kN/m

……………………

Solution:

The gantry girder is subjected to

a. Vertical load with impact causing bending moment about the major axis Z-
Z.
b. Longitudinal load along its span causing bending moment about the major
axis Z-Z and inducing axial load in the gantry.
c. Horizontal surge load transverse to its span causing bending moment about
the minor axis Y-Y.

Since the section is subjected to bi-axial moment and surge load transverse to
its span, the section is strengthened by providing a channel section at top of the
rolled section as below so that the moment of inertia about the Y-Y axis
increases. The gantry girder shall be designed as laterally unsupported beam.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 140
Clauses concerning loads and load combinations can be referred from IS-875-
Part2. The various loads acting on the gantry girder are calculated as below.

Step 1:- Load Calculation

A. Vertical Load Calculation :-

i) Maximum load transferred to the gantry girder is obtained when the

crab on the crane girder approaches the gantry girder as shown in fig.1
below-
IS-875-Part2
Cl. No. 6.3,
pg-15&16

IS-800-2007
Table 4;pg-29
Fig.1

230 x19 150

Max load on gantry girder = + = 293.50 kN
20 2
293.50
This load is shared by 2 wheels. Hence load per wheel = = 146.75 kN
2
 Max. static load per wheel = 146.75 kN
Add 25% impact load for EOT ………………………………………………..
Max. load per wheel including impact = 1.25 x 146.75 kN = 183.44 kN

Factored design load =  f x 183.44

 f = 1.5 …………………………………………………………………..
Factored vertical wheel load = 275.16 kN

Factored B.M. due to above load-

For worst loading, as per theory of moving loads, the loads shall be placed such
that one of the wheels & the resultant shall be equidistant from the centre of the
girder as shown below in fig.2-

Fig.2

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 141
 Self weight is assumed as 2KN/m. The max B.M. due to self weight is at centre
of girder. This moment is conservatively added to the max. Moment due to
wheel load.

From theory of statics, max. B.M. is given by

2 2
2W  L a  3x8 2 x 275.16
 4 − 0.875 + 24 = 695.78 kN-m
2
=  −  + =
L  2 4 8 8
where, a = wheel spacing

B. Horizontal Load Calculation:-

i) Drag load :
ii) This is the longitudinal load acting along the span of the gantry girder due to
sudden braking of the crab/trolley. This load acts at the top of rails supporting
trolley wheels.

IS:875-Part 2
Assume height of rails = 75mm & depth of gantry girder section as 650mm Cl. No. 6.3
including channel section. Pg-15 & 16

Refer fig.3

Fig.3
650
e= +75 = 400mm = 0.4m
2
This drag load is estimated as 5% of static wheel load including impact IS:875-Part 2
allowance …………………………………………………………………… Cl. No. 6.3
pg-15&16
 Factored drag load (Fh) = 5% of 275.16= 13.76 kN per wheel

 Factored vertical moment due to drag load on gantry girder

= 2 x Fh x e = 13.76 x 2 x 0.4 ………………………………………………..
M2 = 11 kN-m

 Total factored vertical B.M. = M1 + M2 = 695.78 + 11 = 706.78 kN-m

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 142
Say 707 kN-m

ii) Surge load

Surge load acts transverse to gantry girder due to sudden braking of crab along
crane girder. This value is equal to 10% of crab weight & lifting weight.

Surge load Fs = 10% of (30+200) = 23 kN ………………………………….

This load is shared equally by 4 wheels.
23
 Load per wheel = = 5.75 kN
4
Factored surge load per wheel = 1.5x5.75 = 8.625 kN

The B.M. due to surge load is maximum for load position as determined
previously for vertical B.M.

Fig.4
2
2W  L a 
Max. factored horizontal moment = − = 21.06 kN-m
L  2 4 
(Crabbing load is to be considered as well as per BS: 5950- Part 1-1990
Note:- Crabbing load is ignored in IS: 800)

C. Axial load on gantry girder

As mentioned earlier the drag force induces axial force as well in the gantry
girder.
Axial load = Drag force
Factored axial load = 13.76 x 2 = 27.52 kN

D. Shear force
For maximum shear force, one of the wheels is placed on the support as below-

Fig 5
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 143
Shear force due to vertical loads:
275.16 x(8 − 3.5) 3x8
Max. factored S.F. = + + 275.16 = 166.7 + 275.16
8 2
= 441.86 ≈ 442 kN
Shear force due to drag load:-
Moment due to drag load as obtained earlier = 11 kN-m
M 11
Shear produced to counteract this moment = = = 1.376 kN-m
L 8
 Total factored design shear force = 442 + 1.376 ≈ 444 kN

Load summary

Load Design value

1a. Bending moment @ major axis Mz-z due 695.78 kN-m
to vertical loads
1b. Bending moment @ major axis Mz-z due 11 kN-m
to drag load
2. Bending moment @ minor axis My-y due 21.06 kN-m
to surge load
3. Axial load Pu due to drag load 27.52 kN
4. Shear force 444 kN

For capacity check, following combinations shall be used as per IS-875-Part2

Load 1a. & Load 2 i.e. Mzz & Myy due to vertical load & surge load
Load 1a., Load 1b. & Load 3 i.e. Mzz & Pu due to vertical load & drag load

The above load combinations are based on the IS-875 Part2 recommendation as
per cl. No. 6.3 on page 16. This clause mention that –
Gantry girders and their vertical supports shall be designed on the assumption
that either of the horizontal forces ( Surge load & Drag load) may act at the
same time as the vertical load.

However the code also mentions a note under cl.6.4 on the same page no.16 as-

NOTE - Lateral surge force and longitudinal tractive force acting across and
along the crane rail respectively, shall not be assumed to act simultaneously.
However, if there is only one crane in the bay, the lateral and longitudinal
forces may act together simultaneously with vertical loads.

Hence in the present problem, check has been considered for following
combination also-
Load 1a., Load 1b., Load 2 & Load 3 i.e. Mzz & Pu due to vertical load & drag
load and Myy due to surge load.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 144
Step 2 : Section Selection
Span 8000
The depth of the section is approximately chosen = = =
12 12
666.67mm
Try ISMB 600 @ 1230 N/m & ISMC 300 @ 363 N/m @ top.
(Note: Choose channel depth such that the clear depth of its web is more than IS:800-2007
flange width of the ‘I’ section) Table 2; pg-18
Section properties :-
Section Properties

CHANNEL SECTION I SECTION

Size of Section = ISMC300 Size of Section = IS MB600
Self Weight of Section kn/m = 0.351 Self Weight of Section kn/m = 1.203
Depth of Section, D mm = 300 Depth of Section, D mm = 600

Thk of Flange, T mm= 13.6 Thk of Flange, T mm= 20.8

Thk of Web, t mm= 7.6 Thk of Web, t mm= 12

Eff Depth of Web, d1 mm= 272.8 Eff Depth of Web, d1 mm= 558.4
Izz of Section mm 4= 63626000 Izz of Section mm 4= 9.18E+08
Zzz of Section mm 3= 424200 Zzz of Section mm 3= 3060400
Area of Section in mm 2= 4564 Area of Section in mm 2= 15621
Centroidal distance from
Flange Cyy= 23.6
Iyy of Section mm 4 3108000 Iyy of Section mm 4 26510000
rzz of Section mm = 118.1 rzz of Section mm = 242.4

ry y of Section mm = 26.1 ry y of Section mm = 41.2

Flange Width mm 90 Flange Width mm 210

Elastic Properties
Section Properties for Built up Section IS:800-2007
Total c/s area 20185.00 mm2 Table 5; pg-30
Depth of gantry Section D 607.60 mm
Centroid from Top Yc 243.385 mm
Yt 364.215 mm
Mean Flange Thickness of Section T 28.40 mm
Izz of Gantry Section 1.2061E+09 mm4
IS:800-2007
Iyy of Gantry Section 9.014E+07 mm4 [Link].8.4;
ry y of Section 66.82 mm
rxx of Section 244.44 mm
pg-59
M.I. of Compression Flange @Y-Y axis 7.69E+07 mm4
Section modulus Zz ( about major axis) 3.312E+06 mm3
Section modulus Zy for top flange only( about minor axis) 5.13E+05 mm3

Plastic Properties
Depth of plastic neutral axis from bottom 490.17 mm
Depth of plastic neutral axis from top 117.43 mm3
Section modulus Zz ( about major axis) 4.33E+06 mm3
Section modulus Zy for top flange only( about minor axis) 7.21E+05 mm3

Step 3 :- Section Classification ………………………………………………

fy = 250 mPa
ε= 1 Where ε =(250/fy)1/2 IS:800-2007
b/t of flange of Channel Section = 6.06 Plastic [Link].8.4;

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 145
 b/t of flange of Beam Section = 4.76 Plastic pg-59
d/t of web of Beam Section = 46.53 Plastic

Section is Plastic.

Step 4:-
Moment Capacity Check:-

Here the local capacity check is taken to ensure that the section is adequate. If it
is unsafe then the section can be revised in this step itself before checking its
torsional buckling resistance. Deflection check may be taken at this stage itself.

Before checking for moment capacity, check if shear force is less than or
greater than 0.6Vd IS:800-2007
[Link].[Link];
Vn pg-53
where Vd = Design shear strength =
 mo
( mo = 1.1) ……………………………………………………………………
Check for Shear Buckling:-
d (600 − 20.8 x 2)
= = 46.53
tw 12 ………………………………………………….
67ε = 67
Since,
d
 67
tw

Shear buckling is ignored.

(Note : for all the current rolled ISMB & ISWB sections shear buckling check is
not required as
d
 67 , for these sections )
tw

Av . f y
Vd = ………………………………………..
3. mo

& Av = [Link] = 600 x 12 = 7200 mm²

 7200 x 250  1
Vd =  x
 3  1.1

=944.75 kN

= 0.6Vd = 566.85 kN Table 10

[Link]. [Link]

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 146
 Pg-44
Actual factored shear force = 444 kN < 0.6Vd
Hence no reduction is to be made in moment capacity.
Moment Capacity:- IS-800-2007
1. Strength about major axis: Table 8(c)
Design moment strength Md = lesser of a) & b) …………………..
Pg.38
1.0 x 4.33x106 x 250
a.) β[Link]/γmo = = 984.09 kNm
1.1

βb = 1.0 for plastic sections. IS-800-2007

[Link]. [Link]
1.2 x3.31x106 x 250 Pg-34
b.) 1.2 [Link]/γmo = = 902.73 kN-m < 984.09 kN-m
 mo
 M d = 902.73 kN-m
2. Strength about minor axis:
Lateral surge force is assumed to be resisted by top flange only. Design
moment strength for top flange
Mdtop = β[Link] x fy/γmo
is lesser of c) or d)
1.0 x7.21x105 x 250
c) = = 163.86 kNm
1.1 IS-800-2007
[Link]. [Link]
OR Pg-70
1.2 x5.13x105 x 250
d) = = 139.91 kNm
1.1
 M dtop = 139.91 kNm
Along with bending in both directions, axial load also acts on the section. (
refer load summary table)
3. Axial strength: IS-800-2007
[Link]. [Link]
Since the section is built-up section, the curve for class ‘c’ shall be used for Pg-54
obtaining design axial strength.
Design compressive stress fcd is calculated using
K = 1.0 …………………… Simply supported condition. ………………
L = 8.0 m
kL
rmin = ryy = 66.82mm ; = 119.72
r
 χ stress reduction factor = 0.368 ……………………………………
 . f y 0.368
 fcd = = x 250 = 83.63 N / mm2
 mo 1.1

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 147
 Design axial load Nd = fcd x c/s area =83.63 x 20185 = 1688 kN
Stress ratio for combined action of Mz, My & P ( refer note below load
summary)

N My Mz 27.52 21.06 707

= + + = + + = 0.0163 + 0.151 + 0.783
N d M dy M dz 1688 139.91 902.73
= 0.95 < 1.0
Hence Safe. …………………………………………….

Step 5 :- Buckling Resistance :-

Since the girder is laterally unsupported, it is susceptible to buckling failure

before reaching yield. Hence it is necessary to check its buckling resistance.

Design moment strength `Md’ for laterally unsupported beam = Md = βb. Zp .fbd

fbd = design bending compressive stress = χ LT . fy /  mo ………………..

CISC-2002
χ LT (bending stress reduction factor) depends on – Sp. Ref. to
ø LT depends on – Ellifritt &
Lue (1998)
λ LT (non dimensional slenderness ratio) depends on fcrb ( extreme fibre
bending compressive stress corresponding to elastic lateral buckling)

Elastic critical moment Mcr is calculated as per Annexure E since the gantry
girder section is mono symmetric about minor axis and is given by

C1 2 EI y   k  I w GI t ( LLT )2
2

0.5

 IS:800-2007
   + + (c2 yg − c3 y j )  − (c3 yg − c3 y j 
2
Mcr =
( LLT ) 2
 k
 w  yI  2
EI   Annex.E

y
 Pg-129
(For terminology of the variables used in the above equation refer IS:800-
2007)

In evaluating Mcr, following terms need to be evaluated-

1. Torsional constant It
2. Warping constant Iw

Calculation of torsional constant

I t = ∑ bi ti 3 / 3

IS:800-2007
Table 42
Pg-130

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 148
 Fig 6
For compound gantry girder section, (refer fig 6)
I t = I t beam + I t channel
2 x 210 x 20.83 558.4 x123
I t beam = + = 1.58x 106 mm4
3 3
2 x90 x13.63 272.8 x7.63
I t channel = + = 190.845x 103 mm4
3 3
CISC-2002
I t = 1.77 x 106 mm4 Sp. Ref. to
Ellifritt &
Lue (1998)
Calculation of warping constant :-

I w = (1-βf) βf x I y x h 2 y Refer fig.7b

for variables
h y = Distance between shear centers of top & bottom flange.

tw( ch ) (b 2 f x D 2 x t f )ch
h y = Dbeam − t f + + ……………………………..
2 4 I ytop
( subscript ch refers to channel properties)

= 600 - 20.8+(7.6)/2 + (902 x 3002 x 13.6)/(4 x 7.69 x 107)

h y = 614.11mm

I fc
f = = 0.83 ………………………………………………
( I fc + I ft )

 I w = (1 − 0.83)0.83 x9.0136 x107 x614.112 = 4.744 x1012 mm6

IS:800-2007
Calculation of Mcr :- Cl.8.2.2,pg-
54
K = 1.0 (Simply supported)

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 149
Kw = 1.0 (No provision to restrain warping at ends)
2
 K 
   = 1.0
 Kw 
I w 4.744 x1012
= 7
= 52631.58 mm2
I y 9.0136 x10
G I t x ( LLT )
2
(0.769 x105 x1.77 x106 ) x(8000)2
= = 4.903x104
 EI y
2
 x 2 x10 x9.0136 x10
2 5 7

C1 = 1.046
C2 = 0.430 …………………………………………………….
C3 = 1.120
C1 2 EI y
2
= 2.908 x106
( LLT )

Yg = Y = Distance between PT. of application of load & shear centre.

IS-800-2007
[Link]. [Link]
Pg-70

Fig.7a

Fig. 7b
Shear Center Location:-
Shear centre location is required to evaluate yg
Ref. fig. 7a & 7b above from CISC-2002/Pg.12 ( Torsional section properties
of steel shapes)

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 150
 t + c
Yo =Yt - −a+e
2
I 
a = 1-  y (top )  xh = (1 − 0.833) x614.11 = 104.40
 I y 

and e=
( b 2 d 2t )
ch
= 31.11
4I y
Yo = 243.385- (20.8+7.6)/2 -104.4+31.11
= 155.895mm Refer fig.8
 Yg =Yt+ 75 – Yo = 243.385 + 75 – 155.895 ( ht. of rails is assumed as 75
mm)
= 161.07 IS:800-2007
 C₂Yg = 69.29 [Link].8.7.4
0.8 ( 2 ƒ − 1) h y 0.8 ( 2x0.83 − 1) 614.11 pg-67
Yj = =
2.0 2.0
= 163.26
 C₃Yj = 182.85

Substituting all above values,

Mcr = [2.908 x 10⁶ {52631.58 + 4.903x104 + (69.29-182.85)² }½ - (69.29 –
182.85)]
Refer fig.8
= [2.908 x 10⁶ (338.463 – 69.29 + 182.85 ]
 1314.5 kN-m
Having obtained Mcr, find bending stress reduction factor - ……………….
Non-dimensional slenderness ratio λLT is lesser of
1.0 x 4.33x106 x 250
b .Z p . f y / M cr = = 0.907
1314.5 x106
1.2 xZ e . f y 1.2 x3.31x106 x 250
= = = 0.869
M cr 1314.5 x106
Hence λLT = 0.869
ØLT = 0.5 [ 1 + αLT ( λLT - 0.2 ) + λLT² ]
αLT ( imperfection parameter)=0.21 for rolled I section
ØLT = 0.5 [ 1 + 0.21 ( 0.869 - 0.2 ) + 0.869² ] = 0.95

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Bending stress reduction factor, χLT
1
= ≤ 1.0
[LT + (LT 2 − LT 2 )1/2 ]
1
= = 0.75
0.95 + (0.952 − 0.8692 )1/2
 LT . f y 0.75 x 250
fbd = = = 171 N / mm2
 mo 1.1
Md = β[Link] = 1.0x4.33x10⁶x171
=741.40 kNm
Design bending strength in minor direction
f .Z 250 x7.25 x105
M dy = y py (top ) = = 163.93 kNm
 mo 1.1
(Note:- no stress reduction is made in minor axis bending as lateral buckling is
not considered in minor direction)
Combined stress ratio check :-
N M M 27.52 21.06 707
+ y + z = + + = 1.09  1.0 IS:800-2007
Nd M dy M dz 1688 163.93 741.40
……………………….. Table 6 pg-31
Hence revise the section. ( ISMC 350 instead of ISMC 300 gives a safe result
with stress ratio of 0.97 .This can be verified by the user.)
(Note : It can be noted that if as per IS-875 –Part 2 both horizontal loads are
not considered to acting simultaneously ( as mentioned after load summary
table), and considering the load combination –Load 1a. & Load 2 i.e. Mzz &
Myy due to vertical load & surge load
Then stress ratio will be
My Mz 21.06 695.78
+ = + = 1.06  1.0
M dy M dz 163.93 741.40
N 0.9M y 0.9M z
[Also note that as per BS-5950-part 1-1990, + + should be
Nd M dy M dz
used in case of vertical & horizontal moment being acting simultaneously; in
which case the stress ratio will be equal to 0.99 and section will be safe.]
Step 6 :- Web Buckling
Buckling check is not required as mentioned earlier since
d
 67
tw
Step:7 Web bearing / crushing resistance check
a) Web bearing at supports:-

Assume minimum stiff bearing length 100mm & 16mm thick base plate
below the gantry girder as below-

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 Code &
clause no. to
be referred
IS:875-Part-2
pg-15&16

IS:800-2007
Clauses

Table 4 pg-29

Fig.8
Table 5 pg-30

 Stiff bearing length = 100 + ( 16 + 20.3 ) x 2.5 ………………………….

Table 2 pg-18
= 190.75mm

 Capacity of web = Fw = (b₁+n₂).tw fyw/γmo …………………………

[Link] pg-34
190.75 x12 x 250
= = 520.22 kN > 444kN ( max. shear force )
1.1 8.2.2 pg-54
 Safe

b) Under the wheel loads:-

Annexure E
Assumed height of rails = 75mm & dia. of wheels =150mm pg-129
-----≠-------
 Dispersed length at 450 = ( 75 + 20.3+7.6 ) x 2 CISC 2000
Annexure E
= 205.8mm pg-130

205.8 x12 x 250 8.2.2 pg-54

 Capacity = = 561.27 kN > 275.16 kN ( Max. wheel load) 9.2.2 pg-70
1.1

 Safe

Step 8 :- Deflection check 9.3.1 pg-70

(For unfactored load cases in service condition) without impact
The deflection check may also be taken before Buckling resistance check to 8.4 pg-59
ensure that the section is safe in deflection. Using appropriate units,
a) Vertical deflection:- [Link] pg-65

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 W.a ( 3L² − 4a² ) 146.75 x 2.25(3x82 − 4 x2.252 ) Table 6- pg31
δv = = x1000
24 EI z 24 x 2 x108 x1.206 x10−3

where a= distance of the point load from support

= 9.79mm

actual self wt. w = 1.203 + 0.351 = 1.554 kN/m

Assume wt. of rail as 0.3 kN/m. Hence total wt.  1.854 kN/m<2.0 kN/m as
assumed earlier.

Deflection due to actual self wt. w = 5wL4/ (384EIZ) =0.410 mm

Span
Total vertical deflection =9.79+0.410 =10.206 mm < i.e. 10.667mm
750

 OK …………………………………………………………………….

b) Horizontal deflection:- Only top flange is assumed to resist the deflection.

W.a ( 3L² − 4a² )

H =
24 EI ytop
where W = 5.75 kN Iy top = 7.69x10⁷mm⁴
5.75x2.25(3x82 -4x2.252 )
 H = −5 x1000 = 4.73mm < 10mm.
24 x 2 x108 x7.97 x10
 Safe
________________________________________________________________
Note: In all the above calculations/ expression/equations, the values are
rounded off for presentation. However the exact values are considered for
actual calculations using spread sheet.

References :-
• IS 800 : 1984– Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel (
First Revision)

• IS 800 : 2007 Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel (

Third Revision)

• IS 875 : Part 2 Code of practice for design loads ( Other than

Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures- Imposed loads

• Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, 2002

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 • BS 5950 : Part 1 : 1990 Structural use of steelwork in building.

• Euro code 3 : Design of Steel Structures.

• Design of Steel Structures – N. Subramanian

• Structural Steelwork - Design to Limit State Theory - Dennis Lam,

Thien Cheong Ang & Sing- Ping Chiew

Gantry girder is a special problem of laterally unsupported beams. The basic

steps involved in the design of the gantry girder and the relevant clause to be
referred are as-
Steps
1. Load calculation (impact allowance, drag force & surge force ) & load
combination …………………………………………………………..

2. Partial Load factors to obtain design loads …………………………..

3. Partial safety factors for materials ……………………………………

4. Section selection & classification and properties calculations………

5. Design stress calculation:

a. Axial compression ………………………………………………..
b. Design bending stress based on slenderness and stress reduction
factor for laterally unsupported beam ……………………………..

6. Elastic critical moment Mcr for a mono-symmetric section-

a. Warping constant ……………………………………………….
b. Torsion constant ……………………………………………….

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 c. Shear centre location ……………………………………………
d. Constants c1,c2,c3 ………………………………………………..

e. Design moment capacity for low shear case OR ………………

f. Design moment capacity for high shear case ………………….

7. Combined stress ratio check ………………………………………..

8. Shear capacity check ………………………………………………..

9. Web bearing capacity check under wheel load ……………………..

10. Deflection check …………………………………………………….

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Lecture No. 11
Title: Design of Plate Girder
Speaker: Dr. Sandeep M. Shiyekar, Professor, SCOE, Pune.

1. Introduction
Plate girders are used in structural applications where the bending moments and shearing
forces developed over long spans beams are much more than the moment and shear
resisting capacity of the available rolled steel sections. Top and bottom flanges resist
bending moment and deep web plate resists shear force in the section. To reduce the
slenderness ratio because of high depth of web to small thickness of web, vertical
stiffeners are provided to give stability against the elastic buckling of web. Therefore, to
provide a more efficient and economical girder design, attention must be focused on the
elastic shear buckling strength as well as postbuckling strength of plate girders, i.e., their
ability to carry loads beyond their elastic buckling capacity.
Wilson (1886) presented the first study of the postbuckling strength of plate girder web
panels. Where as Wagner (1929) developed the diagonal tension theory to assess the
postbuckling shear strength of thin panels used in aircraft structures. Extensive studies
were conducted by Basler and Thurlimann (1959) on the postbuckling behavior of plate
girder web panels under shear. In the limit state design concept in steel structures, the
work initiated by Basler and Thurlimann was followed by a various modified failure
theories to achieve a better correlation between theory and tests. In failure theories of
shear web panels, the ultimate shear strength is determined by adding the postbuckling
strength to the elastic buckling strength. However, a nonlinear finite-element study by
Lee and Yoo (1998) revealed that the assumed failure mechanisms in Basler and Cardiff
models may not accurately represent the shear behavior of web panels. Basler and Cardiff
models assumed that the web panel is simply supported at the flange-web juncture.
However, the nonlinear finite-element analyses and other studies (Lee et al. 1996)
showed that the boundary condition at the juncture is much closer to a fixed support in
most geometric proportions of flanges and webs of practical plate girder designs.
Therefore, the assumption that the web panel is simply supported at the juncture gives a
much too conservative shear buckling strength for many plate girder web panels. In all
existing failure mechanisms for plate girder web panels, including that of Wagner (1931),
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it is assumed that the web panel remains in the in-plane stress state all the way to failure.
However, it was found that considerable bending stresses develop at failure due to out-of-
plane deformations, resulting in a substantial reduction of the postbuckling strength,
particularly for web panels with low slenderness. The postbuckling strength of the
tension-field action first proposed by Wagner appears to be sufficiently accurate for very
thin web panels made of sheet metal that are widely used in aircraft structures. However,
the applicability of the same in-plane tension-field action to relatively thick panels used
in civil engineering structures like plate girders, to account for the postbuckling strength
appears to be questionable. According to Lee and Yoo (1998), the tension-field action
neglecting out-of-plane bending stress effects still gives acceptable answers for plate
girders with an aspect ratio of a/D = 1.5, where a is transverse stiffener spacing and D is
girder depth. It has been shown in the study that the underestimation of the elastic
buckling strength and the overestimation of the postbuckling strength offset each other
for plate girders with the aspect ratio. The results of the finite-element analyses (Lee and
Yoo 1998) appeared to conflict the well-known hypothesis that a panel must provide
sufficient rigid anchors, such as heavy flanges, to resist diagonal tensions and develop the
complete postbuckling strength. From the nonlinear finite-element analyses, it was found
that the flange rigidity has little effect on the postbuckling strength. However, it does
affect the elastic buckling strength of web panels as it affects the degree of restraint at the
flange-web juncture.
2. ELEMENTS OF PLATE GIRDER
The various elements in the stiffened and un-stiffened plate girder are listed below
a) Web Plate (WP)
b) Flange Plates (FP)
c) End Posts or Bering Stiffeners (EP)
d) Intermediate Transverse Stiffeners (ITS)
e) Longitudinal Stiffeners (LS)
f) Web Splices (WS)
g) Flange Splices (FS)
h) Connection between flanges and web
i) End connections
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All the elements of the plate girder are shown in the Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 2.1 Longitudinal and Cross Section of a Stiffened Plate Girder

3. PLATE BUCKLING
The primary functions of the web plate in a plate girder are to maintain the relative
distance between the top and bottom flanges as well as to resist the induced shear force.
The induced shear force in the section is relatively smaller than the axial force developed
in the section due to flexure. As a result the thickness of the web is generally smaller than
that of flanges in most practical ranges of span lengths. Thus, the web panel buckles at
relatively low value of the applied shear force. The webs are reinforced with transverse
stiffeners to increase the buckling strength. The core design of plate girder is to find
optimum spacing of the transverse stiffeners suitable for the thickness of the web plate.
Earlier code design methodology is based on elastic buckling of the web plate as limiting
condition but the present code design is based on the post-buckling strength as limit state.

3.1 ELASTIC PRE-BUCKLING OF THE SIMPLY SUPPORTED PLATE

Consider rectangular simply supported flat plate simply supported on all sides and
subjected to uniform compressive force Nx per unit length in x-direction as shown in Fig.
3.1.

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 y
Nx

x
Nx
Fig. 3.1 Buckling of plate under uniform compressive force
The equilibrium equation as per the Classical Plate Theory (CPT) based on Kirchhoff’s
hypothesis is given by

4w 4w  4 w 12(1 − 2 )  4w 

+ 2 + = − N
 x 4 (3.1)
x 4 x 2x 2 y 4 Et 3  x 

Where, w is transverse displacement of the plate in the z-direction. To suit the simply
supported boundary conditions, Navier’s solution procedure is adopted to define the ‘w’
for sinusoidal buckling shape of the plate.
 
 m x   n y 
w( x, y ) =  
m =1,3,5 n =1,3,5
wmn sin  sin
 a   b 
(3.2)

Substituting Eq. 3.2 in Eq. 3.1, The lowest value of the buckling force (Nx) is obtained as
per the following equation n = 1 as,
2
 2 Et 3  b 1 a 
( N x )cr = m +  (3.3)
12(1 − 2 )b 2  a m b 
The elastic critical buckling stress is given by
k 2 E
( x )cr = 2
, (3.4)
b
12(1 − 2 )  
t
2
 b 1 a
Where, k =  m +  (3.5)
 a mb
The expression in Eq. 3.4 is similar to Euler’s buckling load for columns

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  2E
( x )cr
col
= (3.6)
( r)
2


3.2 POST-BUCKLING OF THE PLATE

Consider a rectangular plate with all four edges simply supported and subjected to
uniform compression along x-direction as shown in Fig. 3.2. When the compressive stress
equals the critical buckling stress, the central part of the plate along y-axis buckles, but
the edges along the x-axis remains in position and cannot deflect in the z-direction. The
strips closer to these edges continue to carry more load without instability. The outer
strips carry more stress than the inner strips as shown in Fig. 3.2. This gives the guarantee
of the stability of the plate in the post-buckling range. To calculate the load carrying
capacity of the plate in the post-buckling range, the concept of effective width is used,
which is first proposed by von Karman. Therefore, the non-uniform stress distribution
across the width of the buckled plate, can be replaced by a uniform stress blocks of stress
equal to that at the edges, over a width of beff/2 on either side

beff/2 beff/2

Fig. 3.2 Stress distribution in post-buckling actual and assumed

Where, beff is called the effective width of the plate. This effective width can be
calculated by equating the non-uniform stress blocks and the uniform stress blocks.

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The shape of the non-uniform stress block depends on the load and support conditions.
For the plate simply supported on all four sides, as the load is increased beyond the
critical buckling load, the stress block becomes more and more non-uniform. When the
stress at the outer strips reaches the yield stress, the corresponding effective width can be
calculated using Winter’s formula

beff     cr 
=  cr
 f  1 − 0.22    (3.7)
b  y    fy  

The ultimate strength of the plate is approximately given by the product of fy and the
effective width beff.

4. WEB PLATE BUCKLING IN SHEAR

Shear force in the plate also buckles the plate. For example, web plates in a plate girder,
buckles due to shear. Consider a plate loaded in shear in its own plane as shown in Fig.
4.1 with
a square element in the plate, experiences tensile stresses on two opposite edges and
compressive stresses on the other two edges. The compressive stress can cause local
buckling and as a result the plate develops waves perpendicular to them. The critical
shear stress at which this form of buckling occurs is given by the same formula as that for
plate buckling under compression, except that the value for the buckling coefficient k is
different.

Fig. 4.1 Shear buckling of a web plate

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The buckling coefficient k depends on aspect ratio a/d and various boundary conditions.

Fig. 3.4 Shear buckling coefficients k (Lee et al., 1996)

Lee et al. (1996) studied the nature of an elastic restraint (Fig. 4.2) at the interface
between the flange and web plate using finite element techniques considering various
parameters (Fig. 4.3). Over 300 hypothetical plate girder models with the realistic support
condition at the juncture are closer to a fixed support considered as one of the parameters
associated with practical designs. Two simple equations are proposed in the
determination of the elastic shear buckling coefficients of plate girder web panels. The
current methodologies assume that the web panel is simply supported at the juncture
between the flange and the web panel. This assumption may result in an overly
conservative design of web panels. It is, therefore, proposed that the shear buckling
coefficient be determined by the proposed equations for the design of plate girder web
panels, particularly when the aspect ratio is larger than one and when the ratio of the
flange thickness to the web.

Fig. 4.3 Buckling mode shapes for various flange and web thickness ratios (Ref: Lee et al., 1996)

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4.1 SIMPLE POST-CRITICAL METHOD
This is a general method and can be applied for all girders with I- section girders, with or
without intermediate transverse stiffeners. The nominal shear strength is given by IS 800:
2007
Vn = Vcr
Where Vcr is the shear force corresponding to web buckling.
Vcr = Av b

Where Av is the shear area and b is the shear stress corresponding to web buckling
determined as follows.
(a) When w <= 0.8 b = fyw/30.5
(b) When 0.8< w <1.2 b = [1-0.8(w -0.8)]( fyw /30.5)
(c) When w >= 1.2 b = fyw /(30.5 w2)
Where w is the normalized web slenderness ratio for shear buckling stress given by

w = (fyw /30.5 cr,e)

K v 2 E
cr,e = The elastic critical shear stress of the web =
12(1 −  2 )  d / tw 
2

where,  = Poission’s ratio, and

Kv = 5.35 when transverse stiffeners are provided only at supports

= 4.0 + 5.35/(c/d)2 for c/d <1.0

= 5.35 = 4.0/(c/d)2 for c/d >= 1.0,
where, c and d are the spacing of transverse stiffeners and depth of the web respectively

4.2 TENSION FIELD ACTION

After the shear buckling of the plate, the plate can resist more loads in shear. The
diagonal loaded in compression buckles and cannot support additional load. But the
diagonal in tension continues to carry more load and the plate becomes like a triangular
truss with only tension diagonals. This is called tension field action.
In the tension field method, the nominal shear resistance, Vn is given by IS 800: 2007
Vn = Vtf,
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Where,
Vtf = [ Av b + 0.9 wtf f v sin  ]  V p

Where,
b = Buckling strength as obtained by simple post-critical method or tension field

method
fv = Yield strength of tension field obtained from
0.5
=  f yw − 3 b + 2  −
2 2

 = 1.5  b sin 2

 = Inclination of tension field = tan-1 (d/c)

wtf = The width of the tension field given = d cos  + (c – sc –st) sin 
f yw = yield stress of the web

d = depth of the web

c = spacing of the stiffeners in the web
b = shear stress corresponding to web buckling as per simple post-critical method

s c , st = anchorage lengths of tension field along the compression and tension flange
respectively
0.5
2  M fr 
= s=   c
sin   f ywtw 

Where,
M fr = Reduced plastic moment capacity of respective flange plate after accounting for

axial
force in the flange, due to flexure or any other axial force
 N  
2

= 0.25b f t f f yf 1 −   
2 f

  ( b f t f f yf  m 0 )  
 
Where,
bf, tf = width and thickness of the relevant flange respectively
f yf = yield stress of the flange

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 Fig. 4.4 Various tension field theories (Ref: Yo and Lee, 2006)
Many researchers have studied the tension field action for plate girders. These
researchers include Basler (1961), Fujii (1968), Porter et al. (1975), Sharp and Clark
(1971), and Steinhardt and Schroter (1971). Fig. 4.4 shows the yield zones assumed in
classical failure theories of plate girder web panels for the case where a diagonal tension
field develops. Basler (1961), Porter et al. (1975), assumed that the diagonal tension field
develops in a limited portion of the web panel. Fujii (1968) assumed that the diagonal
tension field develops all over the web panel, but the intensity of the diagonal tension
varies across the perpendicular direction of the tension diagonal. The assumption by
Steinhardt and Schroter (1971) falls in between the previous two assumptions. Wagner
(1931) used a uniform tension field to determine the strength of a thin panel in pure
shear.
The following fundamental assumption was applicable to all the theories: Compressive
stresses that develop in the direction perpendicular to the tension diagonal do not increase
any further once elastic buckling has taken place.

4.3 FLANGE ANCHORING MECHANISM

According to the classical tension field theory, a tension field cannot develop in the web
panel without anchoring mechanism developed by the flanges and adjacent panels. The
principal compressive stress developed in the pre-buckling stage cannot increase after the
elastic buckling. The direction of tension field in collinear with the diagonal tension

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during post-buckling stage. Where, the vertical and horizontal stresses are assumed to be
anchored by the flanges and adjacent panels. The postbuckling mechanism that takes
place due to anchoring action of the flanges is referred as ‘anchoring mechanism’. In
addition, the transverse stiffener has to withstand the vertical component of the tension
field for equilibrium. (Lee et al. 2009).
Lee et al. (2009) presented a detailed review on the flange anchoring mechanism and
concluded that rather than all sides simply supported case, when two opposite edges of a
simply supported panel are provided with rigid anchors gives an enormous increment of
the postbuckling strength over the simply supported case. Axial forces developed in the
transverse stiffeners attached to ordinary plate girders due to the anchoring mechanism
are negligibly small. Utilization of the flange anchoring mechanism in practical designs is
not possible because it requires an unimaginably high axial stiffness of the transverse
stiffeners.

4.4 ACTUAL FAILURES OF WEB PANELS

Lee and Yoo (1998) presented an experimental investigation conducted on the ultimate
shear strength of plate girder web panels and concluded that the assumed failure
mechanisms may not correctly represent actual behaviors of plate girder web panels.

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 Fig. 3.5 Shear Failure, Specimen G2, G3 and G5 (Ref: Lee and Yoo, 1998)

Fig. 3.5 Buckling and yielding failure of flange of specimen G9 (Ref: Lee and Yoo, 1998)

Fig. 3.6 Combined shear and bending failure of web panel of specimen G10 (Ref: Lee and Yoo, 1998)

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5. CODAL PROVISION AS PER IS 800 : 2007
The salient features on the codal provisions for design of plate girder are discussed in this
section.
5.1 SELECTION OF WEB
Depth of girder i.e. depth of web ignoring thickness of flange plates is proportioned with
span mainly to control deflection and economical flange area.
Recommended span to depth ratios are as under
Constant depth in case of simply supported girder 12 to 20
Constant depth in case of continuous girder 15 to 20
Constant depth in case of simply supported crane girder 10 to 15
Girders having span/depth ratio lesser than 12 are deep beams. For such cases structural
behavior can not be described by usual beam theory.

5.2 DEPTH TO THICKNESS RATIO OF WEB

The selection of web is also governed by limiting d/tw ratio in different conditions of
stiffener arrangements. As per IS: 800-2007, there are various recommendations. It is to
be noted that in case of rolled steel section, ratio d/tw is less than 67ε and hence the web
is plastic and capable of offering shear buckling resistance for its fullest capacity. As
ratio increases tendency of buckling of web occurs due to following situation.
1) Under concentrated load and at support
2) Diagonal compression at neutral axis
3) Buckling of compression flange into web
Codal provisions guarding these situations for plate girder with transverse stiffeners only
are described as under
a) Clause [Link] (P. No. 59)
In case of plate girder with stiffener, resistance to shear buckling is to be verified when
d/tw > 67 ε √(Kv/5.35)
Where, Kv is shear buckling coefficient
Kv = 5.35 when transverse stiffeners are provided only at support
= 4.0 + 5.35 / (c/d)2 for c/d < 1.0
= 5.35 + 4.0 / (c/d)2 for c/d ≥ 1.0
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Where ‘c’ is spacing of transverse stiffeners and d is the depth of web
b) Serviceability requirement clause [Link] (P. No. 63)
When only transverse stiffeners are provided along the depth of web then
d/tw ≤ 200 εw
εw = √(250/fyw) for web
fyw relates to yield strength of web material.
c) For c = 0.74d to 3d refer compression flange buckling requirement clause [Link] (P.
No. 64). In order to avoid buckling of compression flange into the web and when only
transverse stiffeners are provided.
d/tw ≤ 345 εf where εf = √(250/fyf) for flange
This situation occurs when flange is semi compact being vulnerable to buckle before
yield takes place.
Since d/tw is restricted to 200 for serviceability requirement flange buckling into web is
automatically controlled for identical yield strength of flange and web.
In general, when d/tw ≤ 67 εw no stiffeners are required
200 εw ≥ d / tw > 67 εw only transverse stiffeners required and
d/tw > 200 εw transverse as well as longitudinal stiffeners required
Note: In plate girder web classification always belongs to slender as d/tw > 126 εw and
therefore it needs stiffening.

5.3 DESIGN OF FLANGE

Flange in welded plate girder is a solid plate of width b and thickness t f.
curtailment of thicker plate is made by reducing thickness ‘tf’ keeping ‘b’ same. At
curtailment, direct full penetration butt weld is sufficient in between thick and thin flange
plate.
Width of flange plate ‘b’ is generally 0.3 times depth of web. Flange is to be
plastic to develop plastic moment of resistance fully, ratio b/2tf must be less than 8.4 ε.
Having selected ‘d’ of web plate flange plate area Af is obtained by assuming
flanges only resist BM so that,
BM = Af fy d / γmo
Therefore Af = BM x γmo / (fy d)

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5.4 TENSION FIELD ACTION
In above paragraph we have seen that web being slender (d/t > 126) requires
strengthening. Web strength is increased due to transverse stiffeners. Provision of vertical
stiffeners guard web against buckling by diagonal compression due to shear. After shear
buckling of web panel in between stiffeners, the web resist further additional shear due to
tension field action. This tension field anchors against the top and bottom flanges and
against the adjacent transverse stiffeners on either side of web panel. This is similar to N
type truss arrangement. In post buckling, resistance by web panel is analogous to that of
diagonal of truss. The web offers resistance to shear in two ways
1) By shear buckling due to diagonal compression
2) Post buckling resistance by tension field action
Thus Tension field action takes place under following conditions
a) When factored shear is more than shear buckling resistance
b) Ratio c/d > 1 … clause [Link] (b) P No. 60
c) Enough anchorage is available by means adjacent web panels or stronger end stiffener
of girder.
Table 5.1 Salient codal provisions for design of plate girder as per IS: 800 – 2007
Aspect IS:800 – 1984 IS:800 – 2007
WSM LSM
Preliminary selection of No change No change
web dimensions
Preliminary selection of Outstand restricted to 16tf Outstand – 8.4 εf tf for
flange plate dimensions flange to be plastic
Intermediate transverse Uniform May not be uniform
stiffeners (ITS) spacing
over span
Clauses for spacing of ITS 0.33d to 1.5 d Lower limit not specified
but it can be 0.74 d
Higher limit 3d
Load on ITS No Subjected to compressive
load in tension field
condition of web panel.
Requirement of ITS (d/t)≥ 85 Limiting d/t of web depends

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 on stiffener spacing
Serviceability requirement - d/t ≤ 200 tw
Buckling of comp flange - d/t ≤ 345 εf
into web
Post buckling resistance due - To be considered if required
to tension field acition for web panel having
c/d ≥ 1
Economy Shear strength of web is as Web even after shear
per allowable value equal to buckling resists additional
0.4 fy shear due to tension field
action of web panel. Hence
design is more economical
Outstand of stiffener flat 12 t 14 t
Minimum MI of ITS Independent of c/d ratio Dependant on c/d ratio
1.5 d3t3/c2

6. DESIGN PROBLEM OF PLATE GIRDER USING IS: 800-2007

Design a plate girder of span 36m which carries service loads as under. Take fy = 250
MPa for all plates.
6.1 Loading calculations
Dead load – a) udl – wd = 18 kN/m
b) conc. Load W1d = 180 kN at 9 m from right end
c) Conc. Load W2d = 180 kN at 9 m from left end
Live load a) udl wl = 35 kN/m
b) Conc. Load W1l = 400 kN at 9 m from right end
c) Conc. Load W2l = 400 kN at 9 m from left end
Factored load = w = 18 x 1.5 + 35 x 1.5 = 79.5 kN/m
W1 = 180 x 1.5 + 400 x 1.5 = 870 kN
W2 = 180 x 1.5 + 400 x 1.5 = 870 kN

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 Fig 6.1 Plate girder and factored loading

BM = 79.5 x (362/8) + 870 x 9 = 12879 + 7830 = 20709 kNm

SF = 79.5 x (36/2) + 870 = 2301 kN

6.2 DESIGN
Depth of plate girder = l/12 to l/20 = 1.8 m to 3 m
Use d = 2600 mm (l/d=13.8)
Assuming flanges resist only BM and web in shear
flange Af = M/d(fy/γmo) = 20709 x 106 / 2600 x (250/1.1) = 1.1 x 20709 / 2.6 x 0.25
= 1.1 x 20709 / 0.675 = 33748 sqmm
Width of flange approx. 0.3 d = B = 780 mm, Assume 780 x 50 mm plate = 39000 sqmm
Taking web 16 mm thick

Classification
b = (B-tw)/2 = (780 - 16)/2 = 382
tf = 50 mm
b/tf = 382 / 50 = 7.64 < 8.4 ε = 8.4
Therefore flange is plastic
web d/tw = 2600/16 = 162.5 > 126
therefore web is slender and requires strengthening
also as d/tw = 162.5 > 67 ε web also requires check for shear buckling
Serviceability condition
Taking stiffener spacing c = 2500

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As c = 2500, d = 2600
Therefore c is greater than 0.74 x 2600 = 1924, As per Clause [Link] (P. No. 63),
tw = d/200 = 2600 / 200 = 13 mm < 16 mm actual web is adequate for serviceability

6.3 MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

Fig. 6.2 Cross section of Plate Girder

Md = (250/1.1) x 780 x 50 x 2650 Nmm
= 23488.63 kNm >> 20709
Nominal plastic shear resistance under pure shear (8.4.1/59)
Vn = Vp
Vp = Aw fyw / √3
Aw = web area = [Link] = 2600 x 16 sqmm
fyw / √3 = shear strength of web 250 /√3 = 144.25 N/mm2
Vp = 2600 x 16 x 144.25 N = 6000.8 kN

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 Fig 6.3 Symmetrically arranged Transverse stiffener spacing
Panel AB
Stiffener spacing = 2500
Resistance to shear buckling
As d/tw = 2600/16 = 162.5 > (67ε) (√Kv/ 5.35) = 67 x 1 x 1.29 = 86.43
Kv = shear buckling coefficient
c/d = 2500/2600 = 0.96
kv = 4 + 5.35 / (c/d)2 for c/d < 1.0
= 4 + 5.35 / 0.9216 = 4 + 6.80 = 10.80
τcr,e – Elastic critical shear stress of web
= kv π2 E / 12 (1-υ2) (d/tw)2
= 10.80 x π2 x 2 x 105 / 12 (1-0.09) (162.5)2
= [16.125 / (162.5)2] 105
= 161.25/2.64 = 73.87 N/mm2
λw = √(fyw / √3 x τcr,e) = 1.397
as λw = 1.397 > 1.2
τb = fyw / (√3 (1.397)2) = 73.91 N/mm2
Vcr = Av τb (critical shear buckling resistance)
= 2600 x 16 x 73.91
= 3074.796 kN
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Vcr = Vn = nominal shear strength = 3074.8 kN
Vd = Vn / γmo = 3074.8/1.1 = 2795.27
Therefore actual shear V < Vd design strength
2301 < 2795.27 OK
Therefore End panel need not be checked for tension field action.
Panel BC
Spacing of stiffener = 3250 mm
c/d = 3250/2600 = 1.25 > 1
using tension field method as c/d > 1
Nominal shear resistance Vn = Vtf
Vtf = [Av τb + 0.9 wtf fv sin] ≤ Vp
τb = buckling strength as obtained – [Link] (a) = 73.91 N/mm2
As c/d = 1.25 > 1
Kv = 5.35 + 4 / (c/d)2
= 5.35 x 4/1.252
= 5.35 + 6.25 = 11.60
τcr,e (Kv π2 E)/(12 (1-υ2) (d/tw)2)
= 11.6 x π2 x 2 x 105 / (12 x 0.91 x (162.5)2)
= 79.32
λw = √[(250)/(√3 x 79.32)] = √1.818 = 1.348 > 1.2
τb = (fyw / √3) x (1/λw2) = (250 / √3) (1/1.817) =  N/mm2
Shear buckling resistance = Av b
= 2600 x 16 x 79.38
= 3302.2 kN
Factored shear at B = 2301 – 2.5 x 79.5
= 2102.25 kN
As shear buckling resistance is greater than factored shear at B in panel BC; tension field
action will not take place. However to illustrate the procedure of tension field action,
following is the procedure explained.

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 Fig 6.4 Tension field action in panel BCFE

 = tan-1(d/c) = tan-1 (2600/3250) = 38.660

sin = 0.6247
cos = 0.7808
sin2 = 0.9756
fv = yield strength of tension field
= [fyw2 – 3 τb2 +]0.5 - 
 = 1.5 τb sin 2 = 1.5 x 79.38 x 0.9756 = 116.16
fv = [2502 – 3 x 79.382 + 116.162]0.5 – 116.16
= [62500 – 18903.55 + 13493.14]0.5 – 116.16
= [57089.6]0.5 – 116.16 = 238.93 – 116.16
= 122.77
wtf = width of tension field = d cos + (c – Sc - St)sin
= 2600 x 0.7808 + (3250 – Sc - St) x 0.6247
Mtf = 0.25 bf tf2 fyf [1-{Nf / (Bf tf fyf / γmo)}2]
Bf = 780, tf = 50, fyf = 250

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Nf = M/(d + tf) = 20709 x 106 / (2600 + 50) = axial force in flange = 7.81 x 106 N
Mtf = 0.25 x 780 x (50)2 x 250 [1-{(7.81 x 106) / (780 x 50 x 250)}2]
= 0.25 x 780 x (50)2 x 250 [1-(0.8811)2]
= 0.25 x 780 x (50)2 x 250 [1- 0.776]
= 0.25 x 780 x 502 x 250 x 0.224
= 27300,000 Nmm = 27.3 kNm
Sc = St = (2 / sin ) [Mtf / fyw tw]0.5 ≤c
= 2/0.6247 [(27.3 x 106) / 250 x 16]0.5
= 2/0.6247 [(27.3 x 106) / 4000]0.5
=2/0.6247 x 10 [(27.3) / 0.4]0.5
= (2 x 8.26)/0.6247 = 264.44 mm
wtf = d cos – (c – Sc -St)sin
= 2600 x 0.7808 – (3250 – 264.44 – 264.44) x 0.6247
= 2030.08 – (2721.12) x 0.6247
= 2030.08 – 1699.88 = 340.20 width of tension field
Vtf = [Av τb + 0.9 wtf tw fv sin] ≤ Vp
= [2600 x 16 x 79.38 + 0.9 x 340.20 x 16 x 122.77 x 0.6247]
= 3302.208 + 375.71 kN = 3677.92 > 2102.25

Factored shear in panel at 2.5 m from support = 2301 – 2.5 x 79.5 = 2102.25 kN OK
As Vtf = 3677.92 > 2102.25 kN OK
The main part of design of plate girder is illustrated above which includes design of
section, check for shear buckling strength of web, stiffener spacing, tension field action
of web if necessary. Remaining part of design includes flange to web welded connection,
design of bearing and intermediate transverse stiffeners and their connection with web
and web splice.

6.4 HIGHLIGHTING POINTS FOR REMAINING PART OF DESIGN

a) Flange to web welded connection cl. [Link] (P. No. 65) as before, weld to be
designed for horizontal shear due to SF in girder and vertical shear due to

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 178
 imposed load on flange. If web is required to be subjected to tension field action
then transfer of tension field stress fyw on web is also to be considered.
b) Stiffeners outstand of stiffener plate should not exceed 20 tq ε. If outstand is in
between 14 tq ε to 20 tq ε, then in design of stiffener core section with an outstand
of 14 tq ε to be considered where tq is thickness of stiffener flat/angle (Clause
8.7.12 P. No. 65). No other changes in clauses for design of bearing stiffener.
Intermediate transverse stieners not directly subjected to external load are also
required to be checked for buckling for stiffener force fq, (Clause [Link] P. No.
67)
fq = (V - Vcr)/γmo ≤ fqd
Where, fqd = design resistance of intermediate stiffener
V = factored shear adjacent to stiffener
Vcr = Shear buckling strength of web panel without tension field action.
c) If end panel is designed using tension field action then end post requires check for
anchor forces (Clause 8.5.2. and 8.5.3 P. No. 62).

7. REFERENCES
Wilson, J. M. (1886). “On specifications for strength of iron bridges.” Trans. Am. Soc.
Civ. Eng., 15(1), 401–403, 489–490.
Wagner, H. (1929). "Ebene Blecktragen mit dunnen Stegblech," Zeitschriftfur
Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffart, 20.
Basler, K., and Thurlimann, B. (1959). ‘‘Plate girder research.’’ Proc., AISC Nat. Engrg.
Conf.
Lee S C and Yoo C H (1998), “Strength of plate girder web panels under pure shear”
ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 124(2), 184-194.
Lee S C, Davidson J S and Yoo C H (1996), “Shear buckling coefficients of plate girder
web panels”, Computers and Structures, 59(5), 789-795.
Wagner, H. (1931). “Flat sheet metal girder with very thin metal web.” Tech
Memorandum 604–606, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, NACA, Hampton,
Va.

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Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 179
Yoo C H and Lee S C (2006), “Mechanics of Web Panel Postbuckling Behavior in
Shear” ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 132(10), 1580-1589.
Basler, K. (1961). “Strength of plate girders in shear.” J. Struct. Div., 87(7), 151–181.
Fujii, T. (1968). “On an improved theory for Dr. Basler’s theory.” Final Rep., IABSE 8th
Congress, New York.
Porter, D. M., Rockey, K. C., and Evans, H. R. (1975). “The collapse behavior of plate
girders loaded in shear.” Struct. Eng., 53(8), 313–325.
Steinhardt, O., and Schroter, W. (1971). “Postcritical behavior of aluminum plate girders
with transverse stiffeners.” IABSE Rep. of the Working Commissions, Volume—Band 11,
Colloquium, Design of Plate and Box Girders for Ultimate Strength, London, 179–184.
Sharp, M. L., and Clark, J. W. (1971). “Thin aluminum shear webs.” J. Struct. Div.,
97(4), 1021–1038.
Lee S, Lee D and Yoo C (2009), “Further insights into postbuckling of web panels. I:
Review of Flange Anchoring Mechanism”, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering,
135, 3-10.
Timoshenko, S., and Gere, J. (1961). "Theory of elastic stability.", McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc., New York, N.Y.
N. Subramanian. (2008). “Design of steel structures”, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi.
Indian Standard (2007). “General construction in steel – Code of practice”, III Revision,
IS 800: 2007, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Teaching material on structural steel design for Civil/Structural engineering students and
faculties (2006) by INSDAG (Institute for Steel Development and Growth), Kolkata

Other relevant references

Olaru V D, Nicolau M, Alina D and Modiga M (2004), “Ultimate strength of plate girder
in shear”, The annals of “Dunarea De Jos”, University of Galati, Fascicle X, Applied
Mechanics ISSN 1221-4612.
Brubak L and Hellesland J (2008), “Strength criteria in semi-analytical, large deflection
analysis of stiffened plates in local and global bending”, Thin-walled Structures, 46,
1382-1390.

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Estrada I, Real E and Mirambell (2007), “General behaviour and effect of rigid and non-
rigid end post in stainless steel plate girders loaded in shear. Part I: Experimental study”,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 63, 970-984.
Estrada I, Real E and Mirambell (2007), “General behaviour and effect of rigid and non-
rigid end post in stainless steel plate girders loaded in shear. Part II: Extended numerical
study and design proposal”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 63, 985-996.
Bejar L A D and Younis M (1990), “Shear strength of open-wen plate girders with
inclind tension bars”, ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 117(11), 2699-2719.
Guarnieri G (1985), “Collapse of plate girders with inclined stiffeners”, ASCE Journal of
Structural Engineering, 111(2), 378-399.
Loov R and P Narayana (2004), “Study of shear provisions for stiffened plate girders”,
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 31, 160-167
Alinia M and Moosavi S H (2009), “Stability of longitudinally stiffened web plates under
interactive shear and bending forces”, Thin-walled Structures, 47, 53-60.
Komatsu S, Moriwaki Y, Fujino M and Takimoto T (1982), “Ultimate strength of girders
in combined load”, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 110, 754-768.
Estrada I, Real E and Mirambell (2008), “Shear resistant in stainless stell plate girders
with transverse and longitudinal stiffening”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research,
64, 1239-1254.
Alinia M M, Gheitasi A and Erfani S (2009), “Plastic shear buckling of unstiffened
stocky plates”, Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 65, 1631-1643.
Barth K, Bryan A., Hartnagel P.E, Donald W and Barker M. “Recommended Procedures
for Simplified Inelastic Design of Steel I-Girder Bridges”, ASCE Journal of Bridge
Engineering, 9(3), 230-242
Cedric Marsh,Wafik Ajam, and Huy-Kinh Ha (1988), “Finite element analysis of post
buckled shear webs” ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 114(7).
Waflk Ajam and Cedric Marsh (1988) “Simple model for shear capacity of webs”, ASCE
Journal of Structural Engineering, 117(2), 410-422.
Max A. M. H. (1988), “Design formulas for unstiffened and Stiffened plate girders in
shear” ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 115(11), 2740-2752.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
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Lecture No. 12
Title: Combined Stresses: Moment with High Shear
Speaker: Mrs. Pratibha G. Kulkarni, Sr. Lecturer, SCOE, Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Heavy shear occurring in the vicinity of a plastic hinge has the effect of reducing the
plastic moment capacity of the beam section. This combination of heavy moment and
shear occurs under
• Heavy concentrated loads near the end of a beam,
• Where the beam supports an offset column in multistory steel buildings,
• At the interior supports of the continuous beams and cantilevers.
When a member is subjected to bending moment M and Shear force V, the plastic
moment of an I-section bent about the major axis is as shown in Fig 1.

B
w = fy / 3 fy

D D f w
Mpr d
Z Z
f w

V fy
V

Fig 1. Stress diagram for combined bending and Shear with reduced moment
carrying capacity for I-section

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and the reduced moment capacity can then be written as,
Mpr = Mp – loss of web capacity
Where the loss of web capacity is the plastic modulus of the web (Zpw) multiplied by the
difference between the full and reduced yield stresses i. e. (fy - fw)
Loss of Web capacity = Zpw (fy - fw)
Provisions to check the shear effect as per revised code are discussed below.

IS 800:2007
It has been mentioned in the code that, as long as the cross section is not subjected to
high shear, reduction in moment capacity is not necessary i.e.
V  0.6Vd
The Moment capacity may be taken as
M d =  b Z p f y /  mo
When the section is subjected to high shear, reduction in moment capacity is required to
be considered i.e.
V  0.6V d
The Moment capacity may be taken as
a) Plastic or compact sec tion
M dv = M d −  b ( M d − M fd )  1.2Z e f y /  mo
b) Semi − Compact sec tion
M dv = Z e f y /  mo
Where,
Mdv = Design bending strength under high shear
2
 2V 
 b =  − 1
 Vd 
Design of Beam with High shear:
A continuous beam is as shown in fig. 2

Factored Load
100 kN/m

A 5 m 5 m C

Fig. 2 Continuous Beam

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As per IS : 800-2007
Plastic Analysis
Degree of redundancy = r =1
Number of plastic hinges required to transform structure into mechanism = r + 1 = 2
Failure of any span is failure of continuous beam.
Failure mechanism of AB & BC is identical due to symmetry & this is similar to Failure
mechanism of propped cantilever beam with UDL
Wp = 11.656 Mp/ l2
Hence Mp = Wp l2 / 11.656
= 214.48 KNm
As both spans fail simultaneously actual number of plastic hinges are three – two hinges
each at 0.414 l from A & C and third at B.
Since as n = 3 > 2 required
Collapse is over complete
Zp = 214.48 x 106 x 1.10/250 = 943.72 cm3
Ze = 943.72 / 1.14 = 827.82 cm3
Select ISLB 400
Zxx = 965.3 cm3
Md = 1.0 x 1.14 x 965.3 x 250 / 1.10 = 250.1 KN m > 214.48 KN m

Reaction at A
Considering free body diagram of AB as in Fig 3
100 kN/m

Mp

A 5 m
B
RB1

Fig 3 Free Body of diagram of AB

Mp = 214.48 KN m
Mp + RA x 5 = 100 x 5 x 5/2
RA = 207.1 KN
RB1 = 500 – 207.1 = 292.9 KN
Due to symmetry in loading

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Max shear is at B, V = 292.9 KN
Vd = 0.577 x 400 x 8 x 250/ 1.1 = 419.636 KN
Where 400 x 8 = [Link] of ISLB 400
As V/ Vd = 292.9 / 419.636 = 0.697 > 0.6
As per Clause [Link] 70
Effect of shear is to be considered for reduction in moment capacity
M dv = M d −  ( M d − M fd )  1.2 Z e f y /  mo

Where,
2
 2V 
 =  − 1 = 0.156
 Vd 
Mfd = Plastic moment capacity of flanges only
= 165 x 12.5 x (400 – 12.5) x 250 / 1.1 = 181.64 KNm
Mdv = 250.1 – 0.156 (250.1 – 181.64)
= 239.42 KNm
Mdv = 239.42 > Mp = 214.48 KNm
Hence OK
Select ISLB 400 @ 56.9 Kg/m.

As per IS : 800-1984
Working Load
66.67 kN/m

B
A C
5m 5m

Fig. 4 Continuous Beam with Working Load

Factored load in LSM is 100 KNm
Hence Working Load in WSM = 100 / 1.5 = 66.67 KN/m
Reactions
RB = 5 / 8 x 66.67 x 10 = 416 66 KN
RA = Rc = 125.0 KN

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 Maximum Bending Moments
At Continuous support = 125 x 5 – 66.67 x 5 x 5 / 2 = - 208.33 KNm
Design Moment = 208.33 kN-m
As per IS:800 -1984, σcbc = 0.66 fy = 0.66 x 250 = 165 MPa
Zrequired = (208.33 x 106 )/165
= 1262.62 cm3
Try ISMB 450 @ 72.4 kg/m. Zxx = 1350 cm2 > 1262.62
Check for shear tw = 9.4 mm
qav = (208.33 x 1000)/(450 x 9.4) = 49.25 N/mm2 < 0.4 fy i.e. 100 N/mm2
Comparison of WSM vs LSM
Working Stress Method Limit State Method
Moment Capacity 222.75 kN-m > 208.33 kN-m 239.42 kN-m > 214.48 kN-m
Shear Capacity 423 kN > 208.33 kN 419.66 kN > 292.90 kN
Section Designed ISMB 450 @ 72.4 kg/m ISLB 400 @ 56.0 kg/m
Design of beam by LSM is more economical
IS 800:2007 IS 800:1984
Section
ISLB 400
considered

Low V  0.6Vd  e,cal =  bt2 ,cal + 3 vm

2
,cal
Shear M d =  b Z p f y /  mo
OR
Md = 250.1 KN m  e,cal =  bc2 ,cal + 3 vm
2
,cal
V  0.6Vd
σe = Maximum
a) Plastic or compact sec tion permissible equivalent
High M dv = M d −  ( M d − M fd )  1.2Z e f y /  mo stress.
Shear b) Semi − Compact sec tion
M dv = Z e f y /  mo

V/Vd = 0.697 > 0.6

Mdv = 239.42 KN m
2
 2V 
 =  − 1
 Vd 
References
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 186
[1] IS: 800-2007, “Code of Practice for General construction in the steel structures”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2007.
[2] IS: 800-1984, “Code of Practice for General construction in the steel structures”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1984.
[3] N Subramanian, Design of Steel Structures.
[4] Dr. B C Punmia, Jain,Jain, Design of Steel Structures.
[5] Teaching Resource for Structural Steel design, INSDAG Publication.

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Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 187
Lecture No. 13
Title: Combined Stresses: Beams - Columns
Speaker: Mrs. Pratibha G. Kulkarni, Sr. Lecturer, SCOE, Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Most columns are subjected to bending in addition to the axial load. When significant
bending is present is present in addition to an axial load in a member, the member is
termed as a beam-column. The bending moments on a column may be due to any of the
effect summarised below
Eccentricity of axial force:
Fig.1 shows the arrangments of beams and girders at interior, corner and exterior
columns. Wherein columns are subjected to axial force and bending moment/s induced
due to the reaction of beams transferred to the column with an eccentricity.

Fig.1 Arrangements of Beams and Girders in a Building Frame

Building frame action:
In a multi-storey building such as portal frames, the columns carry the building load
axially as well as end moments from the girders that frame into them. Columns in portal
frame are subjected to axial load combined with bending.
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Load from brackets:
In industrial buildings, column brackets may be used to carry gantry girders on which the
crane move. The resulting eccentricity produces bending moments in addition to the axial
loads in the columns as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Bending in Beam-Columns

Transverse loads:
In some of the cases as due to wind & earthquake member is subjected to combined
action of axial force and bending moment.
Fixed base condition:
If the base of the column is fixed due to piles, rafts, or grillage foundation, bending
moment will be present at the base of the columns, even though their top ends may be
hinged.
For a member subjected to Moment (M) & Axial force (P) the plane of zero strain moves
from the centroid so that the ultimate stress distribution appears as in Fig 3.

Fig. 3 Stress diagram for combined bending and axial force with reduced moment
carrying capacity for I-section
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
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a. To compute the modified plastic moment, Mp', the stress blocks are divided into three
components.
b. The outer pair is equal and opposite stress blocks which provide the moment.
c. The inner block acts in one direction, the area being balanced around the original
neutral axis, defined by dN. In the cases illustrated the inner block has a constant width, b
or tw, so that

Thus the moment capacity gets reduced as an effect of axial force. Provisions for the
same as per revised code are discussed below.
Provision as per IS: 800-2007
The current revision of IS: 800-2007 is based on Limit State Method of Design. This
requires the following two checks to be carried out
Local capacity check (Section 9, IS: 800 – 2007)
(Section strength as governed by material failure)
For Plastic and Compact sections, the design of members subjected to combined axial
load and bending moment shall satisfy the following interaction relationship:

Where
My, Mz = factored applied moments about the minor and major axis of the cross section,
respectively; Mndy, Mndz = design reduced flexural strength under combined axial force
and the respective uniaxial moment acting alone, (Cl. [Link] of IS: 800 – 2007); N =
factored applied axial force (Tension T, or Compression F); Nd = design strength in
tension (Td) as obtained from (section 6 IS: 800) or in compression and Nd = Ag fy mo; Ag
= gross area of the cross section; n =N / Nd; α1, α 2 = constants as given in Table 7.2 of IS:
800 and shown below:
Table 1.2 Constants α 1 and α 2 (Section 9.3.1.1of IS: 800 – 2007)
Section α1 α2
I and Channel 2
Circular tubes 2 2
Rectangular tubes
Solid rectangle

The code stipulates (as per clause [Link] of IS: 800) that for plastic and compact sections
without bolts holes, the following approximations may be used while calculating /

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deriving the values of design reduced flexural strength Mndz and Mndy under combined
axial force and the respective uniaxial moment acting alone i.e. Mndz and Mndy acting
alone. The value of reduced flexural strength of the section, (either Mndz or Mndy) is
directly related to the geometry of a particular section.
For minor axis, no reduction in flexural strength takes place till the axial load ratio
n=N/Nd is restricted to 0.2. When the value of n is more than 0.2, the reduction in
flexural strength for minor axis is linearly and directly proportional to the ratio n. For a
value of n = 1, the value of Mdny reduces to zero.
Usually, the points of greatest bending and axial loads are either at the middle or ends of
members under consideration. Hence, the member can also be checked, conservatively,
as follows:

where N, is the factored applied axial load in member under consideration, Nd = Ag fy mo
is the strength in tension as obtained from section 6, Mz and My are the applied moment
about the major and minor axes at critical region, Mdz and Mdy are the moment capacity
about the major and minor axes in the absence of axial load i.e. when acting alone and Ag
is the gross area of cross-section. This shows that in point of time, the summation of
ratios of various components of axial forces and bending moments (including bi-axial
bending moments) will cross the limiting value of 1.
For Semi-compact sections, when there is no high shear force (as per 9.2.1 of IS: 800 –
2007) semi-compact section design is satisfactory under combined axial force and
bending, if the maximum longitudinal stress under combined axial force and bending fx
,satisfies the following criteria.

For cross section without holes, the above criteria reduces to

where Nd , Mdy, M dz are as defined earlier

Overall member strength check (section 9 of IS : 800 - 2007)
(Overall Member Strength as governed by buckling failure
Members subjected to combined axial force and bending moment shall be checked for
overall buckling failure considering the entire span of the member. This essentially takes
care of lateral torsional buckling.
The interaction equation for overall buckling check is given by the code as

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
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 P c .M Mz
+ K y my y + K LT  1.0
Pdy M dy M dz
P c .M c M
+ 0.6 K y my y + Kz mz z  1.0
Pdz M dy M dz

Where,
Mdy, Mdz = Design strength under corresponding moment acting alone
= βb Zp fy/γmo
Ag f y /  mo
Pd = design strength under axial compression =
γmo = partial safety factor in yielding
Cm = Equivalent uniform moment factor obtained from table 18 of IS 800:2007, which
depends on the shape of the bending moment diagram between lateral bracing points in
the appropriate plane of bending.
Ky, Kz, KLT = Interaction factors as defined below,
K y = 1 + ( y − 0.2)n y  1 + 0.8n y
K z = 1 + ( z − 0.2)n z  1 + 0.8n z
0.1 LT n y 0.1n y
K LT = 1 −  1−
C mLT − 0.25 C mLT − 0.25

Design of Beam-Column
As per IS: 800-2007
A non sway column in a building frame with flexible joints is 4m high and subjected
to the following loads and moments
Factored axial load = 500 KN
Factored moment Mz
At top of the Column = 27.0 KNm
At bottom of the column = 45.0 KNm
Design a suitable beam column assuming fy = 250 N/mm2, Take effective length of
the column as 0.8L along bolt axes.
Solution:
Step 1: Trial section
Consider trial section as ISHB 250, for the properties are
A= 6971 mm2, H = 250 mm, ry = 53.7 mm
KL/ry = (0.8 x 4000)/ 53.7 = 59.59

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Peq = P + (2 x M / fy) = 500 + (2 x 45000 / 250) = 860 KN
For KL/ry = 59.59 and fy = 250 N/mm2
From table 9c of the code, fcd = 169 N/mm2
Thus capacity = 169 x (6971/1000) = 1178.09 > 860 KN
Hence choose ISHB 250.
Section Properties
H = 250 mm A = 6971 mm2 bf = 250 mm
tf = 9.7 mm rz = 107 mm ry = 53.7 mm
3 3
Zez = 638.7 x 10 mm Zpz = 708.43 x 103 mm3 R = 10 mm
tw = 6.9 mm
Step 2. Cross section classification
Flange:
250
= = 1.0
fy

Outstand flanges (Table 2 of the code)

b  250 / 2 
=  = 12.88  15.7
t f  9.7 
Hence the flange is Semi compact.

Web:

d = H – 2 tf - 2 R = 250 – 2 x 9.7 – 2 x10 = 210.6 mm

d / tw = 210.5 / 6.9 = 30.5 < 42ε

Hence the web is Semi compact.

Step 3. Check for resistance of cross section to the combined effects (clause [Link])
1. Section capacity
The interaction equation for uniaxial bending is
N M
+ z  1.0
N d M dz
Nd = Ag x fy / γmo = 6971 x 250 / (1.1 x 1000) = 1584.31 KN

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 fy
M dz =  b Z p
 mo
Ze
b =
Zp
fy 250
M dz = Z e = 638.7 x10 3 x = 145.15KNm
 mo 1.1x1000
Thus ,

N M
+ z  1.0
N d M dz
500 45
+ = 0.31 + 0.31 = 0.62  1.0
1584.31 145.15

Hence Section is safe.

2. Member Buckling Resistance in compression (Clause 7.1.2)

Effective length = 0.8 L = 0.8 x 4000 = 3200 mm

KLz/rz = 3200/109 = 29.35
KLy/ry = 3200/54.9 = 58.29
From table 10 of the code,
h/b = 250/250 = 1.0 and tf < 40 mm
Major axis buckling, use curve b
Minor axis buckling, use curve c
fcr, z = π2 x 2 x 105/(29.35) 2 = 2291.5 N/mm2
λz = (250 / 2291.5) = 0.33

From table 9c of the code, for KL/r = 58.29 and fy = 250 N/mm2
fcd = 170.56 N/mm2 and
Pd,y = 170.56 x 6500/1000 = 1108 kN > 500 kN
From table 9d of the code, for KL/r = 29.35 and fy = 250 N/mm2
fcd = 215.6 N/mm2 and
Pd,z = 215.6 x 6500/1000 = 1401 kN > 500 kN
Hence the section is safe.

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 3. Member Buckling resistance in Bending (8.2.2)

Md = βb Zpfbd
βb = Ze/Zp for semi-compact section
Hence Md = Zefbd
From table 42 of the code (assuming k=1)
For Ψ= 0.75, C1=1.141 and for Ψ= 0.5, C1=1.323. Hence, for Ψ= 0.6, C1=1.25,
Ly = 4 m, h/tf = 250/9.7 = 25.77
Determination of Mcr
fcr, b = C1 [1473.5/(KL/ ry)]2{1+ (1/20)[( KL/ ry)/( h/tf)] 2}0.5
= 1.25 [1473.5/58.29]2{1+ (1/20)[( 58.29)/( 25.77)] 2}0.5
= 895.1 N/mm2
Mcr = 895.1 x 619 x 102/106 = 554 kNm
Non-dimensional lateral-torsional slenderness ratio
LT = ( b Z pz f y / M cr )

= 0.918  674.46 103  250 / (554 106 ) = 0.527

 LT = 0.21 for rolled sections.

Reduced factor for lateral torsional buckling
 LT = 1/ [LT + ( 2 LT −  2 LT )0.5 ]

Where LT = 0.5[1 +  LT (LT − 0.2) +  2 LT ]

= 0.5[1+ 0.21(0.527-0.2) + 0.5272]

= 0.627
Thus,  LT = 1/ [0.6732 + (0.67322 − 0.527 2 ) 0.5 ]

= 0.9157
Lateral torsional buckling resistance
=  LT ( f y /  mo ) Z e = 0.9157 x (250/1.1) x 619 x 103/106

= 128.82 kN-m > 45 kN-m

Hence the section is safe.
4.0 Overall Member Capacity (Clause 9.3.2)
Determination of moment amplification factors
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 Kz = 1 + (λz - 0.2) P / Pdz ≤ 1 + 0.8 P / Pdz

fy
=
f cc
 2E  2 200 x10 3
f cc = = = 2207.94
( KL / r ) 2 (0.8 x 4000 / 107) 2
250
z = = 0,33
2207.94

For KL/rz =29.90 and fy = 250 N/mm2

From table 9b, fcd = 216 N/mm2

Pdz = 216 x 6971 / 1000 = 1505.73 > 500 KN

Kz = 1 + (0.33 – 0.2) x 500 / 1505.73

= 1.043 < 1 + (0.8 x 500) / 1505.73 = 1.26

Cmz = 0.6 + 0.4ψ

Ψ = 27/45 = 0.6

Cmz = 0.6 + 0.4 x 0.6 = 0.84 > 0.4

P c M
+ K z mz z  1.0
Pdz M dz
500 1.043x0.84 x 45
+ = 0.33 + 0.27 = 0.6  1.0
1505.73 145.15

0.1 LT n y
K LT = 1 −
C mLT − 0.25
P
ny = = 0.33
Pdz
C mLT = 0.84
 LT = 0.527
hence K LT = 0.97

P Mz 45
+ K LT = 0.33 + 0.97 = 0.63  1.0
Pdy M dz 145.15

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
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Hence the section is safe.
As per IS: 800-1984
Factored load in LSM is 500 KN
Hence working load in WSM = 500/1.5 = 333.33 KN
Moment in WSM, at top = 27 / 1.5 = 18
At bottom = 45 / 1.5 = 30
Step 1. Computation of equivalent axial load
PEQ = (P + 0.75P), for uniaxial bending
PEQ = 583.32 KN
Step 2. Selection of section
Section considered in Design by LSM is ISHB 250.
Section Properties
H = 250 mm A = 6971 mm2 bf = 250 mm
tf = 9.7 mm rz = 107 mm ry = 53.7 mm
Zez = 638.7 x 103 mm3 Zpz = 708.43 x 103 mm3 R = 10 mm
tw = 6.9 mm
Step 3. Determination of σac
For λ = l/ry = 3200 / 53.7 = 59.59 and fy = 250 N/mm2
σac from table 5.1 of IS: 800-1984 is σac ≈ 122 MPa
Step 4. Determination of σbc
tf / tw = 9.7/6.9 = 1.40 < 2
and d1 / tw = 230.6 / 6.9 = 33.42 < 85, h / tf = 250 / 9.7 = 25.77
σbc from table 6.1B of IS: 800-1984 is σbc ≈ 150 MPa
Step 5. Determination of critical buckling stress:
 2E  2 200 x10 3
f cc = 2
= 2
= 2207.94 N / mm 2
( KL / r ) (0.8 x 4000 / 107)
Step 6. Determination of actual stresses
σac, cal = 333.33 x 103 / 6971 = 47.81 N/mm2
σbc, cal = 30 x 106 / 638.7 x 103 = 46.97 N/mm2
Step 7. Determination of magnification factor

Cm = 0.6 + 0.4 x β > 0.4

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 = 0.6 + 0.4 x (M1 / M2) = 0.6 + 0.4 x (18 / 30) = 0.84 > 0.4
Step 8. Check for the section
σac, cal / σac = 47.81 / 122 = 0.39 > 0.15
Hence the following interaction equation is used:
 ac ,cal C mx bcx ,cal C my bcy ,cal
+ +  1.0
 ac   ac,cal    ac,cal 
1 −  bcx 1 −  bcy
 0.60 f ccx   0.60 f ccy 
for uniaxial bending
 ac,cal C mx bcx ,cal
+  1.0
 ac   ac,cal 
1 −  bcx
 0 .60 f ccx 
0.84 x 46.97
0.39 + = 0.39 + 0.27 = 0.66  1.0
 47.81 
1 − 150
 0.60 x 2207.94 
Hence safe.

IS 800:2007 IS 800:1984
Section
ISHB 250 ISHB 250
Considered

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 N My M
+ + Z  1.0
N d M dy M dZ
Section
Capacity N M
+ Z = 0.62  1.0  ac ,cal C mx bcx ,cal C my bcy ,cal
N d M dZ + +  1.0
 ac   ac,cal    ac,cal 
c my .M y Mz 1 −  bcx 1 −  bcy
P  0.60 f ccx   0.60 f ccy 
+ ky + K LT  1.0
Pdy M dy M dz
P c my .M y c M
+ 0.6k y + Kz mz z  1.0
Member Pdz M dy M dz
Capacity
 ac,cal C mx bcx,cal
P c M + = 0.66  1.0
+ Kz mz z = 0.6  1.  ac   ac,cal 
Pdz M dz 1 −  bcx
 0.60 f ccx 
Mdy, Mdz = βb Zp fy/γmo
Parameters Pd, Nd = Ag f y /  mo
Involved γmo = 1.1, Cmz = 0.6 + 0.4ψ > 0.4,
Cm = 0.6 + 0.4 x β> 0.4
ψ = M1/M2

References
1. IS: 800-2007, “Code of Practice for General construction in the steel structures”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2007.
2. IS: 800-1984, “Code of Practice for General construction in the steel structures”,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1984.
3. N Subramanian, Design of Steel Structures.
4. Dr. B C Punmia, Jain,Jain, Design of Steel Structures.
5. Teaching Resource for Structural Steel design, INSDAG Publication.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 199
Lecture No. 14
Title: Design of Roof Trusses
Speaker: Mrs. Nutan Pathak, Asst. Professor, MIT, Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Truss is a structure formed by prismatic members connected at their ends by assuming

ideal pin connections. Loads on the truss and purlins are calculated as per IS: 875 with
partial safety factors given in IS: 800 [Link] chapter includes load calculations for
purlin, design of purlin, load calculations for truss and analysis.

2.0 DESIGN OF TRUSS

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A roof truss typically used for industrial shed is shown in Figure 1. Truss is designed for
Dead loads, Live load and Wind loads. Member forces for unit vertical and unit normal
nodal loads are found and then these are multiplied by calculated nodal dead loads, live
load and wind loads. Members of the truss can be grouped as Rafter members, Tie
members, inclined members and Vertical members. The cross section of each group can
be designed for maximum member force in a group. Two angles generally used for Rafter
members and Tie members and where forces in the members are small, single angle
section fulfills the purpose.

Spacing of purlins on rafter should not be greater than 1.4m to avoid its excessive
deformation and cracking of roofing material. This gives point load on rafter and Rafters
are subjected to bending along with axial compression. But, this bending can be
neglected and truss members are designed only for axial forces.

3.0 DESIGN OF PURLIN

Purlins are subjected to

• Bending about Major Axis (ZZ) due to Y components of dead loads, live load and
wind loads.
• Bending about Minor Axis (YY) due to Z components of dead loads & live load.

4.0 CODAL PROVISIONS - CLAUSE 8.35& 8.36 (P. NO. 59) & 8.9 (P. NO. 69)

All purlins shall be designed in accordance with the requirements for uncased beams and
the limitations of bending stress based on lateral instability of the compression flanges
and limiting deflection under section 5.6.1. The calculated deflections should not exceed
those permitted for the type of roof cladding used (Section 5.6.1). In calculating the
Bending Moment advantage may be taken of the continuity of the purlin over supports.
The bending moment about two axes should be determined separately and checked
according to the biaxial bending requirements as given in Section 9.

5.0 MAJOR CHANGES

• All working loads should be multiplied by appropriate partial load factors.

• Permissible stresses for wind and earthquake load to be increased by 33%
becomes invalid.
• Purlin should be designed for biaxial bending.
• Bending moment should be calculated by plastic analysis.
• Width to thickness ratio of section should be less than limiting values specified in
revised code.
• For calculation of flexural strength, shear strength also to be checked.

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 • In revised code, permissible values of deflection are increased and depend upon
type of cladding
Allowable deflection – 1/150 for elastic cladding – GI Sheets
– 1/180 for brittle cladding – AC Sheets

6.0 SIMILARITY

• Procedure for load calculation remains the same.

• Purlin is designed as continuous beam with laterally supported compression
flange due to sheeting.
• For preliminary selection of angle section b ≥ (L/60), h ≥ (L/45).

7.0 REFERENCES
1. IS 875:1988.
2. IS 800:2007.
3. Design of Steel Structures P. Dayaratnam
4. Steel Structures – Arya - Ajmani

8.0 DESIGN OF ROOF TRUSS AS PER IS: 800 (2007)

Data
1. Location:-Hyderabad
2. Life Span:-50 Years
3. Permeability:-Normal
4. Spacing:-3.5m
5. Span of truss:- 15m
6. Central Rise:- 3m

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 7. Height of truss at eves level:-10m
8. Fy:-250MPa
9. Corrugated G.I. Sheets (Self wt. 131 N/m2)
10. Spacing of purlin: - 1.35m
Diagram

Figure No. 1 – Roof Truss Geometry

Plan Area AP = 15 x 3.5 = 52.5m2

Inclined area Ai = 2 x [8.08 x 3.5]
= 56.56m2
α = tan-1(3/7.5)
= 21.8˚
cosα = 0.928 sinα = 0.371

A. Design of Purlin

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Load Calculations:-
1. Dead load calculations
Load on purlin
Wt. of GI Sheet = 131 x 1.35 =176.85 N/m
Self wt Assumed = 100 N/m
Total = 276.85 N/m
2. Live load Calculations (IS: 875 Part II)
LL= 750-20(Θ-10)
= 750-20(21.8-10)
= 514.00N/m2 > 400 o.k.
Live load on Purlin
= 514 x 1.35 x cos α
= 643.9 N/m; Say 644 N/m
3. Wind load calculations
For Hyderabad, Basic Wind Speed=VB=44m/s. (From Map for 50 Years or
Appendix A of IS 875).
Vz=K1 x k2 x k3 x VB …………………………….Clause 5.3
K1=Risk Coefficient=1 (For 50 Years of life of structure)
K2 = Terrain, Height of Structure size factor
= For Terrain 2 Ht. up to 10m, L= 15m < 20………………..Class A
K2 = 1
K3 = Topography factor assuming level ground
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 K3 = 1
Vd = Vz = 1x1x1x44 = 44 m/s
Basic Wind Pressure = 0.6 Vz2
pz = 0.6 x 442
pz = 1161.6 N/m2
Say pz = 1170 N/m2 = 1.17 KN/ m2

Internal Wind Pressure= Cpi = ±0.2 p (For Normal Permeability)

External Wind Pressure= Cpe
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 w = 15 m
h = 10 m
h/w = 10/15
h/w = 0.66
h/w = 1.5 > 0.66 > 0.5
θ=0 θ = 90
Wind Normal to Ridge Wind Parallel to Ridge
Roof (EF) (GH) (EG) (FH)
Angle
(α)
20 -0.7 -0.5 -0.8 -0.6
21.8 -0.691 -0.5 -0.8 -0.693
30 -0.2 -0.5 -0.8 -0.8

For θ=0;
Wind Normal to Ridge
Case (1) External + Internal Suction 0.2p
Wind on windward rafter
Cpe-Cpi = -0.691 + 0.2 = -0.491
Wind on leeward rafter
Cpe-Cpi = -0.5 + 0.2 = -0.3
Case (2) External + Internal Pressure 0.2p
Wind on windward rafter
Cpe-Cpi = -0.691 – 0.2 = -0.8911
Wind on leeward rafter
Case 2: Wind normal to Ridge
Cpe-Cpi = -0.5 – 0.2 = -0.7
For θ=90;
Wind Parallel to Ridge
Case (3) External + Internal Suction 0.2p
Taking end truss
Cpe-Cpi = -0.8 + 0.2 = -0.6
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 Case (4) External + Internal Pressure 0.2p
= -0.8 - 0.2 = -1.0

Among 4 cases, Case (4) gives severe effect

Wpe= (Cpe - Cpi) x Design wind pressure Case (4) Wind Parallel to ridge
= -1 x 1170
= 1170 N/m2 (Away from Rafter)
Wind load on Purlin = 1170 x 1.35(Spacing of purlin)
= 1579.5 N/m
Load on Purlin
1) Dead load = 276.85N/m
wdy = 276.85 x cos21.8= 257.05N/m
wdz = 276.85 x sin21.8= 102.81N/m
2) Live load = 644N/m
wLy = 644 x cos21.8= 597.63 N/m
wLz = 644 x sin21.8= 238.92 N/m
3) Wind load = -1579.5 N/m
wwy = -1579.5 N/m
wwz = Zero
4) Load combinations
a. Load Combination (1) = 1.5(D.L + L.L)
wy1 = 1.5(257.05 + 597.63) = 1282.02 N/m
wz1 = 1.5(102.81 + 238.92) = 512.60 N/m
b. Load Combination (2) = 1.5(D.L+W.L)
wy2 = 1.5(257.05 - 1579.5) = -1983.75 N/m (Max.)
wz2 = 1.5(102.82- 0) = 154.21 N/m
c. Load Combination (3) = 1.2(D.L+L.L+W.L)
wy3 = 1.2(257 + 597.63 - 1579.5) = -869.84 N/m
wz3 = 1.2(102.81 + 238.92 - 0) = 410.10 N/m

Bending Moment Calculation

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 Plastic Analysis
Failure of two spans is considered.
i. Collapse of extreme span Mp = wu.L2/11.67
ii. Collapse of interior span Mp = wu.L2/16

Among three loading combination, 1.5(D.L. + W.L.) governs the design

Mz = wzxL2/11.67
= 1983.75 x 3.52 /11.67
Mz = 2082.3425 N.m
Mz = 2.082 KN.m
My = 154.21 x 3.52 / 11.67 = 161N.m = 0.161 KN.m
Selection of Section: - (Page No.18 Table 2)
Taking fy = 250 MPa
ε = √(250/250) = 1
Try 90 x 90 x 6 @ 8.2kg/m,Wt.=82 N/m < 100 (Assumed) O.K

90 > L/45 = 350/45 = 77

Also 90 > L/60 = 350/60 = 58
b/t = 90/6 = 15 < 15.7 ε
d/t = 90/6 = 15 < 15.7 ε
Section is semi compact.
Izz = Iyy = 80.10 cm4
Zzz(TOP) = 80.1/2.42 = 33.01 cm3 …..for points A & B
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 Zzz (Bottom) = 80.10/(9-2.42) = 12.2 cm3 …… for point C

Calculation for Design Moment - CLAUSE 8.2.1

Consider purlin as Laterally supported beam
Md= βb x Zp x fy / (γm o) or
=1.2 x Zexfy/ (γmo) =3.33 KN.m whichever is less
Fy = 250 N/mm2
γm o =1.1 …………..Table 5 (Partial safety factor for material)
βb= ze/zp For semi compact section
for bending about zz axis
Mdz = (Zzz) x (fy)/( γ mo)
Zzz = 80.1 / 6.58 = 12.2 cm3
Mdz = (12.2 x 250 x 1000) / (1.1 x 1000 x 1000)
= 2.773 KN.m -- for bending about ZZ axis…… Bending produces
Compressive stress at C
Md = (Ze) x (fy)/( γ mo)
Zyy = 80.1 / 2.42 = 33.1 cm3
Mdy = (33.1 x 250 x 1000) / (1.1 x 1000 x 1000)
= 7.52 KN.m > 0.161 KN.m ….. O.K
This produces compressive bending stresses at B & C.
Check for biaxial bending for purlin
(Mz/Mdz) + (My/Mdy) ≤ 1
(2.082/2.773) + (0.161/7.52)
0.751 + 0.021 = 0.772 < 1 …… O.K
Check for Shear
The equation of Md (6.5) is applicable when V > 0.6 Vd
V = RB =4.86 (to find RB , take moment about plastic hinge for FBD of part of span
and equate it to zero)
0.6 Vd= 0.6 x A x Yγw /√3 =43.64KN
as V = 4.86 KN < 0.6 Vd = 42.64 KN
Reduction in Md need not be considered.

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Check for Deflection: - (Table 6 section 5.6.1. Page no.31)
Elastic Cladding Brittle
Δ permissible deflection Span / 150 Span /180

Limiting values of deflection

For G.I Sheets = 3500 /150 =23.33 mm
a) Load combination (1) = (D.L + L.L) – Load factor for D.L & L.L. is 1
Wy1 = 257 + 597.63 = 854.63 N/m
Wz1= 102.81 + 238.92 = 341.73 N/m
b) Load combination (2) = (D.L + W.L) – Load factor for D.L = 1 & W.L = 1
Wy2 = 257 - 1579.5= -1322.5 N/m
WZ2= 102.81 - 0 = 102.81 N/m
c) Load combination (3) = (D.L + L.L. + W.L) – Load factor for D.L = 1 & L.L
= 0.8 & W.L = 0.8
Wy3 = 257+ 0.8 x (597.63 - 1579) = -528.1 N/m
Wz3 = 102.81 + (0.8 x 238.92) – 0 = 293.94 N/m
Taking Load combination (b) i.e. (D.L + W.L)
W = -1322.5
δyy= (5 WyL4) / (384 x E.I)
= (5 x 1322.5 x 3.54 x 10003) / (384 x 200 x 1000 x 80.1 x 104)
= 16.13 mm
δzz = (5 x Wz x L4)/(384 x E x Izz)
= (5 x 102.81 x 3.54 x 10003)/(384 x 2 x 105 x 80.1 x 104 )
= 1.25 mm
Resultant deflection δ = √δzz2 + δyy2 = 16.17 mm < 23.33 mm …… O.K

B. Load on Truss

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 i. Wt. of sheeting x inclined area.
131 x 16.2 x 3.5 = 7427.7 N say 7428 N
ii. Wt. of purlin
No. of purlins = 2(8.08/1.35 + 1) = 14 nos. ISA 90 x 90 x 6 @ 82 N/m
82 x 3.5 x 14 = 4018 N
iii. Self wt. of truss
w= {(L/3) + 5} x 10
= {(15/3) +5} x10
= 100 N/m2
Total self weight of truss = 100 x 16 x 3.5
= 5250 N

iv. Wt. of bracing assume 20N/m2 on plan area

= 20 x 52.5
= 1050N
Total DL = 7428 + 4018 + 5250 + 1050
= 17746 N
Live load on Truss
= (2/3) x 514 x 52.5 = 17990N
= 18KN
Wind load on Truss = 1170x 56.56(Ai)
= 66.175 KN

C. Load on Panel Points of roof truss

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Half load on end panel is considered. Total panel load = 5 + ½ + ½ = 6
1. Dead Load per panel point = 17.746/6 = 2.96 KN say 3 KN
2. Live Load per panel point = 18/6 = 3 KN
3. Wind Load per panel point= -66.175/6 = -11.02 KN say 11 KN
D. Partial Load Factor (γf) IS: 800 (2007) table 4 pg. 29
Panel point loads
Three Load Combinations are considered for roof truss analysis and they
are
a) 1.5(D.L + L.L)
b) 1.2(D.L+L.L+W.L)

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 c) 1.5(D.L+W.L)……………………………… (Table 5.1
[Link].49)

Forces in members of truss

Mem. Name Load Dead Live Loa Wind 1.5(D. 1.5(D.L 1.2(D.L Design Load
Desg. of due to Load Load d load L+L. +W.L) +L.L+
memb unit Fx3 Fx3 due P x 11 L) W.L)
er Vertic to
al Unit
down win
ward d
Load Loa
(F) d
(P)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (T) (C)
Rafter AD, -
6.73 20.19 20.19 -68.75 60.57 -72.84 -34.04 -72.84 60.57
KB 6.25
DF, IK -
5.38 16.14 16.14 -57.20 48.42 -61.59 -29.90 -61.59 48.42
5.20
FC, CI -
4.04 12.12 12.12 -45.43 36.36 -49.97 -25.43 -49.97 36.36
4.13
Tie AE,
-6.25 -18.75 -18.75 5.62 61.82 -56.25 64.61 29.18 -56.25 64.61
BL
EG, JL -6.25 -18.75 -18.75 5.62 61.82 -56.25 64.61 29.18 -56.25 64.61
GH, HJ -5.00 -15.00 -15.00 4.27 46.97 -45.00 47.96 20.36 -45.00 47.96
Vertical DE,
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
KL
FG, IJ -0.50 -1.50 -1.50 0.54 5.94 -4.50 6.66 3.53 -4.50 6.66
CH -3.00 -9.00 -9.00 0.33 3.63 -27.00 -8.06 -17.24 -27.00 0.00
Inclined DG, KJ -
1.35 4.05 4.05 -15.95 12.15 -17.85 -9.42 -17.85 12.15
1.45
FH, IH -
1.60 4.80 4.80 -18.70 14.40 -20.85 -10.92 -20.85 14.40
1.70

Find out maximum force in each type, and design the group for it, as tension member or
comp. member. Take check for reversal of axial load if produced any.
Lecture No. 15
Title: Design of Foot Bridge

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 213
Speaker: Mr. U. P. Naik, Asst. Professor, COE Pravaranagar.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

TYPE OF BRIDGE- THROUGH TYPE TRUEE BRIDGE

TYPE OF GIRDER- LATTICE GIRDER

SPAN OF GIRDER- 16 m c/c of bearings, CROSS BEAMS- 2 m c/c, LIVE LOAD- 4

KN/mm2,

FLOORING- Timber Planks supported on cross girder

Design of Timber Flooring- span= 2m,

Assume Plank Thickness= 60mm, Unit weight of Timber= 8000N/m3.
Assume Unit meter Width
Load Calculations-a) Dead Load= 8000 x 0.060 x 1.00
= 480 N/m
b) Live Load = 4000 N/m2
For 1 m width, L.L. = 4000 N/ m
Total Load= 4480N/m=4.48KN/m
Maximum B.M. = wl2/8= 2.24KN-m
Maximum Shear Force= ( 4.48 x 2)/2 = 4.48KN

Check for Stresses

a) Shear Stress( Allowable Shear Stress = 0.8 N/mm2

Shear Stress = S.F./area of c/s = 4480/1000 x 60

= 0.075 N/mm2 < 0.8 N/mm2. Hence O.K.
b) Bending Stress-(Allowable bending Stress = 10N/mm2 )

= M / Z plank = (2.24) 106 / (1000* 602) / 6 = 3.73 N/ mm2 < 10 N/ mm2 Hence O.K.

8.96 KN/m 0.1 KN/m

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 2.50m

2.80m

Design load calculation

Clear Walking Width = 2.5 m.

Let center to center distance between two Lattice Girders be 2.50+0.30= 2.80m
D.L. from Planks = 8  0.06  2.50 = 0.96 KN/m
Self Weight of cross beam = 0.10 KN/m (assumed)
Live Load from Planks= 4  2= 8 KN/m
Hence Total factored load = (  1.06 +  LL  8 ) KN
LD
LD – partial safety factor for dead or permanent loads = 1.5
LL – partial safety factor for live or imposed loads = 1.5
Total factored load = 1.50 1.06 + 1.50  8.0 =13.59 say 13.6 KN / m
Factored bending moment = 13.6  2.82 /8 = 13.328 KN – m
Z p —value required for f y =250 MPa; m0 =1.10
13.328  1000 1000  
Z p , reqd = m0 Zp reqd = 58.64 x 103 mm3
250

Try ISLB125 @ 0.11KN/m

h =125 mm, b =75 mm, t f = 6.5 mm, t w =4.4 mm ,Z xx =65.1 cm3 ,Z yy =11.6 cm 3 ,
I xx = 406.8 cm4, I yy = 43.4 cm4 Depth of web (d) = 125 mm

Section classification
250
Yield Stress Ratio=  = = 1.00
250
Flange criterion = b/2 tf = 75 / (2x6.5) = 5.76 < 9.4 €
Web criterion = d/tw = 125 / 4.4 = 47.5 < 84 €
The section is classified as ‘ PLASTIC ’
Moment of resistance of the cross section

Since the section considered is ‘PLASTIC’ , βb = 1

From IS 800-2007, Table 146, page 140, Z p = 73.93 cm3
Zp  fy
Md= = 73.93 x 103 x 250 / 1.1
 m0
= 16.8 KN- m > 13.328 KN- m
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Hence ISLB125 is adequate in flexure.
Calculations of Design Shear Force :-
Design Shear Force = V= wl / 2= 13.6  2.8/2= 19.04 KN
Design Shear Strength of the section =V d= (f y xhxt w) /   3 = 72.18 KN > 19.04
m0
KN Also Design shear force = 19.04 K < 0.6 Vd = 43.30 KN, Hence O.K..

Check for Deflection :- It is to be calculated for un-factored load = 9.06 KN / m

 = 5 w l4 / 384 E Ixx = 5(9.06  28004) / (200  103)  (406.8  104) = 0.89 mm
Allowable Max. Deflection = span / 300 = 2800/3mm = 9.33 mm > actual deflection.
Hence O.K.

Design of Truss Girder:-

Factored Load Calculations ;- a) Dead Load for 2.00 m length of truss from Cross
Beam of length ( assuming 0.4m extension on both sides for supporting Rakers at
alternate cross beam) = 2.8 +0 .8 = 3.6 m.
• Self weight Of Cross Girder = 0.10 KN/m x 3.6 = 0.36 KN

• D.L. of Planks = 8x 0.06x 2.00x 2.5 = 2.4 KN

•
Assuming Self Weight of Main Girder 25% of D.L. (I) &(
II)
= 0.25 x 2.76 = 0.70 KN
Hence Total Factored D.L. on one girder= 1.5 (0.36+2.4+0.70) /2= 1.73KN/m
• Factored Live Load on one girder= 1.5  4  2.5 / 2= 7.50 KN/m

Analysis of Truss using Influence Line Diagrams

Consider members U3U4, U3L4 , L3L4 , U3L3 as sample cases. The ILD are as shown
below-

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Forces in members of Truss
• Top Chord Member U3U4 ( Compression)

• = 9.23  1/2  16 X 2.67= 197.15 KN

• Bottom Chord Member L3L4 ( Tension)

• = 9.23 X ½ X 16 X 2.5 = 184.60 KN

• Vertical Member U3L3

Area of the + ve zone of ILD = ½ x 9.143 x 4/8 =2.286 units

Area of the –ve zone of ILD = ½ x 6.857x 3/8 = 1.286 units
Dead Load compressive force in this member =1.50 (2.286- 1.286) = 1.5 KN
Live Load compressive force= 7.5x2.286 =17.14 KN

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Live Load Tensile = 7.5 x 1.286= 9.645 KN
Hence , Maximum forces in this member are
= 1.5+ 17.14= 18.64 KN (compression)
And , 9.645 – 1.50= 8.145 KN ( Tension)

d) Diagonal Member U3L4:-

Force in this member = U3L3 x cosec 
When compressive Force in U3L3 is 18.64 KN (Compressive) , corresponding
force in member U3L4 =18.47x cosec36.87= 31.06KN ( TENSILE)
When Tensile Force in U3L3 is 8.145 KN (Tension) , corresponding force in
member U3L4 =8.145 x cosec36.87= 13.57KN (COMPRESSION)

DESIGN OF MEMBERS :-
A) Design of Top Chord Member U3U4:-
Axial compressive force = 197.15 KN . Length of Member= 2.00 m,
Assume f cd= 0.40fy
Hence Target Area= 182x103 / 0.40x 250= 1820 mm2.

Assume Double Equal Angle Section ISA 65x65x8 connected back to back on
opposite side of gusset plate of 10 mm thick.
Area= 2x 97.6=1952 mm2 , self wt./m= 2x 75.5=151.04N/m , rxx=19.6 mm,
cy=18.9mm, Iyy = 2( IG + A( cy + t g/2)2) = 297.8x 104 mm4, ryy=
I / A =39.05mm
Hence, rmin = rxx=19.6mm.
Assuming effective length Factor, K = 0.85 (Clause [Link])
Effective Length= 0.85x2= 1.70 m, KL/r= 1700/19.6= 86.73 < 180 Hence
Section O.K. For L/r= 86.76 and fy =250MPa, using Table 10 for buckling class
and 9c of the code, fcd=111.57MPa.
Hence Strength of the Member= 111.57x1952/ 1000= 217.80 KN > 197.15 KN
O.K.
For alternate rakers provided at top chord panels points, buckling @ yy – axis
is over 4 m . Hence, capacity is 217.80 > 197.15 KN O.K.
Effective length = 0.85 x 4000= 3400 mm, rmin = r yy = 39.05
Slenderness ratio @ yy axis = 3400/ 39.05 = 85.75
This is just equal to @ XX axis, Hence capacity
B) Design of Bottom Chord Member L3L4
Design Load=T = 184.60 KN( Tension),
Net Area required as per ultimate stress criteria= T x  m1 / fu
= 184600x 1.25 / 410=562.80 mm2
Increasing area by 40% Gross Area required= 1.40x520.12= 787.92 mm2
From yield strength criteria Area required= T x  m0 / fy
= 1.1x 184.60x 1000 / 250 = 812.24 mm2.
Consider area required = 812.24 mm2
Assume 2ISA 60x 60 x 6 back to back on opposite side of gusset plate of 10
mm thick. Also assuming 16mm diameter bolts for connection

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 Diameter of the hole= 16+2 = 18 mm
Gross Area provided = 2x 684 = 1368 mm2.
Assuming staggered bolts, deduction for one holes to be made in the calculation
of net area.
Net Area provided= An = [Anc + Ago]
2
= 2 [(60-6/2-18)6 + (60-6/2) 6 ]= 1152 mm
i) Design Strength due to yielding of gross cross section = Tdg = fy (Ag /  m0)
(Clause 6.2)
= 250x 1368 / 1.1= 310.9 KN
ii) Design strength governed by tearing at net section= Tdn=  An x fu /  m1
(Clause 6.3.3.)
Design of Bolt: - The bolts are in double shear.
Choose edge distance= 27mm
As per calculations , Number of bolts = 3 (Bearing capacity does not govern)
Pitch= 2.5 x dia. Of bolt= 40mm

(For three bolts,  = 0.7)

Tdn=  An x fu /  m1
= 0.7x 1152x 410 / 1.25 = 264.50 KN
iii) Strength as governed by block
shear failure (Clause 6.4) – Block Shear
strength is taken as lesser of the
following two
Tdb = ( Avg f y / 3 mo + 0.9 f u Atn /  m1 )
Tdb = (0.9 f u Avn / 3 m1 + f y Atg /  mo )
Avg , Avn = minimum gross and net area in shear along the line of
transmitted force, respectively
Atg, Atn = minimum gross and net area in tension from the hole
to the toe of the
angle or next last row of bolt in plates, perpendicular to
the line of force,
Therefore tensile capacity is 264.50 KN.
A vg= ( 2x 40 +27) 6 = 642 mm2, Avn= ( 2x40+27-2.5x18)6=372 mm2
A tg = (27x6)= 162 mm2 , Avn = ( 27-18/2) 6= 108 mm2
Hence, Tdb = ( Avg f y / 3 mo + 0.9 f u Atn /  m1 ) = 116.12 KN
Tdb = (0.9 f u Avn / 3 m1 + f y Atg /  mo ) = 100.21KN
For Double Angle, Block Shear Strength = 2x 100.21= 200.42 > 170 KN, Safe
Check for Slenderness :-
For Tension member, L unsupported / r min < 350
( 2000 – 2( 27+80)) / 19.6 = 91.12 < 350 O.K.
Design of Vertical Member U3L3

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 Axial compressive force = 18.64 KN. Length of Member= 1.5 m,
Assume f cd= 0.40fy
Hence Target Area= 18.64x103 / 0.40x 250= 186.4 mm2.

Assume Single Equal Angle Section ISA 50x50x6 connected on gusset plate of
10 mm thick.
Area= 586 mm2, rxx=19.6 mm, cy=18.9mm, Iyy = 2(IG + A( cy + t g/2)2) =
297.8x 104 mm4, ryy= I / A =39.05mm
Hence, rmin = rvv=9.6mm.
Assuming effective length Factor, K = 0.85 (Clause [Link])
Effective Length= 0.80x1.5= 1.20 m, KL/r= 1200/9.6= 125 < 180 Hence
Section O.K. For KL/r= 125 and fy =250MPa, using Table 10 and 9c of the
code,
fcd=79 MPa.
Hence Strength of the Member= 79x 568/ 1000= 44.87 KN > 18.64 KN O.K.

Design of Diagonal Member U3L4

Design Load = 30.84 KN (TENSILE), Span = 4 + 6.25 = 3.25 m
Net Area required as per ultimate stress criteria= T x  m1 / fu
= 30840 x 1.25 / 410= 94.02 mm2
Increasing area by 40% Gross Area required= 1.40x 94.02= 131.63 mm2
From yield strength criteria Area required= T x  m0 / fy
= 1.1x 30840 / 250 = 135.7 mm2.
Increasing area by 40% Gross Area required= 1.4x 135.7= 190 mm2
Consider area required = 190 mm2
Assume 2ISA 50x 50 x 6 back to back on opposite side of gusset plate of 10
mm thick. Also assuming 16mm diameter bolts for connection
Diameter of the hole= 16+2 = 18 mm
Gross Area provided = 2x 568 = 1136 mm2.
Assuming staggered bolts, deduction for one hole to be made in the calculation
of net area.
Net Area provided= An = 2 [Anc + Ago]
2
= 2 [(50-6/2-18)6 + (50-6/2) 6 ]= 912 mm
i) Design Strength due to yielding of gross cross section = Tdg = fy (Ag /  m0)
(Clause 6.2)
= 250x 1136 / 1.1= 258.2 KN
ii) Design strength governed by tearing at net section= Tdn=  An x fu /  m1
(Clause 6.3.3.)
Design of Bolt: - The bolts are in double shear.
Choose edge distance= 27mm
As per calculations, Number of bolts = 3 (Bearing capacity does not govern)
Pitch= 2.5 x dia. of bolt= 40mm

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 (For two bolts,  = 0.7)
Tdn=  An x fu /  m1 = 0.7x 912x 410 / 1.25 = 209.39 KN

iii) Strength as governed by block shear failure (Clause 6.4) – Block Shear
Strength is taken as lesser of the following two
Tdb = ( Avg f y / 3 mo + 0.9 f u Atn /  m1 )
Tdb = (0.9 f u Avn / 3 m1 + f y Atg /  mo )
Avg , Avn = minimum gross and net area in shear along the line of
transmitted force, respectively
Atg, Atn = minimum gross and net area in tension from the hole
to the toe of the
angle or next last row of bolt in plates, perpendicular to
the line of force,

A vg= (2x 40 +27) 6 = 642 mm2, Avn= ( 2x40+27-2.5x18)6=372 mm2

A tg = (27x6)= 162 mm2 , Avn = ( 27-18/2) 6= 108 mm2
Hence, Tdb = ( Avg f y / 3 mo + 0.9 f u Atn /  m1 ) = 116.12 KN
Tdb = (0.9 f u Avn / 3 m1 + f y Atg /  mo ) = 100.21KN
For Double Angle, Block Shear Strength = 2x 100.21= 200.42 > 30.84 KN, Safe
Check for Slenderness
For Tension member, L unsupported / r min < 350
( 3250 – 2( 27+80)) / 15.1 = 201.05 < 350 O.K.
Design of Raker
tanΘ = 0.4 / 1.5 =14.930

Horizontal Component of thrust (assumed) = 2.5% of max. Compression in Top

Chord
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 221
 T = 2.5% x 182 / sin 14.93 = 17.5 KN
Length of racker = 1.55 m
Assume f cd= 0.40fy
Hence Target Area= 17.5x103 / 0.40x 250= 175 mm2.
Assume Single Equal Angle Section ISA 50x50x6 connected to gusset plate of
10 mm thick.
Area= 568 mm2 , rxx= ryy = 15.1mm , cy=14.5mm, Iyy = 12.9 x 104 mm4,
Hence, rmin = rvv=9.6mm.
Assuming effective length Factor, K = 0.80 (Clause [Link])
Effective Length for translation & rotation restrained at one end and translation
restrained and rotation free at other end = 0.80 x1.55= 1.24m,
KL/r= 1860/9.6= 129.6 < 180. Hence Section O.K.
For KL/r= 129.6 and fy =250MPa, using Table 10 and 9c of the code,
fcd=73.97MPa.
Hence Strength of the Member= 73.97x568/ 1000= 42.01 KN > 17.5 KN O.K.

Design of Joint U3 (Sample Case) :- Assume 10 mm thick gusset plate.

For 16mm class 4.6 bolt, Strength in single shear Vdsh = ( fu / 3 ) (nnAnb + nsAsb ) /
 mb = 29 KN
Strength in double shear = 2 x29 = 58 KN
Bearing strength of bolt =V dpb = Vnpb /  mb = 2.5 kb d t fu /  mb = 62.7KN
{ kb = smaller of e/3do , [ (p/3 do ) – 0.25] , fub / fu , 1
Hence Kb = 0.49}( Clause 10.3.4.)
Bolts for 197.15 KN (Double Shear) =197.15 / 58 = 3.13 say 3
Bolts for 30.84 (double shear) = 30.84 /58 say 3
Bolts for 18.47 KN (single shear) = say 2
Provide edge distance = 2 x 16 = 32 mm
Pitch = 2.5x 16 = 40 mm
Check for gusset plate (Whitmore effect )=
Whitmore effective depth = (3x40x 2tan300) =138.56 mm
Capacity of plate = 0.9x 138.56 10 x410 / (410x 1000) = 409.02 KN> 182 KN Safe.

Lecture No. 16
Title: Design of Column Base
Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 222
Speaker: Dr. Bilavari Karkare, Professor, VIIT, Pune.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Base plates are used to transmit load from column to its foundation. Main types of bases
used are: Slab bases and Gusseted bases

2.0 BASIC THEORY

The design of base plate is basically finding out its size and thickness. The required area
of base plate depends on the bearing strength of concrete. The base plate thickness is
worked out from the moment exerted by the pressure of concrete underneath. The
bending moment is worked out at critical section near face of the column.

In case the column is connected to base plate by fillet weld, weld length is checked. Base
plate can also be connected using cleat angles. In case of gusseted base, the thickness of
the base plate is reduced by use of the gusset plate. The gusset plate thickness is worked
out from moment exerted at critical section on the gusset plate. Connection of column
with gusset plate is designed to transfer 50% of load. 2 to 4 hold down bolts are provided.

In case the column is subjected to moment, the base is designed to carry moment and the
bolts are designed to carry tension if required.

• Revised codal provisions in brief

ts = [2.5w(a2 – 0.3 b2) γmo/fy]0.5 ≥ tf

Where, ts is the thickness of base plate,

a, b are the larger and smaller projections of the slab base beyond
rectangle circumscribing the column respectively,
fy is the yield strength of the base plate,
γmo is the partial safety factor for material (1.1)
tf is the flange thickness of the column.

In case of lightly loaded columns, effective area of base plate can be considered for
calculation of thickness required as shown in the figure. In such case, (a2 – 0.3 b2) is
replaced by c2.

• Major changes

Poisson’s ratio is changed from 0.25 to 0.3

Plastic section modulus is considered is thickness calculation.

In case of lightly loaded columns, effective area of base plate can be considered for
calculation of thickness required.

3.0 REFERENCES

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 223
 1. Design of Steel Structures by P. Dayaratnam (S. Chand)

2. Design of Steel Structures by S. K. Duggal, (Tata MacGraw Hill)

3. Design of Steel Structures by N. Subramanian, (Oxford University

Press)

PROBLEM 1
Design a simple base plate for a ISHB300 @ 577 N/m column to carry a factored load
Pu =600 kN (Unfactored load Ps = 400 kN)

[fck = 20 N/mm2; fy = 250 N/mm2; mo = 1.10; σbs = 185 N/mm2]

420

300 420

250

for ISHB300
Thickness of flange = tf = 10.6 mm
Width of flange = bf = 250 mm
Thickness of web = tw = 7.6 mm
Depth = D = 300 mm
Area = A = 7480 mm2

Bearing strength of concrete = 0.45fcu = 0.45 * 20 = 9 N/mm2

Area required = 600*103/9 = 66666.7 mm2

3000 X 250 mm (75000 mm2) > 66666.7 mm2 Area required.

use effective area method.

Effective area = 4c2 + (column perimeter)*c + column area

= 4c2 + (250*4 + 2*300)*c + column area
c = 34 mm

minimum base plate dimension = D + 2c = 418 say 420 mm

Use base plate 420 X 420 (176400 mm2)

w = 9 N/mm2 based on effective area

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 224
ts = c√(2.5w*mo/ fy ) = 10.73 mm < = tf 10.6 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 10.73 mm and since the available
next higher thickness of plate is 12 mm

Use 420 X 420 X 12 mm thick plate.

Welded Connection : assuming to transfer the load to base plate by welds only.

fwd = fu / (mw √3) = 410/(1.5√3) = 157.8 N/mm2 ….mw = 1.5 for site welding
weld length available = 2(250+250-7.6+300-2*10.6) = 1542.4 mm,
less weld return = 2*6*2s = 24s mm.

For 6 mm weld,

Capacity = 0.7s* fwd = 0.7*6*157.8 = 662.8 N/mm

Weld length required = Pu / weld capacity = 600000/662.8 = 905.25 mm
Weld length available = 1542.4 – 24s = 1542.4 – 144 = 1398.4 mm

Use 6 mm fillet weld all around the column.

Use 4 anchor bolts 22 dia 4.6 grade

(Old code method)

Allowable Bearing stress of concrete = 0.25fcu = 0.25 * 20 = 5 N/mm2

Area required = 400*103/5 = 80000 mm2

Use plate of 420 X 420 mm (176400 mm2)

Projections a = 85 mm, b = 60 mm

w = 400*103 /176400 = 2.27 N/mm2

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

ts = √(3w*(a2 – 0.25 b2)/ σbs ) ……… σbs = 185 N/mm2

ts = 15.25 mm > tf = 11.6 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 15.25 mm and since the available
next higher thickness of plate is 16 mm

Use 420 X 420 X 16 mm thick plate.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 225
Welded Connection : assuming load transfer the to base plate by welds only.

Permissible shear stress in weld = σwd = 150*0.8 = 120 N/mm2 Field weld.
weld length available = 2(250+250-7.6+300-2*10.6) = 1542.4 mm,
less weld return = 2*6*2s = 24s mm.

For 6 mm weld,

Capacity = 0.7s* σwd = 0.7*6*120 = 504 N/mm

Weld length required = Pu / weld capacity = 400000/504 = 793.65 mm
Weld length available = 1542.4 – 24s = 1542.4 – 144 = 1398.4 mm

Use 6 mm fillet weld all around the column.

Use 4 anchor bolts 24 dia 4.6 grade

PROBLEM 2
Design a simple base plate for a ISHB350 @ 661 N/m column to carry a factored load of
Pu = 1800 kN (unfactored load Ps = 1200 kN)

[fck = 20 N/mm2 fy = 250 N/mm2 ; mo = 1.10; σbs = 185 N/mm2]

75 350
75
75

B= 250
400

75
L = 500

for ISHB350
Thickness of flange = tf = 11.6 mm
Width of flange = bf = 250 mm
Thickness of web = tw = 8.3 mm
Depth = D = 350 mm

(New code method)

Bearing strength of concrete = 0.45fck = 0.45 * 20 = 9 N/mm2

Area required = 1800*103/9 = 200000 mm2

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 226
Assuming projection of 75 mm on each side, a = b = 75 mm

Use plate of 500 X 400 mm (200000 mm2)

w = 1800*103 /200000 = 9 N/mm2

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

t s = 2.5 w (a 2 − 0.3b 2 ) m 0 / f y  tf

ts = 19.74 mm > tf = 11.6 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 19.74 mm and since the available
next higher thickness of plate is 20 mm

Use 500 X 400 X 20 mm thick plate.

Use cleat angles 75X75X12 and Use 4 anchor bolts 30 dia 4.6 grade.

(Old code method)

Allowable Bearing stress of concrete = 0.25fck = 0.25 * 20 = 5 N/mm2

Area required = 1200*103/5 = 240000 mm2

Assuming projection of 100 mm on each side, a = b = 100 mm

Use plate of 550 X 450 mm (247500 mm2)

w = 1200*103 /247500 = 4.85 N/mm2

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

ts = √(3w*(a2 – 0.25 b2)/ σbs ) ……… σbs = 185 N/mm2

ts = 24.28 mm > T = 11.6 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 24.28 mm and since the available
next higher thickness of plate is 25 mm

Use 550 X 450 X 25 mm thick plate.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 227
Use cleat angles 75X75X12 and Use 4 anchor bolts 36 dia 4.6 grade.

Alternatively, use gusseted base:

(New code method)

Assume 12 mm thick gusset plate and gusset angle 150X75X15

L = 350 + 2*12 + 2*75 = 532 say 550 mm

B = 200000/550 = 364 say 370 mm

A = 203500 mm2
Projection beyond gusset angle = (550-532)//2 = 9 mm

Use plate of 550 X 370 mm (203500 mm2)

w = 1800*103 /203500 = 8.85 N/mm2

Use 24 dia 4.6 grade bolts

Find bolt strength: IS 1367 (Part 3) fu = 400 N/mm2

i) single shear Anb = 353 mm2

Vdsb = fu (ns Asb + ns Anb)/ (mw √3) = 400*353/(1.25√3) = 65217 N
ii) bearing
Vdpb = 2.5 kb d t fu / mw = 2.5*0.523*24*12*400/1.25 = 125017.9 N
kb = e / 3do = 40/3/25.5 = 0.523 in this case.

Bolt strength = 65217 N

No. of bolts required to transfer 50% of axial load = (1800000/2)/65217 = 13.8

Use 8 Nos. 24dia 4.6 grade bolts on either side.

Provide bolts in 2 rows to connect column flange to gusset plate.

Gusset plate height required at column flange = 150 + 2e + p

= 150 + 2*40 + 60 = 290 mm
e = edge distance = 1.5d = 36mm say 40 mm, p = pitch = 2.5d = 60 mm

Height of gusset plate at the edge = 150 mm

s = average height = (290+150)/2 = 220 mm

Check Class of Section for gusset plate:

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 228
ε = √ (fy / fyg) = 1
i) gusset plate between flanges internal element of compression flange
bi/tgp = g/tgp = 140/12 = 11.66 < 29.3ε plastic section
ii) gusset plate outstand : outstanding element of compression flange
be/tgp = [(370-140)/2]/12 = 9.58 < 13.6ε semicampact section

Moment carried by gusset plate:

projection a = (370- 250)/2 = 60 mm

M = w*a2/2 * L/2 = 8.85 * 602/2 *550/2 = 4.38 * 106 Nmm

Moment capacity of gusset plate
= Ze fy/mo = 12*2902/6 *250/1.1= 38.23* 106 Nmm > M …OK

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

Critical section for moment is at the face of angle.

Projection x = 9+75-15 = 69 mm

Combined thickness tbg = x√(2.5w*mo/ fy ) = 21.53 mm

ts = 21.53 – 15 = 6.53 mm < tgp = 12 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 12 mm

thickness of plate is 12 mm

Use 550 X 370 X 12 mm thick base plate and 12 mm thick gusset plate.

(Old code method)

140 350
140
70

B= 250
390 Gusset plate
with gusset
angle
70
L = 630

Assume 16mm thick gusset plate and gusset angle 150X115X15

L = 350 + 2*16 + 2*115 = 612 say 630 mm

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 229
B = 240000/630 = 381 say 390 mm
A = 245700 mm2
projection beyond gusset angle = (630-612)//2 = 9 mm

Use plate of 630 X 390 mm (245700 mm2)

w = 1200*103 /245700 = 4.88 N/mm2

Use 24dia 4.6 grade bolts

Find bolt strength:

i) single shear strength = π/4 * d2 * 100 = 45238 N

ii) bearing strength = d tbp * 300 = 24*16*300 = 115200 N

Bolt strength = 45238 N

No. of bolts required to transfer 50% of axial load = (120000/2)/45238 = 13.26

Use 8 Nos. 24dia 4.6 grade bolts on either side.

Provide bolts in 2 rows to connect column flange to gusset plate.

Gusset plate height required at column flange = 150 + 2e + p
= 150 + 2*40 + 60 = 290 mm
e = edge distance = 1.5d = 36mm say 40 mm, p = pitch = 2.5d = 60 mm

Height of gusset plate at the edge = 150 mm

s = average height = (290+150)/2 = 220 mm

Moment carried by gusset plate

projection a = (390 – 250)/2 = 70 mm

M = w*a2/2 * L/2 = 4.88 * 702/2 *630/2 = 3.77*106 Nmm
Moment capacity of gusset plate
= Ze σbs = 16*2902/6 *165= 37.0* 106 Nmm > M …OK

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

Critical section for moment is at the face of angle.

Projection x = 9+115-15 = 109 mm

Combined thickness tbg = x√(3w* σbs) = 32.46 mm

ts = 30.66 – 15 = 15.66 mm > tgp = 16 mm,

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 230
Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 16 mm and since the available next
higher thickness of plate is 16 mm

Use 630 X 390 X 16 mm thick base plate and 16 mm thick gusset plate.

PROBLEM 3
Design a simple base plate for a ISHB250 (547N/m) column to carry a factored load of
600 kN (unfactored load 400 kN) and bending moment 50 kNm factored (33.3 kNm
unfactored)

[fcu = 20 N/mm2 fy = 250 N/mm2 ; mo = 1.10; σbs = 185 N/mm2]

for ISHB250
Thickness of flange = tf = 9.7 mm
Width of flange = bf = 250 mm
Thickness of web = tw = 8.8 mm
Depth = D = 250 mm

(New code method)

125 250
125
75

B= 250
400
mm
75
L=
500mm 6N/mm2
N/mm2
4.5N/mm
2

Allowable Bearing stress of concrete = 0.45fck = 0.45 * 20 = 9 N/mm2

e = Pu / Mu = 83.33 mm. For no tension condition, base plate dimension L = 6e or 500mm

Area required = 600*103*2/9 = 133333 mm2

B = A / L = 266.67 mm

Use plate of 500 X 400 mm (200000 mm2)

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 231
projection of 75 mm

pmax = P/a + M/Z = 3 +3 = 6 N/mm2 Z = 400*5002 / 6 = 16.67*106 mm3

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

M = 4.5*1252/2 + (6-4.5)*125/2 * 2/3 * 125 = 42.97 103 Nmm/mm

Moment Capacity = 1.2 * ts2/6* fy / mo

ts = 30.75 mm and since the available next higher thickness of plate is 32 mm

Use 500 X400 X 32 mm thick base plate.

(Old code method)

125 250
125

B=
400
mm

L= 500
mm 4 N/mm2

3 N/mm2

Allowable Bearing stress of concrete = 0.25fck = 0.25 * 20 = 5 N/mm2

e = Ps / Ms = 83.33 mm. For no tension condition, base plate dimension L = 6e or 500mm

Area required = 400*103*2/5 = 160000 mm2

B = A / L = 320 mm

Use plate of 500 X 400 mm (200000 mm2)

projection of 75 mm
pmax = P/A+ M/Z = 2 +2 = 4 N/mm2 Z = 400*5002 / 6 = 16.67*106 mm3

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 232
M = 3*1252/2 + (4-3)*125/2 * 2/3 * 125 = 28.65* 103 Nmm/mm
Moment Capacity = ts2/6* σbs

ts = 30.48 mm and since the available next higher thickness of plate is 32 mm

Use 500 X400 X 32 mm thick base plate.

Gusset plate

(New code method)

125 250 125

75
B = 400
mm
250

75
L = 500
mm
Assume 12 mm thick gusset plate

Use plate of 500 X 400 mm (200000 mm2)

Height of gusset plate at the edge = 100 mm

Height of gusset plate at column flange = 200 mm
s = average height = (200+100)/2 = 150 mm

Check Class of Section for gusset plate: considering welded connection

ε = √ (fy / fyg) = 1
i) gusset plate between flanges internal element of compression flange
bi/tgp = 250/12 = 20.89 < 29.3ε plastic section
ii) gusset plate outstand : outstanding element of compression flange
be/tgp = 125/12 = 10.42 < 13.6ε compact section
iii) gusset plate outstand : outstanding element of compression flange
s/tgp = 150/12 = 12.5 < 13.6ε compact section

Shear Force:
V = (4.5+6)/2 * 125*400/2 = 131250 N
Vn = Vp = Av fyg/(mo √3) = 200*12*250 / (1.1 √3) = 314918 N
0.6 Vn = 188951 N > 131250 N compact section can be used.

Moment carried by gusset plate:

projection a = (500- 250)/2 = 125 mm

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 233
M = 4.5*200*1252/2 + (6-4.5)*200*125/2 * 2/3 * 125 = 8.59 *106 Nmm/mm
Moment capacity of gusset plate
= Zp fy/mo = 1.2 *(B ts2/6)* fy / mo =1.2* 12*2002/6 *250/1.1
= 21.81* 106 Nmm > M …OK

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

Critical section for moment is at the face of gusset plate.

Projection x = 75-12 = 63 mm

slab thickness ts = x√(2.5 pmax*mo/ fy ) = 16.18 mm > tgp = 12 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 16.18 mm and since the available
next higher thickness of plate is 20 mm

Use 550 X 370 X 20 mm thick base plate and 12 mm thick gusset plate.

Gusset plate- column weld : Assuming 50% load transferred by bearing and 50% by
welds(base of the column fully milled for tight contact in bearing)

Weld between column - gusset plate and column – base plate to transmit load to base
plate.
Load on one flange of column due to axial load and moment
P = [Pu /2 + Mu/D]/2 = [600/2 + 50/(0.25- 0.0097)]/2 = 254 kN

fwd = fu / (mw √3) = 410/(1.5√3) = 157.8 N/mm2

weld length available = 2*200 = 400 mm,

For 8 mm weld,

Capacity = 0.7s* fwd = 0.7*8*157.8 = 884 N/mm

Weld length required = P / weld capacity = 254000/884 = 288 mm
Weld length available = 400 mm > 565.6 mm OK

Use 8 mm fillet weld.

Weld between gusset plate – base plate to support maximum pressure on base plate.

Load on one gusset plate on one side only = 300000/(4*500) + 50 *106/(4*5002/6)

= 150+300 = 450 N/mm
For 6 mm weld,
Capacity = 0.7s* fwd = 0.7*6*157.8 = 662.8 N/mm > 750 N/mm …. OK

Use 6 mm fillet weld.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 234
PROBLEM 4
Design a simple base plate for a column ISHB400 to carry a factored load of 450 kN
(unfactored load 300 kN) and bending moment 150 kNm factored (250 kNm unfactored)

[fck = 30 N/mm2 fy = 250 N/mm2 ; mo = 1.10; σbs = 185 N/mm2]

for ISHB250
Thickness of flange = tf = 12.7 mm
Width of flange = bf = 250 mm
Thickness of web = tw = 10.6 mm
Depth = D = 400 mm

100 400
100 a
125

B 250

125
L
T y
Pu

(New code method) C

Allowable Bearing stress of concrete = 0.45fck = 0.45 * 30 = 11.25 N/mm2

Area required = 450*103*2/5 = 100000 mm2…… for no tension condition

e = Mu / Pu = 333.33 mm. For no tension condition, base plate dimension 6e or 2000mm

Use plate of 600 X 500 mm (300000 mm2)

Tension in anchor bolts.

Try 20 dia 4.6 grade anchor bolts

Assuming projection of 100 mm on each side, a = b = 100 mm

a = L/2 – edge dist. = 600/2 – 50 = 250 mm.

For equilibrium,
T + Pu = C and C = 0.45 fck yB

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 235
Taking moment @ centre of column,
Mu = C(L/2-y/2) + (Pu* a)

y = (L/2+a) – [(L/2+a) 2 - 2(Mu + Pu a)/( 0.45 fck B)]0.5 = 550-453.08 = 96.92 mm

C = 0.45 fck yB = 512670.9 N
T = C - Pu = 62670 N

Use 20dia 4.6 grade anchor bolts

Find bolt strength:

Tension Anb = 245 mm2 fnb = 272 N/mm2
Tensile Capacity = Tnb = fnb*Anb = 272 * 245 = 66640 N

Tensile strength of 2 bolts = 133.28 kN > 62.67 kN

Use 4 Nos. 20 dia 4.6 grade anchor bolts.

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

Critical section for moment is at the face of column flange.

Projection x = 100 mm
M = 0.45 fck y B(x – y/2) = 0.45*30*96.92*500(100-96.92/2)
= 31.8* 106 Nmm
Moment capacity of slab base
= Zp fy/mo = 1.2 *(B ts2/6)* fy / mo =1.2* 500* ts2/6 *250/1.1
slab thickness ts = 38.52 mm > T = 12.7 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 38.52 mm and since the available
next higher thickness of plate is 40 mm

Use 600 X500 X 40 mm thick base plate.

Column –base plate weld : assuming load transfer the to base plate by welds only.

To carry maximum moment neglecting axial load,

Maximum tension in flange = Mu / (D- tf) = 150* 106/(400-12.7) = 387297 N

Available weld length for flange = 2*250 – 10.4 = 489.6 mm
Shear force in weld = 287297/489.6 = 791 N/mm

For 8 mm weld,

Capacity = 0.7s* fwd = 0.7*8*157.8 = 884 N/mm > 791 N/mm ….OK

Use 8 mm fillet weld.

Design of Steel Structures using Revised IS 800: 2007, 30th June to 4th July 2009
Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 236
(Old code method)
100 400
100 a
125

B 250

125
L
T y
Pu
7.5
3.78N/mm 2 N/mm2
C
Allowable Bearing stress of concrete = 0.25fck = 0.25 * 30 = 7.5 N/mm2

Area required = 300*103*2/5 = 120000 mm2…… for no tension condition

e = Ms / Ps = 333.33 mm. For no tension condition, base plate dimension 6e or 2000mm

Use plate of 600 X 500 mm (300000 mm2)

Tension in anchor bolts.

Try 24 dia 4.6 grade anchor bolts

Assuming projection of 100 mm on each side, a = b = 100 mm

a = L/2 – edge dist. = 600/2 – 50 = 250 mm.

For equilibrium,
T + Ps = C and C = 0.25 fck yB/2
T = 0.25 fck B*y/2 - Ps

Taking moment @ C,
Ms = T(a + L/2-y/3) + Ps(L/2 – y/3)

Solving for y
y = 201.6 mm
C = 0.25 fck B *y/2 = 0.25*30*201.6*500/2 = 378000 N
T = C - Ps = 78000 N

Use 24 dia 4.6 grade anchor bolts

Find bolt strength:

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Tension As =452 mm2 σts = 120 N/mm2
Tension Capacity = As * σts = 120 * 452 = 54240 N

Tensile strength of 2 bolts = 108.48 kN > 78 kN

Use 4 Nos. 24 dia 4.6 grade anchor bolts.

Now thickness of Slab Base, ts

Critical section for moment is at the face of column flange.

Projection x = 100 mm
Pressure intensity at the face of column = (201.6-100)*7.5/201.6 = 3.78 N/mm2
M = 3.78*1002/2 * 500+ (7.5-3.78)*(100/2)*(100*2/3)*500
= 15.65* 106 Nmm
Moment capacity of slab base
= Ze σbs = 1.2 *(B ts2/6)* fy / mo = 500* ts2/6 *185
slab thickness ts = 31.86 mm > T = 12.7 mm,

Hence provide a base plate of thickness not less than 31.86 mm and since the available
next higher thickness of plate is 32 mm

Use 600 X500 X 32 mm thick base plate.

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Lecture No. 17
Title: Design of Portal Frames
Speaker: Dr. Mukund R. Shiyekar, Professor, SCOE, Pune

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Portal frame is composed by members which are rigidly connected at their ends so to
provide a closed structure. Depending on geometry, it is classified into rectangular or
gable. Column in rectangular and gable frames are vertical. However in some cases,
columns can be inclined also Portal frame is indeterminate structure. Multibay,
Multistorey rectangular portal frame is a typical framework of building. Gable frame
either of single or of multiple spans is generally employed in indurstrial sheds, airport
hangers. Indeterminacy and rigidity at beam-column joint makes the structure difficult to
analyse manually especially when elastic analysis and design is performed. Moment
distribution, slope deflection, strain energy or matrix methods are analytical tools in
Elastic analysis.

However these methods can not be used when loads on portal cause stresses to a yield
value and further plasticity in sections. Due to mechanism plastic collapse occurs. For
simple and indeterminate beams we have seen how these beams are analysed using
statical or kinematical method. As the degree of indeterminacy increases, kinematical
method or mechanism method becomes a simple and convenient for plastic analysis. Full
plasticity of section at locations of maximum BM in the structure leads to mechanism and
collapse occurs.
2) Consider simplest portal frame

Fig 1 Rectangular portal frame

This is redundant to three degree Frame ABCDE is fixed at bases A, E and subjected to
two concentrated loads of W each as shown in figure. Location of maximum bending are
location of possible plastic hinges. In this problem, A, B, C, D and E are possible plastic
hinge locations. Assuming plastic moment of resistance ‘MP’ to be uniform for all
members of frame; possible mechanisms are as under. Here we will work out collapse
load of all such mechanism.
1) Beam mechanism
Beam BD may develop mechanism by formation of three plastic hinges at B, C, and D

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 Fig 2 Beam Mechanism
Work done by load = W 
=WxL
Work absorbed in plastic hinges
= MP  + MP (+) + MP  =  P 
Equating
WL  = 4 MP 
Therefore W = 4 MP / L

2) Sway mechanism

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 Fig 3 Side sway Mechanism
Sway is due to horizontal force W at B plastic hinges will develop at A, B, D and E
Work done by Load = w 
=WL
Work absorbed in plastic hinges
= MP  + MP  + MP  + MP  = 4 MP
Therefore WL = 4 MP 
W = 4 MP /L
Beam and sway are two basic mechanisms of this portal frame. One more mechanism can
be developed by combination of beam and sway mechanism. This is referred as combined
mechanism. In this mechanism close observation will lead to one important result that
plastic hinge will not develop at B. due to cancellation of rotation .
Combined Mechanism

Fig 4 Combined Mechanism

W L  + W L  = MP  + MP ( + ) + MP ( + ) + MP 
2 WL = 6 MP
Therefore W = 3 MP / L
Among possible mechanisms, lowest collapse load is 3MP /L
Therefore combined mechanism governs the plastic collapse. As no. of plastic hinges
developed are four which is equal to r + 1. Collapse is complete.
BM diagram
Considering tree body of column DE and taking moments @ D

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 Fig 5 Free body diagram for column DE
MP + MP = HE L
Therefore HE = 2MP /L
As MP = WL/3
HE = (2 x WL/3) / L = 2/3 W←

Fig 6 Free Body Diagram of column AB

Therefore HA = (1/3) W
Taking moments @ B
MP – (1/3) WL + MB = 0 as MP = WL / 3
Therefore MB = 0

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 Fig 7 Statically admissible bending moment diagram at collapse

B is not a plastic hinge is again proved from BM Diagram as MB = 0

This is the statically admissible bending moment diagram.
Example
Analyse and Design frame of uniform cross section ABCD as shown in figure by limit
state method. Frame is subjected to service load 20 kN/m on column AB. The frame to be
designed as sway frame. Compare design with working stress mehod.
Answer:

Fig 8 Rectangular portal frame of example

A) Plastic Analysis and design
Using partial safety factor for load = 1.5
Factored load intensity = 1.5 x 20 = 30 kN/m
Factored load = 30 kN/m MP uniform

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 Fig 9 Factored loading on frame

a) Beam mechanism of AB
MP = (wP l2) / (11.656) = (30 x 16) / (11.656) = 41.18 kN/m

Fig 10 Beam mechanism of column AB

b) Sway Mechanism
30 x 4 x (/2) = MP  + MP  = 3 MP 
 = 4
MP = 80 kNm

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 Fig 11 Sway Mechanism of frame
c) Combined Mechanism

Fig 12 Combined mechanism

Let ‘x’ be the position of hinge in column
(30 x) (x/2) + 30 (4 - x) x = MP  + MP 
As x = 2
Therefore  = x/2
30 x (x/2) + 30 (4-x) x = MP  + MP (x/2)
15 x2 + 120 x – 30 x2 = MP [1 + (x/2)]
120 x – 15 x2 = MP [(2 + x)/2]
(120 x – 15 x2) [2/(2+x)] = MP
(240 x – 30 x2) / (2 + x) = MP
For MP to be maximum
dMP/dx = 0
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[(2 + x) (240 – 60x) – (240x-30x2) x 1] / [(2+x)2] = 0
480 – 120x + 240 x – 60 x2 – 240 x + 30 x2 = 0
-30 x2 – 120 x + 480 = 0
x2 + 4x – 16 = 0
(x2 + 4x + 4) – 4 =16
(x+2)2 = 20
x+2 = 4.472
x = 2.472
MP = (240 x 2.472 – 30 x 2.4722) / (2 + 2.472) = (593.28 – 183.32) / (4.472) =
409.96/4.472
= 91.672 kNm
HD = MP /2 = 91.672/2 = 45.836 ←
HA = 120 – 45.836 = 74.164 ←

Fig 13 Free Body of Column AB

MB = 74.164 x 4 – 30 x 4 x 2
= 296.65 – 240 = 56.65 < MP

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 Fig 14 Statically admissible bending moment diagram
ME = 74.164 x 2.472 – 30 x 2.4722
= 183.33 – 91.66
= 91.67 checked and is equal to MP
Taking b = 1 as plastic c/s, using fy = 250 MPa
ZP required = (91.67 x 106 x 1.1) / (250) = 403.34 cm3
Therefore Ze = 403.34 / 1.14 = 353.8 cm3
Select ISLB 275 @ 33 kg/m
Ze = 392.4 cm3 > 353.8
bf/tf = 75/9.9 = 7.57 < 9.4 ε – Flange is plastic
bf/tw = 181.4/6.4 = 28.34 < 84 ε Web is Plastic
Therefore Section is plastic
ZP = 443.09 cm3 (Refer Annex H p. No. 139)
MP = b fy ZP / γmo = 1 x 250 x 443.09 / 1.1 = 100 kNm > 82.87 kNm OK
Shear capacity of ISLB 275
Vd = (275 x 6.4) x (250/√3 x 1.1)
= 230.79 kN
Actual shear V = 41.43 for column CD
as V/Vd = 41.43 / 188.83 = 0.22 < 0.6
No need of reduction in capacity of MP
Combined BM and axial force in column CD
Member CD

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 Fig 15 Free Body Diagram of Column DC
Taking moments @ C
HD = 91.67 / 2 = 45.83 kN ←
Considering entire frame
Taking moment @ hinge support A
30 x 4 x (4/2) – 45.83 x 2 – VD x 4 = 0
VD [(240 – 91.67) / 4] = 148.83 / 4 = 37.08 kN ↑
Therefore Member CD is subjected to following actions
Bending moment M = MP = 91.67 kNm
Shear Force = V = 45.83 kN
Axial Force = P = 37.08 kN (Compressive)
Interaction between bending and shear
Design shear resistance of web of section ISLB 275 as per clause
Vd = Av fx / √3 x 1.10 = 230.79 kN
V / Vd = 45.83 / 230.79 = 0.19 < 0.6
Reduction in plastic moment of resistance not required
Interaction between bending and axial compression
Because of sway, effective length of CD = 1.2 x 2000 = 2400 mm @ zz axis
effective length of CD = 2000 @ yy axis
rzz = 113.1 mm = KL/rzz = 2400/113.1 = 21.23
ryy = 26.1 mm = KL/ryy = 2000/26.1 = 76.62
Referring buckling class classification Table 10 P. No. 44
For ISLB 275
h = 275 mm, bf = 75
therefore h/bf = 275/75 = 3.66
tf = 8.8 mm < 40 mm
To find fcd,
Buckling @ zz axis – Table 9(a)
@ yy axis – Table 9(b)
From Table 9(a), for (KL/r)zz = 21.23, fcd = 225 N/mm2

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Therefore design compressive strength = 4202 x 225 N
= 945.45 kN
From Table 9(b), for (KL/r)yy = 76.62, fcd = 155 N/mm2
Therefore design compressive strength = 4202 x 155 = 651.31 kN
Therefore Nd = 651.31
Using clause [Link] p. No. 70 for strength of section
(N/Nd)+ (Mz / Mdz) ≤ 1.0
Where N = Factored axial force in column = 37.08 kN
Nd = design compressive strength = 651.31
Mz = Factored applied moment @ zz axis = 91.67 kNm
Mdz = Moment design strength @ zz axis = 101.66 kNm
Using interaction formula as per clause [Link]
(37.08/651.31) + (91.67/101.66)
0.057 + 0.901
0.958 < 1 OK
The section should also satisfy Cl. 9.3.2. (P. No. 71) for overall buckling failure
Readers are advised to exercise this clause.
B) Elastic analysis and Design

Fig 16 Loading for working stress method

Assume EI uniform for the frame. Performing elastic analysis following are results
HD = 34.8 ← VD = 22.6 ↑
HA = 45.2 ← VA = 22.6 ↓

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 Fig 17 Bending moment diagram by elastic analysis
Maxumum BM = 69.6 kNm
Ze required = 69.6 x 106 / 165
= 421 cm3
Select ISLB 300 @ 37.7 kg/m
Ze provided = 488.9 cm3
Elastic moment of resistance Me = 488.9 x 165
= 80.668 > 69.6
In the Working stress method, as per IS:800 – 1984 it is required to check the designed
section ISLB 300 for combined axial compression and bending. Check for the overall
member buckling as given in IS:800 – 2007 is not required.
C) Saving in Steel due to LSM
37.7 kg/m by WSM – 33.00 kg/m by LSM = 4.7 kg/m
% saving = 4.7 / 33 = 14.24 %

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Lecture No. 18
Title: Earthquake Consideration in Design of Steel Structures
Speaker: Dr. SanthaKumar A. R., Retd. Professor, IIT, Chennai.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Earthquakes are natural phenomena, which cause the ground to shake. The earth’s
interior is hot and in a molten state. As the lava comes to the surface, it cools and new
land is formed. The lands so formed have to continuously keep drifting to allow new
material to surface. According to the theory of plate tectonics, the entire surface of the
earth can be considered to be like several plates, constantly on the move. These plates
brush against each other or collide at their boundaries giving rise to earthquakes.
Therefore regions close to the plate boundary are highly seismic and regions farther from
the boundaries exhibit less seismicity. Earthquakes may also be caused by other actions
such as underground explosions.
The Indian sub-continent, which forms part of the Indo-Australian plate, is pushing
against the Eurasian plate along the Himalayan belt. Therefore, the Himalayan belt is
highly seismic whereas peninsular India, which is not traversed by any plate boundary, is
relatively less seismic. Earthquakes became frequent after the construction of Koyna dam
and this is regarded as a classic case of man-made seismicity. However, the Latur
earthquake of 1993, which occurred in what was previously considered to be the most
stable region on the earth, implies that no region is entirely safe from devastating
earthquakes.
Earthquakes cause the ground to shake violently thereby triggering landslides, creating
floods, causing the ground to heave and crack and causing large-scale destruction to life
and property. The study of why and where earthquakes occur comes under geology. The
study of the characteristics of the earthquake ground motion and its effects on engineered
structures are the subjects of earthquake engineering. In particular, the effect of
earthquakes on structures and the design of structures to withstand earthquakes with no or
minimum damage is the subject of earthquake resistant structural design. The secondary
effects on structures, due to floods and landslides are generally outside its scope.
The recent earthquake in Kutch, Gujarat on 26 Jan 2001 has not only exposed the
weaknesses in the Indian construction industry but also the lack of knowledge about
earthquake engineering among all concerned. Taking advantage of the fear caused by the
earthquake in the minds of both the common people and the engineering community, a
number of people who have no knowledge about earthquake engineering have made
totally absurd statements with regard to earthquake resistant design. Examples are given
below:

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➢ Tall buildings (exceeding 27 metres) should NOT be built.
(Comment: There is no scientific basis for this limitation).

➢ A building of U or L shape (viz. Irregular shapes) is preferable.

(Comment: Buildings of U or L shapes are under enhanced risk of earthquake
damage due to torsional mode of motions).
➢ Adjacent buildings should be rigidly interconnected.
(Comment: It is inappropriate to connect adjacent buildings rigidly as re -
entrant corners in such cases might undergo distress).
➢ Steel and Wood are ductile.
(Comment: Wood is NOT ductile).
It will be wise to verify the credentials of the so called “experts” with a view to ascertain
if they are qualified to provide advice on Earthquake resistant Design, before believing or
accepting their advice.
An important thing to remember is that as of now, earthquakes cannot be predicted by
any means scientific or otherwise. Claims that earthquakes can be predicted by
Astrology, by Astronomical or other observations of sun-spots, by observing animals
including rats and bandicoots or by observing unnatural phenomena such as sudden rise
in the water table are all methods which have no scientific basis and should be
regarded as extremely risky.

Earthquake load differs from other loads in many respects, which makes it more difficult
to design for it. An important characteristic of earthquake loading is the uncertainty
associated with its amplitude, duration, and frequency content. Structures are normally
designed to withstand gravity loads acting vertically with adequate factor of safety.
Therefore the lateral loads arising due to horizontal earthquake ground motion can cause
severe damage unless special provisions are made to resist them. The third characteristic
of earthquake ground motion is that it is cyclic and induces reversal of stresses. Therefore
axially loaded members may have to resist both tension and compression while beam
cross-sections will have to resist both positive and negative bending moments. The fourth
characteristic is that the loading is dynamic and produces different degree of response in
different structures. Dynamic analysis requires the consideration of inertia and elastic
forces as well as energy dissipating mechanisms like damping (Clough and Penzien
1993). These characteristics make seismic analysis and design extremely difficult and
time-consuming and so simplified procedures are often used in practice.

1.0 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND METHODOLOGY

Severe earthquakes have an extremely low probability of occurrence during the life of a
structure. If a structure has to resist such earthquakes elastically, it would require an
expensive lateral load resisting system, which is unwarranted. On the other hand, if the
structure loses its aesthetics or functionality quite often due to minor tremors and needs
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repairs, it will be a very unfavourable design. Therefore, a dual strategy, akin to the limit
state design, is adopted. The usual strategy is:
‘to ensure elastic behaviour under a moderate earthquake which has a return
period equal to the life of the structure and prevent collapse under the
extreme probable earthquake’.
For example, if the expected life of the structure is fifty years, then it is designed to
remain elastic under an earthquake, which is likely to occur at least once in fifty years.
Thus, no major repair will be necessary as a consequence of such earthquakes during the
life of the structure. However, structures are designed to prevent collapse and loss of life
under the most severe earthquake. The reason for adopting such a strategy is that it is
extremely expensive to design structures to respond elastically under severe earthquakes,
which may not occur during their expected life. Thus, it is well worth the risk to let them
get damaged beyond repair in case the severe earthquake occurs, the chances of which
are low.
The important properties of structures, which contribute to their elastic resistance under
moderate earthquakes, are its yield strength and elastic stiffness. During a severe
earthquake, the structure is likely to undergo inelastic deformations and has to rely on its
ductility and hysteretic energy dissipation capacity to avoid collapse.
Ductility is the property, which allows the structure to undergo large plastic deformations
without significant loss of strength [see Fig. 1(a)]. Ductility  is defined as the ratio of
the ultimate deformation u at an assumed collapse point, to the yield deformation y. It
may be noted that the collapse point may be assumed to lie on the descending branch of
the load-deformation curve. This is still safe because earthquake loading is transient and
will cease to act after a short time and so the structure will not be toppled.
Hysteretic energy is the energy dissipated by inelastic cyclic deformations and is given
by the area within the load-deformation curve also called the hysteretic curve. In
structures having low hysteretic energy dissipation capacities, even if the deformations
are well below the ultimate deformation, the structure is likely to collapse due to low-
cycle fatigue effect as described below.
The degradation of strength and stiffness under repeated inelastic cycling is called low-
cycle fatigue. Ensuring that the structure is able to dissipate a large amount of hysteretic
energy in each cycle can minimise low-cycle fatigue effect. The area enclosed by the
force-deformation loops gives the hysteretic energy. Larger area implies more dissipation
of hysteretic energy as shown in Fig. 1(c). One way of ensuring good ductility and energy
dissipation capacity in steel structures is to use thicker sections thereby avoiding early
local buckling. Thus, plastic and compact sections are preferred over semi-compact and
slender sections. Other parameters, which control ductility, are slenderness ratio and axial
load ratio of the members.

Since earthquake loading produces large deformation as well as low-cycle fatigue, both
ductility and energy dissipation capacity are required to resist severe earthquakes.
Experimental studies have shown that these two capacities are interrelated and a large
demand on one tends to decrease the other.

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With reference to framed structures, it has been found that some collapse mechanisms
ensure larger energy dissipation capacities compared to some other collapse mechanisms.
The technique of ensuring a preferred collapse mechanism by suitably adjusting the
capacities of the members is called Capacity Design. In practice, due to the difficulties
associated with inelastic analysis and design, no attempt is made to calculate the actual
capacities in relation to seismic demand and it is only ensured that the members and
joints of the structure have adequate ductility and energy dissipation capacities and the
structure as a whole will fail in a preferred collapse mechanism.

H H H

Ductile

 

Non-ductile


(a) ductile and non (b) poor energy (c) good energy
-ductile behaviour dissipation capacity dissipation capacity
Fig. 1 Earthquake Resistant Properties

In addition to strength requirements at the ultimate load, structures are also designed to
have adequate stiffness in the lateral direction under service loads. This is usually
ensured, by limiting the relative displacement between successive floors, known as the
storey drift. For buildings, a maximum allowable storey drift of 0.004 times the storey
height is normally used under moderate earthquakes.
Although all of the above mentioned concepts are important for ensuring the safety of
structures during a severe earthquake, one should keep in mind the great uncertainty
associated with the seismic behaviour of structures. Past earthquakes have demonstrated
that simplicity is the key to avoid unforeseen effects and so attention given at the
planning stage itself can go a long way in ensuring safety and economy in seismic design.
Some of the factors to be considered at the planning stage are described below.
Although the selection of a suitable site and foundation is not within the scope of this
chapter, some guidelines are given in view of the wrong advice given by several ‘experts’
in the aftermath of the Gujarat earthquake. It is common sense to select a site where the
bedrock is available close to the surface so that the foundations can be laid directly on the
rock. Conversely, where such a condition is not available it is a simple matter to say that
the site should be avoided. However the engineering problem arises when, due to
practical reasons, it is not possible to avoid a site where bedrock is not available close to
the surface. For example, in the great Indo-gangetic plain or the Rann of Kutch, where
will one find a suitable rock stratum for laying the foundations? It is precisely in these
situations that well qualified ‘experts’ are required who can give guidelines about the

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type of foundations to be adopted.
Most Civil engineers are aware that in expansive clays one can select under-reamed piles
to prevent differential settlement. A similar concept can be used for earthquake
engineering wherein one chooses for raft foundations over weak soils to avoid differential
settlements. If the loads are high, one should select pile foundations and provide a strong
pile cap. Where spread footings are decided upon, it may be advantageous to have
adequate plinth or tie beams to prevent the deleterious effects of differential settlement.
An important phenomenon, which should be guarded against is liquefaction of
sands. Sands have adequate bearing capacity under normal conditions but tend to liquefy
and lose their shear strength during an earthquake especially when the water table rises.
In dry or desert areas, where there is little chance for the water table to rise one need not
worry about liquefaction. The other alternative is to provide sufficient drainage paths,
which can dissipate the excess pore water pressure and thereby prevent liquefaction.
Different types of foundations, foundations at different levels as on a hill-slope and
foundations on different soil types should also be avoided.
Several other techniques such as erecting the building on a bed of sand or round stones,
providing rockers below the columns, providing some kind of sliding mechanisms and so
on are also suggested by various engineers. However, these methods could prove highly
dangerous unless they are based on sound engineering principles backed by
experimental evidence. A variety of methods which have been tested and proven to be
effective both in the laboratory and field conditions are given at the end of this chapter.
The key for good seismic design is simplicity in plan and elevation. The plan should be
symmetric and there should be a uniform distribution not only of mass but also stiffness.
Columns and walls should be arranged in grid fashion and should not be staggered in
plan. There should be a uniform distribution of columns and walls in the plan and
weaknesses such as ducts and open-to-sky should be avoided. The openings in the walls
should be located centrally and be small enough so that the wall is not unduly weakened.
Openings from column to column as also corner windows ahould be avoided. Both wall
dimensions and openings should conform to the provisions given in IS 4326 – 1993. In
the elevation, sudden changes in stiffness as in stilt floors, long cantilevers and floating
columns should be avoided. In case, it is not possible to avoid them, they should be
designed by a qualified structural engineer who understands structural dynamics and
earthquake resistant design. Appendages like sun-shades (Chajjas), water tanks and
staircase covers should be designed for higher safety levels.

Structures, which have more than one axis of symmetry and have uniform distribution of
strength and stiffness and are free from reentrant corners, are said to be regular
structures. Structures, which do not satisfy one or more of the above requirements, are
said to be irregular. Some common types of irregularities are shown in Fig. 2. Irregular
structures exhibit special problems during earthquakes and should be avoided as far as
possible.

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 Plan Plan Elevation Elevation
(a) Un-symmetric (b) Reentrant (c) Soft Story (d) Plaza Type
Plan Corners Buildings
Fig. 2 Irregular Structures

An unsymmetrical plan as shown in Fig. 2(a) leads to torsional effects, especially if the
mass centre and the shear centre of the lateral load resisting systems do not coincide.
Reentrant corners, as in Fig. 2(b), lead to differential deformations in the wings and
consequent cracking at the corners. Therefore all L-shaped, H-shaped, U-shaped, W-
shaped and any other alphabet shaped, except O-shaped buildings, should be avoided. It
is advantageous to split such plans into separate rectangles with a crumple zone in
between as explained in IS 4326-1993. A flexible first storey, also known as the soft
storey shown in Fig. 2(c) leads to excessive ductility demands on the columns in the first
storey and should be avoided. Sudden changes in stiffness in the elevation, as in the
plaza-type building shown in Fig. 2(d), should also be avoided. Connections and bridges
between buildings should be avoided and buildings with different sizes and shapes should
have adequate gap between them to avoid pounding. The revised draft of IS 1893-2000,
gives more details about irregularities and design methods for such buildings.
Masonry and infill (non-structural) walls should be reinforced by vertical and horizontal
reinforcing bands to avoid their failure under a severe earthquake. It should be noted that
wood is not ductile and needs to be reinforced with steel to withstand severe earthquakes.
Also other non-structural elements should be carefully designed so that they do not cause
injury to people. Hugh book shelves and almirahs should be tied to the walls so that they
do not topple, Wall clocks and picture frames should not be put over exit doors as they
can fall on the head of the person trying to escape. Roof tiles should be tied by a steel
wire or some sort of sheeting should be used below them to prevent their falling down.

Reinforced Concrete elements should be detailed as per IS 13920-1993 which requires

extra stirrups at potential hinging locations and extra anchorage lengths. It should be
remembered that steel structures perform better than RC structures and should be adopted
for all important buildings such as hotels, multi-storied buildings and hospitals. Pre-cast
elements should be tied securely so that they don’t get dislodged during the earthquake.

2.0 SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN VERIFICATION

Structures are usually designed for gravity loads and checked for earthquake loading. In
conformity with the design philosophy, this check consists of two steps − the first ensures
elastic response under moderate earthquakes and the second ensures that collapse is
precluded under a severe earthquake. Due to the uncertainties associated in predicting the
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inelastic response, the second check may be dispensed with, by providing adequate
ductility and energy dissipation capacity. In this section, the various methods of
performing these checks are described.
The important factors, which influence earthquake resistant design are, the geographical
location of the structure, the site soil and foundation condition, the importance of the
structure, the dynamic characteristics of the structure such as the natural periods and the
properties of the structure such as strength, stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation
capacity. These factors are considered directly or indirectly in all the methods of analysis.

3.1 Elastic Response Analysis

Elastic response analysis is invariably performed as a part of the usual design procedure.
The primary aim of elastic analysis is to ensure serviceability under moderate
earthquakes. For simple and regular structures, the seismic coefficient method is
normally used. Structures such as multi-storeyed buildings, overhead water tanks and
bridge piers are usually designed by the response spectrum method while for more
important structures such as nuclear reactors; time-history response analysis is usually
adopted. In what follows the seismic coefficient method is explained in detail while the
response spectrum method and time history analysis are described briefly since
understanding of these methods requires some knowledge of structural dynamics.

3.1.1 The Seismic Coefficient Method

This is the simplest of the available methods and is applicable to structures, which are
simple, symmetric, and regular. In this method, the seismic load is idealised as a system
of equivalent static loads, which is applied to the structure and an elastic analysis is
performed to ensure that the stresses are within allowable limits. The sum of the
equivalent static loads is proportional to the total weight of the structure and the constant
of proportionality, known as the seismic coefficient, is taken as the product of various
factors, which influence the design and are specified in the codes (IS 1893 – 1984).
Typically, the design horizontal seismic coefficient h is given by

 h =   I o (1)

Where, o is the basic horizontal seismic coefficient,  is a coefficient depending upon

the soil-foundation system and I is the importance factor. The factor o, also known as
the zone factor, takes care of the geographical location of the structure. The site soil
condition and the type of foundation also modify the ground motion locally and are taken
into account by means of the coefficient. The importance of a structure is determined
based on its destructive potential or its role in the post-earthquake scenario. Thus dams,
which can cause flooding, are given the maximum importance while hospitals, which
may be required following the earthquake, are given relatively higher importance than
ordinary buildings.

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 The total horizontal load, also known as the base shear is then taken as,
VB = KC hW (2)
Where, K = performance factor which takes into account the ductility and energy
dissipation capacities, C = coefficient taking into account the fundamental natural period
T and W = total of dead load plus an appropriate amount of live load.
For multi-storey buildings, the natural period in seconds may be calculated as T = 0.1n,
where, n is the number of storeys.
The base shear calculated above is then distributed along the height of the building using
the formula,
Wi hi2
Qi = VB (3)
n

W h
i =1
i i
2

where, Qi is the lateral force at the top of floor i, Wi is the total of dead and appropriate
amount of live load at the top of floor i, hi is the height measured from the base of the
building to the top of floor i, and n is the number of storeys.
The seismic coefficient method gives conservative results but has the advantage of being
simple and easy to use. It ignores the effect of higher modes and cannot accommodate
irregularities in the structure. It is used for checking against moderate earthquakes since
the emphasis is on resisting the earthquake loads by virtue of elastic strength rather than
inelastic behaviour. Therefore the only safeguards that can be provided against severe
earthquakes is by following a design procedure, as in capacity design, along with a set of
detailing rules, which will ensure some degree of ductility and energy dissipation
capacity.

3.1.2 The Response Spectrum Method

Although the response spectrum method requires more calculations than the seismic
coefficient method, it has the advantage that, it can account for irregularities as well as
higher mode contributions and gives more accurate results. Therefore, this is the most
widely used method in seismic analysis. Numerous attempts have been made to extend
the applicability of the method for inelastic response under severe earthquakes.
The response spectrum is a plot of the maximum response (usually the acceleration Sa) of
single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) systems as a function of their natural period T (see
Fig. 3). For design purposes, the smoothed average of a number of elastic response
spectrums corresponding to various possible earthquakes at a particular site, known as the
smoothed elastic design response spectrum (SEDRS), is used. The SEDRS is further
simplified so that it can be represented by a set of equations corresponding to different
period ranges. SEDRS are usually specified for different soil conditions.

Most structures, such as multi-storeyed buildings are multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF)

systems whose response can be approximated by considering only the first few natural

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modes. This fact is used to great advantage in modal spectral analysis, where the first
few natural vibration mode shapes are calculated as a first step. Each mode can then be
considered to represent the vibration shape of an SDOF with a corresponding natural
period and so its maximum response can be directly determined from the response
spectrum. The total response of the structure can then be calculated as a combination of
these individual responses. A variety of ways are available to combine the individual
responses considering the fact that these maximum responses occur at different instants
of time. When the natural periods are sufficiently apart, the most common way of
combining the maximum responses is by taking the square root of the sum of the squares
(SRSS) method (Clough and Penzien 1993).

Sa SEDRS Sa

T T
Fig. 3 Developing the Design Response Spectrum

3.1.3 Time-history Analysis Method

For important structures, both linear and non-linear responses can be obtained by
carrying out detailed time-history analysis for one or more design accelerograms. These
design accelerograms may be either natural accelerograms recorded at the site or at
similar sites or they can be artificial accelerograms generated in such a way as to be
compatible with the design response spectrum. A variety of numerical time-stepping
methods are available for calculating the response time-history. Detailed discussions of
these methods are beyond the scope of the present chapter and the reader is referred to
books on structural dynamics (Clough and Penzien 1993).

3.2 Inelastic Response Analysis

Some structures may be more ductile than others may and the designer may wish to take
advantage of ductility to reduce the design loads. In such cases, inelastic response
analysis will be required to ensure safety under severe earthquakes.

3.2.1 Inelastic Response Spectra

The concept of elastic response spectrum can be extended to the inelastic range with the
tacit assumption that damage is proportional to the maximum inelastic displacement.
Thus, the inelastic response spectrum for a given earthquake accelerogram can be plotted
by carrying out an inelastic time-history analysis for each SDOF system period and
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picking up the maximum value of the response as will be explained in the next
subsection.
For design purposes, an inelastic design response spectrum can be specified based on an
assumed force-deformation relationship. Alternatively, the ratio of the ordinate of the
Elastic Design Response Spectrum (EDRS) to that of the Inelastic Design Response
Spectrum (IDRS), known as the force-reduction-factor (FRF) or the q-factor can be
specified for various time periods T. The corresponding inelastic design strength Fy can
be obtained as the elastic design strength Fe divided by the FRF (see Fig. 4).
Assuming an elastic-perfectly-plastic (EPP) force-deformation relationship that is typical
for structural steel, and analysing for a large number of earthquake accelerograms,
Newmark and Hall (1982) arrived at the following values for the force-reduction-factors.

FRF = 1 for short period structures (T  0.1sec)

FRF = 2  − 1 for medium period structures (0.1  T  0.6 sec) (4)
FRF =  for long period structures (T  0.6 sec)

Note that as T tends to zero, the acceleration of the inelastic system will be the same as
the acceleration of the elastic system and so FRF = 1. As T tends to infinity, the
displacement of the inelastic system will be  times the displacement of the elastic
system and so FRF = . For systems with intermediate period ranges, considering the
equivalence of absorbed energy (i.e. equating the areas under OAB and OAC), the
expression for FRF can be derived as (2-1).
Some researchers have used other types of force-deformation relationships to arrive at
various expressions for FRFs (Krawinkler and Nassar 1992, Miranda 1993, Kumar and
Usami, 1996). Based on these studies, it has been found that the division of the entire
spectrum of time periods into three ranges leads to highly conservative results at the
upper end and unconservative results at the lower end of each range. Therefore, it would
be more appropriate to specify FRFs as smooth functions of time period. Also when the
earthquake accelerogram has a predominant period close to the system period, FRFs in
excess of  can be obtained.

Sa B
Fe Fe = mSae
Sae
FRF = Fe /Fy
EDRS
Fy A
C
IDRS
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T O y ye u 
Strictly speaking, modal spectral analysis is not applicable in the inelastic range since
superposition of the modal responses is not valid. Further, it is difficult to calculate the
FRFs for MDOF structures as it depends on several factors such as the local ductility of
critical sections, amount of redistribution of forces possible, the type of collapse
mechanism developed and also on the characteristics of the earthquake accelerogram.
Therefore, the codes prefer to specify the IDRS by using a behavioural factor or the q-
factor, which is similar to the FRF (Eurocode 8 1993, AISC 1997). The behavioural
factor assumes a certain level of ductility and energy dissipation capacity depending on
the type and topology of the structure. For example, eccentrically braced frames or
moment resisting frames are assigned a larger q-factor compared to concentrically braced
frames in Eurocode 8.

3.2.2 Inelastic Time-history Analysis

Inelastic time-history analysis is basic for plotting the inelastic response spectrum and
requires a hysteretic model giving the cyclic force-displacement relationship. In addition
to the maximum displacement plotted in the inelastic response spectrum, time-history
analysis also provides information such as the number and magnitude of inelastic
excursions and the residual displacement at the end of the earthquake. The accuracy of
the analysis will depend on the numerical method used and the correlation between the
assumed hysteretic model and the actual behaviour. Some of the commonly assumed
hysteretic models for steel structures and members will now be described.
The simplest and the most commonly used hysteretic model is the elastic-perfectly-
plastic (EPP) model [Fig. 5(a)]. The model comes directly from plastic theory and
consists of an elastic branch up to the yield deformation followed by a perfectly plastic
range at the actual or equivalent yield load. It neglects the effect of strain hardening and
is incapable of simulating the strength and stiffness degradation due to low-cycle fatigue.
A slight modification of the EPP model yields the elastic-plastic-hardening (EPH) model
[Fig. 5(b)], which takes into account the gradual plastification and strain hardening
effects. The most common hardening rule used in this model is the kinematic hardening
rule wherein an increase in the yield load in one direction is accompanied by a
corresponding decrease in the yield load in the other direction so that the elastic range
remains constant.
For bolted connections, the slip model shown in Fig. 5(c) is commonly used. This is
because, once the bolts elongate in tension and separation takes place between the

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connected plates, the connection offers little resistance to load reversal until the
connected plates come back in contact and bear against each other in compression.

For cross-sections undergoing local buckling such as wide-flanged beams and thin-walled
sections, the strength and stiffness degradation are pronounced under cyclic loading and
cannot be neglected. Therefore, more complicated hysteretic models employing a set of
degradation rules derived empirically or evolutionary-degrading hysteretic models based
on a damage index are used (Cosenza and Manfreidi 1992, Kumar and Usami 1996).

f f f
fy fy fy

  

(a) EPP (b) EPH (c) Slip

model model
Fig. 5 Hysteretic models model

The hysteretic behaviour can also be obtained directly from experiments and used in
time-history analysis simultaneously. Such tests are called pseudo-dynamic tests or
hybrid tests (Kumar and Usami 1996).
Apart from the hysteretic model, which defines the behaviour of a member or system, the
characteristics of the ground motion also dictate the type of response. Therefore, standard
accelerograms are usually specified for use in time history analysis. Where a number of
analyses are required a set of accelerograms may be generated artificially so as to be
compatible to the design spectrum.

3.2.3 Damage Evaluation and Damage Spectra

Since a number of aspects of the response contribute to the damage of the member or
structure, a damage index is used to evaluate and compare different response histories.
The damage index is a number, which indicates the amount of damage sustained and the
reserve capacity left after the structure or member is subjected to a particular earthquake.
Typically, it is normalised to have a value of zero for elastic response and attains a value
of unity at an assumed collapse point. Various damage indices are available in the
literature and a few important ones are described in this section. The use of the damage
index in design, by means of damage spectra, is also explained.

The damage sustained by a structure under cyclic loading is reflected by a number of

parameters. The parameters may be stated as (1) the maximum deformation; (2) the low-
cycle fatigue; (3) the distribution of cycles; (4) the order of cycles and (5) the structural
parameters and loading conditions. Depending on the parameters considered, damage
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indices of various types and complexities exist.
The simplest damage index is the ductility damage index, which considers only the
damage due to maximum deformation. The ductility damage index is given by

 max −  y
D= (5)
u − y
where, max is the maximum deformation, u is the ultimate deformation and y is the
yield deformation.
A damage index, which considers only the damage due to low-cycle fatigue, may be
defined as
c
N   − 
D =  
i y
(6)
 
i =1   u −  y 

where, i is the maximum deformation in the i-th half-cycle, N is the total number of half-
cycles and c is a structural parameter such that c  1.

Combining the above expressions, a comprehensive damage index considering both

deformation damage and low-cycle fatigue effect can be defined as
c c
  max −  y  N 
Ei 
D = (1 −  )  +    (7)
 u − y   f y ( u −  y ) 
  i =1  
where,  and c are structural parameters and Ei is the hysteretic energy dissipated in the i-
th half-cycle. Note that for an elastic-perfectly-plastic system, Ei = fy(i-y).
The damage index can be used to quantify the damage sustained and thus enables the
comparison of the different types of responses. However, the damage index can be put to
greater use if one realises that inelastic response spectra or force reduction factor spectra
can be plotted for constant damage index rather than for constant ductility values. In this
way the low-cycle fatigue effect can also be taken into account in design. Such damage
spectra have been plotted by Cosenza and Manfreidi (1992) and Kumar and Usami
(1996) among others.

4.0 SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL STRUCTURES

Steel structures have been known to perform well under earthquake loads provided
certain guidelines are followed in design. Some of these guidelines are discussed
qualitatively at the material, member and structural levels.

4.1 Seismic Behaviour of Structural Steel

Steel being a ductile material, equally strong in compression and tension, is ideally suited
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for earthquake resistant structures. The common grades of mild steel have adequate
ductility and perform well under cyclic reversal of stresses. High strength steels provide
higher elastic limits but have less ductility. Another disadvantage in using high strength
steels is that they require less areas of cross-section as compared to mild steels and
thereby get more prone to instability effects.
Steel as a material is produced with high quality control, which aids in Capacity Design.
The sequence of formation of plastic hinges is important in capacity design and so it is
necessary to be able to predict the actual yield stress accurately. If the actual strength of
members is larger than their design strength, plastic hinges may develop in other
members first. In order to avoid such a situation, some codes introduce a factor, which is
the ratio of the expected yield strength to the specified minimum yield strength for
various grades of steel. This factor is also used to ensure that members or connections
that must withstand the development of plastic hinges in other members have sufficient
strength.

4.2 Seismic Behaviour of Bracing Members

Bracing members are used either as part of a lateral load resisting system or to increase
the stiffness of a frame in the lateral direction. They may be either pin-ended or fixed-
ended. Pin-ended braces will be subjected to only axial forces and usually fail by global
buckling under compressive load. After the initial buckling, the buckling strength gets
reduced in subsequent cycles due to non-straightness of the brace. However, the
maximum tensile strength remains relatively unchanged during cycling and presents a
ductile behaviour. Therefore, pin-ended braces are usually used in pairs, as in X-bracing
so that at least one brace will be effective for loading on either side. Another advantage
of using braces is that it becomes possible to dissipate energy without damaging the main
structure and it is easy and economical to replace the braces after an earthquake.
The hysteretic behaviour of a slender brace subjected to incremental amplitude cycling is
shown in Fig. 6. In the first cycle on the compression side, a drastic change in geometry
takes place because of inelastic buckling. During reloading on the tension side, the loops
are well rounded because the fibres on the inside of the buckle undergo plastic yielding.
Subsequent cycles have a trapezoidal shape with a plastic limb on the tension side and
another on the compression side. The limb on the tension side has a constant strength
close to the yield strength while the limb on the compression side has the degraded
strength. Unloading and reloading from tension to compression side is almost
instantaneous while that from compression to tension side takes place with a degraded
stiffness.

2
P
(ten.) P 
1

0
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P-1
(comp.) Buckli
ng
To ensure adequate energy dissipation capacity, the slenderness is normally limited to a
value such that the strength of the brace under static compressive loading is about one-
half of that under tension. Ductility on the compression side is low but it reflects the
ductility of the material on the tension side and ductility values as large as twenty can be
obtained on the tension side. Since loading is predominantly axial, members with solid
cross-sections such a rods and bars are preferred and so local buckling is usually not a
consideration except in single angle braces.

4.3 Seismic Behaviour of Beam-Columns

Frame members such as beams and columns are normally expected to develop ductile
plastic hinges at critical sections. Therefore such members should have plastic cross-
sections. However, since plastic cross-sections are not always very efficient there is a
tendency to use compact and sometimes semi-compact sections in which case adequate
ultimate moment capacity, ductility or rotation capacity and also the hysteretic energy
dissipation capacity should be ascertained. Since local buckling is the controlling factor
in the evaluation of these quantities, the most reliable methods are empirical in nature.
Various methods of evaluating these quantities are available in the literature but are
beyond the scope of the present chapter. In the following, a qualitative description of the
cyclic behaviour of beam-columns with various cross-sections is described in terms of the
characteristics of the hysteretic loop shapes, the degradation, and the failure mode.
Understanding these aspects will help the designer to choose an appropriate cross-section
for the various members.

4.3.1 Seismic Behaviour of I-sections

Steel I-sections have good ductility and energy dissipation capacities and usually fail by
local buckling of the flanges, which is sometimes followed by initiation of cracks at the
flange-web junction or in the case of built-up sections, at the weldments. Steel I-sections
have been tested by Bertero and Popov (1965), Krawinkler and Zhorei (1984) and Ballio
and Castiglioni (1994) among others.

M/My

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A typical hysteretic curve is shown in Fig. 7 for constant amplitude cycling. The three
ranges of response, namely, the degradation due to local buckling, the gradual
stabilisation, and subsequent pinching of the hysteretic curve after crack initiation can be
observed. As the sections become more and more compact, the middle range becomes
smaller and the tendency for cracking is increased which means that highly compact
sections, coupled with rigid connections, may not be able to provide the required
rotations. The damage accumulation in these sections can be modelled using the low-
cycle fatigue approach.

4.3.2 Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)

Rectangular hollow sections, either hot-rolled or fabricated by welding four plates are
used in buildings and bridge piers. The sections used in buildings have relatively low
width-thickness ratios of component plates but are subjected to higher axial load ratios
(ratio of applied axial load to squash load) as compared to the sections used in bridge
piers. These sections score over I-sections due to the fact that there are no outstands and
consequently the ultimate strengths are higher and the post-local buckling performance is
also better. However beam-to-column connections are relatively more difficult to
fabricate using rectangular hollow sections.
Rectangular hollow sections have been tested by Ballio and Calado (1994) and Kumar
and Usami (1996). A typical hysteretic curve under incremental amplitude cycling is
shown in Fig. 8. The hysteretic loop shape is similar to that of I-sections but in the case of
sections with higher width-thickness ratios, the degradation in strength with cycling is
considerable, particularly under increased amplitudes. Therefore the damage
accumulation calculations need to take into account the deformation damage in addition
to the low-cycle fatigue damage. Both ductility and strength are affected by the axial load
ratio and the ductility decreases rapidly with increase in the axial load ratio.
RHS sections used in buildings are invariably unstiffened and the failure is by inward
local buckling of the flange followed by outward buckling of the web plates.

M/My

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4.3.3 Circular Hollow Sections (CHS)

Due to their pleasing appearance, circular hollow sections are used as columns in
buildings and in bridge piers. Unlike RHS, CHS are more difficult to connect to I-section
beams and may require elaborate external stiffeners to achieve a ductile connection.
Circular hollow sections have been tested by Kumar et al (1998) and others. A typical
hysteretic curve under incremental amplitude cycling is shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen
from the figure that the hysteretic loops are more rounded and have negative slopes in the
plastic regions. This is due to the type of local buckling and the way it spreads around the
circumference as described below.

When a CHS section is subjected to bending in one direction, the part of the section
under compression develops local buckling outwards. As the bending moment is
increased, the local buckling spreads along the circumference of the tube, since there are
no webs to arrest the spread like in RHS sections. If a bending moment is applied in the
opposite direction, a similar local buckling develops and finally merges with the
previously developed local buckling to form what is known as a ring type local buckling.
The formation of a ring type local buckling not only gives smaller ductility values for
CHS as compared to RHS but also causes progressive collapse under moderate but long
duration earthquakes. This is because, when cycled at small amplitudes, the side, which
buckles first, tends to have a smaller maximum strength as compared to the opposite side.
As a result, the deformations on that side increase progressively leading to collapse.

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4.3.4 Concrete-Filled Tubes (CFTs)

Hollow sections filled with concrete have several advantages such as increased axial load
carrying capacity and no necessity for formwork. Their earthquake performance is also
excellent due to the fact that their bending strengths are high, the concrete being in a
confined state dissipates more energy and also enhances the local buckling strength of the
steel section in some cases.

Fig. 10 Failure Mode of a

Concrete-filled RHS

In the case of concrete-filled rectangular sections, the concrete effectively prevents the
tendency of the flanges to buckle inwards thereby delaying the local buckling and
increasing strength, ductility and energy dissipation capacity of the member. Concrete-
filled rectangular sections have been tested by Ge and Usami (1994) and others. Some
pinching may be observed in the hysteretic curve due to separation or slip between
concrete and steel but its effect on energy dissipation capacity is negligible. Failure is by
outward buckling of both flange and web plates and consequently a crack develops and
propagates in the longitudinal direction, separating the plates.

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Circular sections tend to develop local buckling outwards and so filling concrete inside is
not likely to increase their ductility although some improvement in strength may be
expected.

4.4 Connections

Connections are the most vulnerable in steel structures. Bolted connections using black
bolts tend to slip, which reduces their energy dissipation capacity under cyclic loading
and so are to be avoided. HSFG bolts perform better. All bolted connections exhibit
pinching of the hysteretic loops, which reduces their energy dissipation capacities. Brittle
welding failures are common due to low-cycle fatigue and so special care needs to be
taken to reduce stress concentrations at welds. The cost of various types of connections
dictates the lateral load resisting system used in steel framed structures.
Simple connections are not expected to carry any moments and so only rigid and semi-
rigid connections will be discussed. Rigid connections are usually strengthened to an
extent that their rotations /deformations are negligible compared to that of the members
being connected. This is because in conformity with the capacity design philosophy, it is
advantageous to ensure the development of plastic hinges in beams away from the beam-
column connection.
Limited test results are available for the cyclic behaviour of beam-to-column connections
(Mazzolani and Piluso 1996 and Calado et al 1998). It was found that fully welded
connections with column web stiffeners at the level of the beam flanges [Fig. 11(a)]
provide a well-developed hysteretic curve similar to that shown for I-sections. Extended
end plate connections to rigid column stubs using bolts [Fig. 11(b)], also provides fairly
good hysteretic loops but leads to abrupt failures after a few cycles. Bolted angle
connections with top and seat angles as well as web cleats [Fig. 11(c)] leads to
pronounced pinching of hysteretic loops due to deformation of the angles (Fig. 12).
Connections with three splice plates welded to columns and bolted to beam flanges and
web [Fig. 11(d)] give some degree of pinching but provision of diagonal column web
stiffeners does not improve the situation. It should be noted that the above tests were
conducted in a quasi-static manner.
Observations on steel moment resisting connections damaged during the Northridge and
Kobe earthquakes indicate that such connections develop brittle fractures under high
strain rates (Bruneau et al 1998) and so it may be advantageous to provide some degree
of flexibility in the connections and go for semi-rigid connections. Semi-rigid
connections for composite beams may be obtained by providing top reinforcement. .

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4.5 Steel Frames
Steel Frames can be classified as sway frames and non-sway frames depending upon their
sensitivity to second-order effects in the elastic range. Both types of frames can be either
braced or unbraced even though braced frames normally fall under non-sway category.
Braced frames can be classified as concentrically braced or eccentrically braced.
Concentric bracing may be designed to resist either the entire seismic load or as a
supplementary system in a moment resisting frame. In the former case the bracing is used
in combination with simple beam-to-column connections (shear connections).

2
M/My
1

-1

-2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
/y
Fig. 12 Hysteretic behaviour of bolted angle connection
In concentrically braced frames (CBF) having simple connections, it is assumed that the
centroidal axes of the members meet at a common point at each joint and so the members
carry essentially axial loads. Various bracing configurations such as diagonal bracing
[Fig. 13 (a)], Cross or X-bracing [Fig. 13 (b)] and Chevron bracing [Fig. 13 (c)], are
possible. Concentric bracing has not been found to perform well due to premature
buckling of the braces, which limits their energy dissipation capacity. Further, due to
their higher stiffness, they tend to attain a larger seismic force. Their performance can be
improved by limiting the tendency of the brace to develop global or local buckling and
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Link Beams
ensuring proper connections. They may also interfere with aesthetics and functionality of
the buildings.

Eccentrically braced frames (EBF) are designed by assuming the bracing member to be
pin-ended but the beam-column connection to be a moment-resisting connection. The
bracing provides increased stiffness in the lateral direction and thus helps in controlling
the drift. The short part of the beam, between the bracing and the column is known as the
link (see Fig. 13(d)) and most of the energy is dissipated in the link by yielding in shear
or flexure. Therefore, eccentrically braced frames perform better than concentrically
braced frames. They are also functionally convenient in some situations.
Moment resisting frames (MRF) rely on the ability of the frame to act as a partially or
fully rigid jointed frame while resisting the lateral loads. Due to their flexibility, moment
resisting frames experience a large drift especially in multi-storeyed buildings. The
frames can be designed either to dissipate energy by the formation of plastic hinges at the
beam-ends or to dissipate energy in the connections. The former is preferred over the
latter due to the complexities associated with connection analysis and design. However,
in both cases it is necessary to ensure a strong and ductile connection. Measures taken to
improve the performance of connections include the use of column-web stiffeners in I-
beam to I-column connections to stiffen the panel zones. Beams ends may also be
haunched to ensure the formation of the plastic hinge away from the connection and
thereby obtain better performance.

5.0 CAPACITY DESIGN

The type of collapse mechanism developed largely dictates the overall ductility and
energy dissipation capacity of the frame and so capacity design is invariably carried out.
In capacity design, the type of collapse mechanism required is pre-decided and attempts
are made to make sure that no other mechanism develops. In multi-story frames, the
strong column-weak beam mechanism is preferred since this mechanism requires the
formation of many plastic hinges and also the plastic rotation capacity required at the
hinges is less (Fig. 14). The term plastic rotation capacity is used in place of ductility
when talking about the moment-rotation curve instead of the usual force-deformation
curve (this is explained in the chapter on plastic analysis).

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 


(a) Desired (b) Undesired

Fig. 14 Desired and Undesired Collapse Mechanisms in Capacity Design

6.0 SPECIAL DEVICES AND SYSTEMS

In addition to the above mentioned design guidelines, the structural engineer has the
option of using a variety of devices or systems to ensure safety and serviceability of the
structure under strong ground motion (Kwok 1991). These devices or systems either
isolate the structure from ground vibration or act as energy dissipating mechanisms
thereby reducing the vibration amplitudes and damage to the structure. A brief overview
of some of the available systems will be given in this section. These are finding
increasing applications in modern designs.
Lead
Plug

Fig. 15 Laminated rubber

bearing pad
The simplest way of reducing the vibration of the structure and hence its design loads is
by isolating it from the ground by means of springs or special rubber pads. This technique
is called base isolation. The idea behind base isolation is to put a spring or similar device,
which makes the structure-spring system flexible thereby increasing the time period.
Looking at the response spectrum in Fig. 3, it can be realised that an increase in time-
period implies a reduction in the response. Base isolators may be either coiled springs or
laminated rubber-bearing pads. The pads are made of alternate layers of steel and rubber
and have a low lateral stiffness [Fig. 15].
The technique of reducing the vibration by means of special devices mounted on the
structure is called vibration control. When the device merely absorbs the energy during
vibration without any energy input from outside, the control is said to be passive. On the
other hand, when the system opposes the vibration by means of an external energy

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source, the control is said to be active.
Visco-elastic dampers are commonly used as sliding supports of beams and trusses. They
consist of a visco-elastic material, sandwiched between two steel plates, which undergoes
shear deformation and thus dissipates energy.
Tuned mass dampers (TMD) are extra masses attached to a structure by a spring-dashpot
system and tuned to vibrate out of phase with the structure. Energy is dissipated by the
dashpot due to the relative motion between the mass and the structure.
Tuned liquid dampers (TLD) are essentially water tanks mounted on structures and
dissipate energy by the sloshing of the water. The motion of the liquid may also be
hindered, by baffles or orifices, to get additional energy dissipation.
Hydraulic actuators can be used to provide active vibration control and are expensive but
effective in controlling the vibration. They require a sensor to sense the vibration and
activate the actuator so as to counter it.
Weak links, stoppers or other devices, made of ductile material can be used to dissipate
energy by hysteretic behaviour (Inelastic dampers) and thereby increase the overall
damping in the structure.

7.0 SUMMARY
The characteristics of earthquake loads were described. The dual strategy of ensuring
elastic response under moderate earthquakes and preventing collapse under a severe
earthquake was explained. The properties of the structure, particularly ductility and
hysteretic energy dissipation capacity, which aid in resisting earthquake loads, were
pointed out. The architectural considerations, which can simplify the design process and
assure good seismic performance, were described.
The elastic and inelastic response prediction methods such as seismic coefficient,
response spectrum and time-history analysis were explained. The background concepts
on which most codal provisions are based were also explained. Guidelines to improve the
seismic behaviour of steel structures were given at the material, member and structure
levels. In particular, the hysteretic behaviour and collapse modes of bracing members and
flexural members with various cross-sections were described in detail. The behaviour of
lateral load resisting systems such as bracings and moment resistant frames was
described. The concept of capacity design, which aims at maximising the energy
dissipation capacity of moment resisting frames by choosing an appropriate collapse
mechanism, was explained. Finally, an overview of special devices and systems, which
can be used to control the response and thus reduce the design forces for members, was
given.
8.0 REFERENCES
1. AISC, ‘Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings’, 1997.
2. Ballio G and Castiglioni C, ‘Seismic behaviour of steel sections’, Jnl of Construct.
and Steel Research 1994.
3. Bertero V and Popov E, ‘Effect of large alternating strains on steel beams’, ASCE.
ST1, 1965.

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Department of Civil Engineering, SCOE, Pune-41. Page 273
4. Breneau M and Uang , ‘Ductile design of Steel Structures’, McGraw Hill, New York,
1998.
5. Calado L et al, ‘Behaviour of steel beam-to-column joints under cyclic reversal
loading: An experimental study’, in Stability and Ductility of Steel Structures, Ed. by
Usami and Itoh, Elsevier, London, 1998.
6. Clough R W and Penzien J, ‘Dynamics of Structures’, McGraw Hill, New York, 1993
7. Cosenza E and Manfreidi G ‘Seismic analysis of degrading models by means of
damage functions concept’, in Nonlinear Seismic Analysis of Reinforced Concrete
Structures, Ed. by Fajfar P and Krawinkler H, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
8. Eurocode 8, ‘Structures in Seismic Regions’, Committee of the European
Communities, Draft of Oct 1993.
9. IS 1893-1984, ‘Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures’.Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
10. Krawinkler H and Nassar A A, ‘Seismic design based on ductility and cumulative
damage demands and capacities’, in Nonlinear Seismic Analysis of Reinforced
Concrete Structures, Ed. by Fajfar P and Krawinkler H, Elsevier Applied Science,
1992.
11. Krawinkler H and Zhorei M, ‘Cumulative damage in steel structures subjected to
earthquake ground motions’, Computers and Structures, Vol.16, No.1-4, 1984.
12. Kumar S et al ‘Nonlinear dynamic response of thin-circular tubes’, in Stability and
Ductility of Steel Structures, Ed. by Usami and Itoh, Elsevier, London, 1998.
13. Kumar S and Usami T, ‘ Inelastic seismic response analysis of thin-walled steel
bridge piers’, NUCE research report No. 1000, Nagoya, 1996.
14. Kwok, K C S, ‘Damping and control of structures subjected to dynamic loading’, in
Structures Subjected to Dynamic Loading, Ed. by Narayanan and Roberts, Elsevier
Applied Science, London, 1991.
15. Mazzolani F M and Piluso V, ‘Theory and design of seismic resistant steel frames’, E
& FN Spon, London, 1996.
16. Miranda ED-Model, ‘Site-dependent strength design factors’, ASCE, Vol. 119, ST12,
1993.
17. Naeim F, The Seismic Design Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1996.
18. Usami T and Ge H B, ‘Ductility of concrete-filled steel box columns under cyclic
loading’, ASCE, Vol.120, ST7, 1994.
19. IS 4326-1993‘Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings’, BIS, New
Delhi.
20. IS 1893- 2000 ‘Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures’, BIS, New
Delhi.

Lecture No. 19
Title: Enabling Structures for Concrete Making in Marine and River Environment
and Miscellaneous Innovative Efficient Structures
Speaker: Mr. [Link], Consulting Engineer, Mumbai

1.0 INTRODUCTION

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The author has evolved successful, ingenious, economical systems minimizing
construction time with increased safety for workers. Few of the case histories evolved
and designed in entirety are as follows.

1. Floating Pontoon for Band-drain Work for Soil Consolidation at Deep Water Port at
Kakinada

Tailor made unique Pontoon was designed for above work which could achieve world
record of 2200 band-drains in a day for very soft clay consolidation for Break-water.
Dimensions of pontoon 60 m long x 10.6 m wide were decided such that 2 rows on either
side of pontoon and 48 along full length adding to 192 no. of band-rains in one setting of
pontoon could be fast achieved. Thereafter, pontoon was shifted by 2.40 m (guide girders
attached to pontoon moving along alignment pre-determined by four spuds lowered in the
bed in advance). This one setting completes 4 x 192 = 576 band-rains. Spuds were then
shifted for next setting and so on. Band-rains were driven in soft clay by means of L & T
Poklain, bucket replaced by mandrel attachment.

2. Marine Jetty at Dahej for Birla Copper, Gujarat

This Jetty is 1152 m long in Approach and 208 m long on Berthing Face. Piling Gantry
constructed six piles in five days at one setting with front cantilever of 24 m, supported
span of 24 m and 30 m rear cantilever for 15 T capacity under slung crane. Gantry was
provided with Tee head in front which was cut after reaching jetty head to serve as a Mini
Gantry for constructing Jetty Head Piles.

3. Marine Jetty at Dahej for Gujarat Chemical Port, Gujarat

This Jetty was more than 1000 m long. Piling Gantry constructed piles up to about 1000
m length in 10 months with four piles from front cantilever of 24 m & two piles from side
cantilever of 8 m. This Gantry also had 30 m rear cantilever for 20 T capacity under slung
crane. Tailor made Erection Gantry was also designed for handling of Precast Concrete
Units. Rest of the length of Jetty was designed and constructed by another agency with
steel piles having vertical and raker piles in combination.

4. Marine Jetty for Thermal Power Station at Tuticorin, Tamilnadu.

This Jetty was about 1000 m long with twin pile bents spaced at 20 m c/c. This Piling
Gantry had also to travel from breakwater on broad face and construct quite a few piles at
odd locations for Conveyor Gallery pile foundations. Gantry in this mode had 20 m left
cantilever, 10 m supported span and 30 m right cantilever. 50 m long floating walkway
bridge was also designed for breakwater to jetty site approach.

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5. Piling Gantry for Jetty at Lakshadweep

Jetty Head and Approach Arm have subtended angle of 104 degrees at the junction.
Gantry platform is designed such that after reaching the said junction, track girders are
available for Gantry rolling in Jetty head direction. This provision avoids cumbersome
rotation of Gantry to align with the Jetty head direction.

6. Mooring Dolphins for Western India Shipyard, Goa.

Jack-up Platform was designed for construction of 3 No.1200 mm dia. piles at one setting
but away from shore. This platform was provided with an overhead facility to install
piling pulleys accurately in required location.

7. Ash Disposal Pipe Line Bridge for Thermal Power Station at Dahanu, Maharashtra

Jack-up Platform was designed for construction of 3 No. 600 mm dia. piles at one setting
with moving rig on platform and a suspended piling pulley adjustable in required
location. Pile groups were spaced at 30 m c/c to support Steel Girders.

8. Bridge on Mahananda River at Dalkhola, West Bengal

P.S.C. Box Girder Bridge is under construction over 12 spans of 52.80 m supported on
wells-piers. Traveling Staging is designed for supporting 1200 T box girder. Temporary
three pile groups on each side of bridge are constructed breaking the span to 13.20 m c/c
of Portal Frames for suspension of shuttering above deck slab level. Time cycle for
completion of one bridge span was originally estimated to 100 days with conventional
methods. Above staging design brought it to 60 days. 30 days are required for completion
of concreting in three stages and Stage I prestressing for removal of bottom shutters.
These shutters are then rotated on hinges on portals. Staging then gets ready for
movement to next span clearing passage across pier. Next activity is to raise back the
bottom slab shutters, external web shutters, cantilever deck slab shutters and tie
reinforcement and place 28 no. prestressing cables in position. Now the staging is ready
for bottom slab concreting, thus completing one time cycle. This Staging design ensured
very accurate line and level of all the components and importantly very safe.
Conventional method of erecting staging and dismantling for every span and shifting it to
next span for re-erection is hazardous, time consuming and difficult to achieve line and
level.

9. Bridge on Railway Line near Itarsi, Madhya Pradesh

This bridge has 45 degrees skew span of 40 m. Six [Link] weighing 140 T each
were constructed on elevated staging and winched in required position. Deck slab was
constructed thereafter in-situ with suspended shuttering. Provision of overhead monorail
for handling of web shutters of about 6 m length was very useful for speedy construction.
These shutters on one side had hinge at bottom edge on staging which facilitated rotation
from vertical to horizontal position. In this mode, it acted as a working platform for

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assembly of reinforcement and prestressing cables. P.S.C. Girders, were provided with
steel shoe at each end of the girder and steel plate over pier adequately greased. Girders
were then shifted by means of winch provided at the ground level. Wire rope attached to
steel shoe of girder at higher elevation was taken over idle rollers for connecting it to
winch at ground level to facilitate safe working.

10. Bridge on Someshwar Creek at Ratnagiri, Maharashtra

This bridge is 58 m long having one span of 40 m between abutment and central well-pier
and rest of the length cantilevered. Centering box girder was designed to support
[Link] girder in-situ construction weighing about 500 T. Centering box of 39 m
length was launched from abutment over temporary pair of columns at 13 m c/c spacing.
Centering box was then lowered to required level for in-situ construction.

11. Limestone Stock Pile Shed for Clinker Plant at Jafarabad for Narmada Cement
Company Ltd.

Jafarabad used to have scanty rains in eighties when Cement Plant was commissioned. In
nineties, rains started getting heavier and it became necessary to cover Lime Stone Stock
Pile. In order to facilitate continuity of plant working, innovation of erecting shed in parts
of 53 m width x 20 m length 30 m away and rolling in position was implemented to
complete total length of 200 m. Two portals 10 m apart and purlins in roof and side
cladding (triangular with 1250 mm side for virendeel formation for rigidity) cantilevering
5 m at either end (making up 20 m length) were connected in tandem and rolled on rails
with trolleys attached to their shoe. This assembly reaching the destination was ready for
completion of roof and side sheeting.

12. Centering for 125 T Fender Block for Container Berth At Adani Port

Except for 2 no. MC 400 x 1800 mm long supporting fender pad at base all other
structural members are MC 150 and angles 50 x 50 x 6. Basic concept is that steel is best
in tension and axial force. Whole load is transferred at the apex of inverted triangle. Two
inclined sides of triangle are 2/MC 150 box and two such triangles are provided to
support entire load of 125 T. Rest of the members are all bracings to give rigidity to
structure. Horizontal members of triangle are also 2/MC 150. Area of cross section of
inclined channels is 2 x 2 x 2 x 20.88 = 167 [Link]. Force component at 30 degrees to
vert. to be resisted will be 125 x Sec 30 degrees = 144 T. Hence, tensile stress = 862
kg/[Link]. Suspension by horizontal spanning beams over 13 m span, 8 no. MB 600
would have been necessary. Economy as well as light weight handling of centering was a
construction friendly solution.

13. Crane for Erection of Large Span Shed above Water

Crane designed had difficult task to perform. It had to erect a Shed 41 m wide x 130 m
long x 30 m high TOTALLY OVER WATER. All the structural steel members had to be
floated over barge and piece by piece assembled in position. Even on normal ground it is

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difficult to erect shed without any temporary supporting GUYS or equivalent aids.
Innovation lies in the design of tailor made Crane which efficiently erected above shed in
record time. Crane dimensions were decided such that erection was an easy affair.
Following logic gave best results.
a) Inside to inside of Crane Columns was 43 m to allow clearance of 1 m beyond
outer face of Shed Columns.
b) Bottom chord of the crane member connecting side columns was made parallel to
the top chord of the shed member with clearance of 500 mm.
c) In side elevation, crane columns were two at 8 m c/c matching exactly with the
shed column centre lines.
d) Base of the side columns was further extended by 8 m on either side of these two
columns for comfortable stability of the crane while moving on wheels along length.
e) Vertical and top inclined members were designed as open web members with
2500 mm distance between chord members and side width of 2000 mm for rigidity
against deflection/displacements. 2000 mm wide x 2500 box was intentionally created for
workers to walk safely within on inclined members and attend to work on shed assembly
which was just 500 mm below crane bottom chord.
f ) Steel sections used were MC 125, Angles 100 x 100 x 10 and down with total weight
of Crane for above dimensions not exceeding 70 T.
g) Lifting tackles were hooked up to the bottom chords of the top chord and the
assembly of Shed was done with great ease.

14. Removable Steel Cofferdam for Intake Channel 7 m Wide x 12 m High

This intake channel was required for waterway from river reaching the pump house.
Strata for excavation was rocky. Steel plate with back up of horizontal steel channels
againstvertical columns stayed in plan by horizontal struts instead of inclined rakers from
bed of channel. This proposal was most economical with steel consumption of 16 T only.

15. Speedy Construction of 12 m high R.C.C. Wall with Buttresses

Continuous r.c.c. long wall 12 m high would require about eight lifts for concreting
and wall shutter lifting and hence time consuming. Wall has buttresses at 6 m intervals.
Novel solution proposed was as follows :
a) Full height towers with wall shuttering, one in front of waterside face of wall and
one on either side of buttress were provided. Cross ties could be provided between
buttress towers being non-water side. These cross ties achieved economy in steel
provision.
b) Concreting proposed was by tremie method as is used for continuous pile
concreting. This method avoids concrete segregation and full height could be constructed
in one day. Overhead monorail is provided for movement of tremie along wall length.
c) Wall shutters with towers could be moved out after 24 hours to next destination.
Towers on rollers speed up movement giving time economy.

Earnest request from [Link], author of this humble presentation to young Engineers
is to plunge into challenges to enjoy creations irrespective of gains. Sound, economical

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and safe solutions is the expectation from the innocent public to whom Engineers are
duty bound. Engineers venturing into new ideas and if ABK can be of any help, it will be
available without any tags.

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