DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTION IN
VERTEBRATES
Reproduction is the production of offspring.
Sexual reproduction is the type of
reproduction which involves the fusion of
gametes.
The fusion of gametes is called
fertilization.
All vertebrates reproduce sexually.
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
Types of fertilization
As indicated above, all vertebrates reproduce sexually.
Reproduction in vertebrates can be internal or
external.
External fertilization
This type of fertilization takes place outside the body.
It is only possible in animals that live in water (aquatic
animals).
The female releases eggs into the water and the male
deposits sperms into the water as well.
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
External fertilization (continued)
There are two reasons why water in needed for external
fertilization:
to prevent the eggs from drying out and
to allow the sperms to swim towards the eggs.
Examples of vertebrates that undergo external fertilization
include frogs and most fish.
Advantage of external fertilization
No additional energy is spent on parental care or the
formation of a protective shell.
The males do not need special organs to insert sperms into
body of the female.
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
Disadvantages
The sperms and eggs need to stay in water or moist
environment otherwise they will dry out.
A large quantity of eggs or sperms has to be produced
to increase the chance of fertilization
The eggs and sperms are more likely to be washed
away by a strong water current.
The chance of fertilization is very low.
The eggs and sperms may be eaten by predators
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
Development of the embryo – ovipary,
ovovivipary and vivipary
Ovipary
Ovipary is a type of reproduction in which the female
lays eggs.
Oviparous animals lay eggs before or after fertilization.
The embryo develops inside a shell which is formed
after fertilization.
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
Vivipary
This is the type of reproduction in which the young
ones are born alive once they are fully developed.
The young develop in the mother’s body /uterus and
are protected by the mother’s body.
The young obtains its nutrients from the mother
through the placenta until birth.
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
Ovovivipary
In this type of reproductive strategy, the eggs are
produced and fertilized, but remain inside the female’s
body.
There is however no connection between the embryo
the mother.
The developing young feeds on the yolk inside the egg.
The young gets out of the mother’s body alive.
This makes it appear as if they are born alive.
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
The amniotic egg
This is an egg that has a shell and can survive and
develop on land.
The embryo inside the egg is surrounded by the
amnion.
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
Internal fertilization
The eggs are fertilized inside the body of the female.
It occurs in mammals, birds and reptiles.
Advantage(s)
Sperms and eggs are protected from drying out as they
are always inside the body
Fewer eggs and sperms are produced and thus less
energy is used.
There is greater chance of fertilization
PRECOCIAL AND ALTRICIAL
DEVELOPMENT
Precocial development
This the kind development in which the young ones
are born with a great deal of independence
Altricial development
This is the kind of development in which the young
one are born completely dependent on the parents
DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE
STRATEGIES IN VERTEBRATES
External fertilization
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Introduction
Reproduction in human beings is sexual.
During this process a haploid male gamete (sperm cell)
with 23 chromosomes, fuses with a haploid female gamete
(egg cell) also with 23 chromosomes.
They then form a diploid zygote with 46 chromosomes (23
pairs of chromosomes).
After fertilization mitosis occurs to increase the number of
cells in the zygote.
The cells undergo a number of chemical and physical
changes to form different parts of the body.
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
These chemical and physical changes which the cells
undergo are called cell differentiation.
Cell differentiation leads to the formation of different parts
of the body, e.g. arms, legs, head and internal organs as
well as sex organs.
During puberty, meiosis occurs in sex organs (testes and
ovaries) to form haploid gametes, each with 23
chromosomes.
Human male reproductive system
The male reproductive system consists of
The testes
Tubes that transport sperms and other related
products
Accessory glands and
The penis
Human male reproductive system
The testes
They are the primary male sex organs or glands.
They hang outside the body between the legs and are
covered by a bag or sac-like skin called the scrotum
Their temperature is always 2 to 3 ˚C lower to ensure
sperm production.
Internally each testis consists of:
➢ Divisions or compartments called lobules
➢ Many closely packed convoluted seminiferous
tubules found inside the locules.
The male reproductive system
The testes (continued)
Each seminiferous tubule is surrounded by germinal
epithelial cells which produce sperm cells during
gametogenesis.
Functions of the testes
1. Production of the male gametes (sperm cells)
2. They secrete the male sex hormone, testosterone
The male reproductive system
Tubes that transport sperms and other related
products
1. The epididymis – coiled tubule outside each testis
whose function is to store sperms temporarily.
2. The vas deferens (sperm duct) – transports sperms
from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
3. The ejaculatory duct – responsible for the release of
semen .
4. The urethra – a common passage for semen and
urine to the outside of the body.
The male reproductive system
The accessory glands
The following are the different types of accessory glands
in the male reproductive system:
➢ The seminal vesicles
➢ The prostate glands and
➢ Cowper’s glands
The above glands have the following functions:
1. To secrete a fluid which facilitates the movement of
sperms (semen) and
2. To secrete a fluid which provide nutrients to sperms
The female reproductive system
The main parts of the female reproductive system are:
The ovaries
The fallopian tubes or oviducts
The uterus or womb
The vagina and
The external genitalia (the vulva)
Female reproductive system
21
The Female Reproductive System
Ovaries
They are the primary sex organs or glands.
Each ovary is surrounded by a layer of germinal
epithelium.
The germinal epithelium produces follicle which later
form egg cells or ova during a process called
oogenesis.
The Female Reproductive System
Functions of ovaries
They produce and release the egg cells (ova)
They produce the female hormones oestrogen and
progesterone.
The Female Reproductive System
The Fallopian tubes
They are attached to the top sides of the uterus.
Each fallopian tube is about 1ocm long and ends with a
funnel-shaped part with finger-like structures known as
fimbriae close to each ovary.
Function
To carry (transport) the egg cells from the ovaries to the
uterus.
The Female Reproductive System
The uterus (womb)
It is a hollow thick muscular organ shaped like a pear.
Its inner wall is called the endometrium.
The endometrium has many blood vessels and able to
break down every month and is shed with blood
during menstruation.
Its neck called the cervix, opens into the vagina.
Function
It is responsible for the implantation and care of the
embryo if fertilization occurs.
The Female Reproductive System
The vagina
It is a muscular tube about 8 to 9 cm long with an
opening to the outside.
Functions
1. During copulation the sperms are deposited in it by
the penis.
2. It is the passage for the baby during birth.
Development secondary sex
characteristics
The Female Reproductive System
The ovarian cycle
They are cyclic changes that occur in
•Do Now: Describe the process
of fertilization.
•A sperm enters an ovum, and
the nuclei combine to form one
zygote with 46 chromosomes.
Fertilization: Four Major Steps
1. Sperm contacts the egg
2. Sperm or its nucleus enters the egg
3. Egg becomes activated and developmental
changes begin
4. Sperm and egg nuclei fuse
Words to know…
Fuse- to physically join together
Ovum – egg cell (female gamete)
Cleavage – process of cell division during
development
Differentiation – the process of forming different
kinds of cells from similar cells of the early embryo
Embryo – an organism in an early stage
of development
Morula – solid ball of cells formed from
cleavage
Blastula – hollow ball of cells formed
from cleavage
Gastrula – a hollow ball of cells with an
“in pushing” and 3 layers (germ layers)
Fertilization
The Nuclei Fuse Together
What happens now?
Development of the zygote, the study
of which is known as embryology or
developmental biology.
The zygote undergoes a series of
mitotic cell divisions called cleavage.
The stages of development are:
Fertilized ovum (zygote) 2-cell
stage 4-cell stage 8-cell stage
Morula Blastula Early
Gastrula Late Gastrula
Cleavage (divide via mitosis) forms
the 2 cell stage
They split again to form the 4 cell
stage
And again to form the 8 cell
stage…
And eventually form a Morula
Next it becomes a blastula
And next, a gastrula
The Regents Diagram…
1. Sperm and ovum
2. Zygote (fertilized ovum)
3. 2-cell stage
4. 4-cell stage
5. Morula
6. Blastula
7. Gastrula
Aim: What happens after
cleavage begins?
Do now: How does a single celled
zygote become a gastrula?
Differentiation
(Organogenesis)
Organogenesis is the formation of the
organs (Organo = organs, genesis =
creation)
Arises from the layering of cells that occurs
during gastrula stage
The layers are germ layers; they have
specific fates in the developing embryo:
Endoderm
The innermost layer
Goes on to form the gut
Mesoderm
In the middle
Goes on to form the muscles, circulatory system, blood
and many different organs
Ectoderm
Late Gastrula Endoderm
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Differentiation of Primary Germ
Layers (from the gastrula)
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Nervous system Skeleton Digestive tract
Epidermis of skin Muscles Respiratory
system
Circulatory Liver, pancreas
system
Gonads Bladder
Early Human Development
Summary
Meiosis makes sperm in males and
ovum in females
Sperm and ovum unite nuclei to
form a zygote
Zygote undergoes cleavage and
becomes gastrula with 3 germ
layers
Where does this all take place?
Implantation
The embryo implants in the wall of the uterus on
about the 7th day of development
Human Prenatal Development
Gestation lasts 266 days from fertilization to
birth
Development begins in the oviduct
About 24 hours after fertilization, the zygote
has divided to form a 2-celled embryo
The embryo passes down the oviduct by cilia
and peristalsis
The zona pellucida has dissolved by the 5th
day, when the embryo enters the uterus
The embryo floats free for several days,
nourished by fluids from glands in the
uterine wall
At this point, it is called a blastocyst
12-day Human Embryo
The Placenta
The placenta is the site of nutrient, gas, and waste
exchange
Secretes hormones that maintain pregnancy
Trophoblast cells release human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG) which signals the corpus
luteum to enlarge and produce progesterone
The placenta develops from the embryonic chorion
and maternal uterine tissue
Chorionic villi are formed from the chorion, and
project into the endometrium of the uterus
The umbilical cord, containing two umbilical
arteries and one umbilical vein connects the
embryo and the placenta
Development of the Placenta
Human
Fetus at
Ten
Weeks
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