+

CHAPTER SIX OF A DESIGN PROJECT FOR

DESIGN OF A PLANT FOR THE PRODUCTION OF 240,000 CUBIC METERS OF
LIQUEFIED BIOGAS PER ANNUM FROM AGRO WASTES

PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

BY
GROUP G
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE COURSE
CHG 545: CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROCESS DESIGN II

GROUP MEMBERS & THEIR INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTIONS

NAMES MAT. NO CONTRIBUTION TO CHAPTER SIGNAT

ADETUNMIBI, PEACE 170401017 Mechanical Design of the Scrubber

ADEGBOYEGA
EZEOKOYE, IFUNANYA 170401044 Mechanical design of the LBG Storage Tank
BENEDICTA
ORIMOLOYE, ARAMIDE DESOLA 170401032 Mechanical design of the scrubber and Stripper

KABIAWU, ANJOLAIYA INNOCENT 170401047 Mechanical design of the Rotary drum dryer
DADA, TAIWO OLAMIDE 170401072 Mechanical design of the Valves

ADEDEJI, ADETILEWA 170401061 Mechanical design of the Miller

OLUWAFUNMILAYO
AMODU, SULEMAN BABANGIDA 170401075 Mechanical design of the LBG Storage tank

UDOH, IMMAOBONG ESSIEN 180401505 Mechanical design of the vessel supports

NNABUIHE OLISEMEKA VICTOR 180401510 Equipment design of the Vessel supports
OKUNLOLA, JOSEPH KAYODE 170401048 Equipment design of the Pumps
 CHAPTER 6

6.1 MECHANICAL DESIGN FOR THE DRYER

The mechanical design process of a rotary dryer for drying 44.31 kg of Corn Stalk per seconds
would typically require the following steps:

1. Determine the Requirement: The first step is to determine the requirement of the rotary
dryer. This includes the moisture content of the corn stalk before and after drying, the
desired drying rate, the inlet and outlet temperature, the required throughput, and the
power consumption.
2. Select the Rotary Dryer Type: Once the requirements are determined, the appropriate
type of rotary dryer must be selected. The selection of the type of dryer will depend on
the specific requirements of the application.
3. Determine the Dimensions: Once the type of dryer has been selected, the dimensions of
the dryer must be calculated. This includes the diameter and length of the rotary drum,
the slope of the drum, and the size and location of the inlet and outlet.
4. Determine the Heat Source: It is necessary to identify the rotary dryer's heat source.
This could be a waste heat recovery system, an indirect burner, or a direct burner. The
particular needs of the application, including the cost and availability of fuel, will
determine which heat source is best.
5. Determine the Material of Construction: It is necessary to choose the rotary dryer's
construction material. This will rely on the properties of the dried corn stalk, such as how
corrosive and abrasive it is.
6. Calculate the Mechanical Design Parameters: The mechanical design parameters can
be computed when the aforementioned parameters have been established. This comprises
the motor and gearbox size, the placement and size of the support rollers, the size and
spacing of the flights inside the drum, and the thickness of the drum wall.
7. Create Detailed Drawings: Creating comprehensive drawings of the rotary dryer that
include every mechanical and electrical component as well as creating the bill of
materials is the last phase. This will guarantee that the finished product satisfies all
application requirements and specifications.

Assumptions
I. Moisture Content before drying: 18%
II. Moisture Content after drying: 3%
III. Drying time: 60mins
IV. Temperature: 423K
V. Pressure: 1 atm
VI. Entry Temperature of 298K
VII. Drying rate () = (initial weight - final weight) /time
= (44.31 - 37.46) / 3600
= 1.9 x 10-3 kg/s

1. ROTARY DRYER REQUIREMENT

Calculate the heat input required for the drying process
Δ H =Q
Δ H 2− Δ H 1=Q
Where Q is the total heat required (in kJ/s), Δ H is the enthalpy change
To compute the enthalpy change, we include the inlet corn cob at 25 0C and the exiting corn cob
at 45°C.
Δ H 1=44.31 kg /s ×1.82 kJ /kgK ×(25−0)=2016.105 kJ /s
Δ H 2=37.46 kg /s ×1.4 kJ /kgK ×( 45−0)=2359.98 kJ /s
Q=343.875 kJ / s

2. SELECT ROTARY DRYER TYPE

Based on the requirements, a direct-fired, concurrent rotary dryer was selected. This type of
dryer is efficient and has a low maintenance cost.

3. DETERMINE THE DIMENSIONS

The dimensions of the rotary dryer can be calculated using the following formula:
A = Q / (U x ΔT)
Where A is the area of the dryer (in m²), U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (in W/m²°C),
and ΔT is the temperature difference between the dryer wall and the surrounding air (in °C).
Assuming a value of U = 20 W/m²°C, and ΔT = 20°C, the area of the dryer can be calculated as:
A = 343.875 / (20 W/m²°C x 20°C) = 0.860m²
Assuming a cylindrical dryer, the diameter can be calculated as:
D = sqrt((4 x A) / π)
D = sqrt((4 x 0.860 m²) / π) = 1.05m
The length of the dryer can be calculated as:
L = A / (π x D)
L = 0.860 m² / (π x 1.05 m) = 0.26 m

4. Heat source
The reason for the production of biogas is to provide an alternative source of fuel that is also
clean for the environment that is why Hot air is the best heat source for the dryer.

5. Determine the Material of Construction

The material of construction for the rotary dryer was chosen based on the characteristics of the
corn stalk being dried. Carbon steel was chosen as the material of construction due to its high
strength and resistance to corrosion.

6. Create Detailed Drawings

Finally, detailed drawings of the rotary dryer should be created, including all mechanical and
electrical components. The final design must be reviewed to ensure that it met all the
requirements and specifications of the application.

6.2. MECHANICAL DESIGN FOR THE HAMMER MILL

Mechanical design is to design parts, components, products, or systems of mechanical nature.

For example, designs of various machine elements such as shafts, bearings, clutches, gears,
and fasteners fall into the scope of mechanical design. Numerous criteria have been proposed in
mechanical design processes, some primary design criteria include functions, safety, reliability,
manufacturability, weight, size, wear, maintenance, and liability. In general, a mechanical design
problem should be formulated with clear and complete statements of functions, specifications,
and evaluation criteria (Mott, 2014):
There are several factors that determine the efficiency of the milling operation such as feed rate,
screen area, horsepower ration, screen (hole) size and open area, tip speed, number of hammers
and hammer position. The nature and quality of the material(s) being processed also affect the
performance of the machine.
The mechanical design of a hammer mill involves various elements working together to achieve
efficient grinding. These include;
1. Feeding System: This is usually a hopper that feeds material consistently into the
grinding chamber. A feeding system controls the flow rate of the material into the grinding
chamber.
Design Considerations:

✧ Simple Hopper: This is suitable for basic setups. Can be made of sheet metal with an
adjustable gate for flow control.
✧ Screw Feeder: This provides more precise control over the feed rate. It is useful for materials
with poor flow characteristics.

1. Grinding Chamber: This is the heart of the hammer mill. It consists of a rotating shaft
with hinged hammers that crush the material by impact against a breaker plate or grinding liners.
The size and shape of the chamber will affect the grinding [Link] grinding chamber houses
the rotor assembly and creates the impact zone for material reduction.
Design Considerations:

✧ Shape: Although cylindrical chambers are common, specific shapes can be used to optimize
material flow and impact angles.
✧ Liners: Wear-resistant liners protect chamber walls from hammer impacts. They can be
fabricated from high-chromium cast iron or AR steel plates.
✧ Breaker Plates: Stationary plates placed within the chamber for pre-crushing materials
before hammer impact.

2. Rotor Assembly: The rotor assembly rotates at high speed, carrying hammers that break
down the material.
Design Considerations:

✧ Shaft: Can be made from high-strength steel to withstand centrifugal forces and impact
loads. Requires proper bearing selection for smooth operation.
✧ Hammers: These are the grinding elements, typically hinged or bolted to the rotor. They can
be:

i. Swinging Hammers: Free to pivot on a pin, relying on centrifugal force for

impact.
ii. Rigid Hammers: Fixed to the rotor for specific applications requiring a
more aggressive crushing action.

✧ Hammer Material: Depends on the material being processed. Mild steel is common for soft
materials, while high-chromium cast iron or tungsten carbide are used for tougher materials.
✧ Hammer Design: Shape and size influence the grinding action. Common shapes include
rectangular, triangular, and cruciform.

3. Screen: The screen controls the final product size by allowing only particles smaller than
the screen perforation size to pass through. The screen sits below the grinding chamber and
determines the final particle size of the material. Material smaller than the screen perforations
will pass through, while the larger pieces are recirculated for further grinding.

Design Considerations:

✧ Material: Typically made from perforated steel plates with varying hole sizes depending on
the desired final product size.
✧ Screen Mounting: Secured within the grinding chamber beneath the rotor assembly. May be
replaceable to meet different product size requirements.

5. Drive System: The drive system transmits power from the motor to the rotor assembly for
high-speed rotation.

Design Considerations:

✧ Motor Selection: This is chosen based on the required power for the desired capacity and
material. Electric motors are typically used.
✧ Power Transmission: When considering speed and torque transmission V-belts and pulleys
are a common choice. Gearboxes may also be used for specific applications with higher
torque requirements.

6. Body and Frame: The body and frame of the hammer mill provides a strong structure that can
house all components and withstand operational loads.

Design Considerations:
✧ Material: Fabricated steel structures are usually considered because they are designed to
handle vibration and impact forces.

Additional Design :

✧ Dust Control: Hammer mills tend to generate a lot of dust. A dust collection system to
maintain a clean working environment may be considered.
✧ Vibration Isolation: During operation, hammer mills vibrate. Vibration isolation mounts may
be implemented to minimize noise and protect the surrounding building.
✧ Maintenance Access: The mill can be designed for easy access to components for
replacement and maintenance.

6.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF THE DEA SCRUBBER

The mechanical design of the DEA scrubber involves specifying information about the physical
components and materials used in the construction of the scrubber. This section will provide
detailed information on the design considerations, including the scrubber's dimensions, shape,
layout, and the selection of appropriate materials and components to ensure efficient and reliable
operation.

MATERIAL SELECTION
Before the mechanical details of the equipment can be determined, the materials to be used in
constructing it have to be well-defined. For the water scrubber, the relevant materials were
identified during the design of the oil scrubber. These include
● Carbon Steel was selected for the design of the scrubber shell, vessel support and piping.
● Polypropylene Intalox Saddle (random) for packing
● Mineral wool was selected to insulate the column.

VESSEL THICKNESS
The diameter, height and other column parameters of vessel as calculated in previous chapter
are:

Column Specifications
Internal Diameter (m) 0.94
Height of column (m) 6.32
Height of packing (m) 1.3716
Number of Transfer Units (NTU) 4.61

The operating conditions of the column is given as:

Operating Conditions Units

Operating Pressure 10 bar
Operating Temperature 20 deg. C

With a safety factor of 1.4 for the column pressure, the column is designed to operate at the
following conditions:

Design Conditions Units

Safety factor 1.4
Temp Safety factor 25 deg. C
Design Pressure 14 bar
Design Temperature 45 deg. C

Bed limiter height , H BL =0.038 mm

Height between packing=6∈¿
Height allowance at the column base=36∈¿
Height allowance at the top of column=18∈¿
Additional height=(((6 × N OG )+18+36)∗0.0 254)+(H ¿ ¿ BL× N OG)¿
+Gas inlet diameter
Additional height=1.993800864 m
As regards the packing material, 76mm random Intalox@ Saddles was selected. Other details are
as follows:
void fraction , ε=0.721
3 3
ρ packing (Bulk Weight)=43.9 lb /f t =703.2105421 kg/m

The selected column material is carbon steel and its density and permissible stress are:
3
ρ ss =7850 kg/m
Maximum allowable stress=89 N /mm2
Given this equations:

The joint efficiency, J, is taken as that for a stop weld which is 1.00. Given the design stress of
89 N/mm2 for carbon steel at 180 ℃, the design stress is

Minimum Practical Wall Thickness Units

Welding Efficiency 100.00%
Corrosion allowance 2 mm
Minimum radial thickness 7.468537933 mm
Minimum longitudinal thickness 3.687393329 mm
Minimum thickness (max of radial and
longitudinal) 7.468537933 mm
Total thickness (including corrosion allowance) 9.468537933 mm
Round up to the nearest 2 mm
Total thickness (rounded) 10 mm
External diameter 960 mm

The vessel's outer diameter is thus:

Do =Di+(2 ×t s )= 0.96m

As for the vessel’s head, the standard hemispherical head is selected as it minimizes the required
thickness. The thickness is taken with the addition of the corrosion allowance.
t head=9.882623679mm

DEAD WEIGHT OF VESSEL

Dead Weight Units

Vessel Weight
Cw, design factor 1.15
Dm, mean diameter of vessel 0.95 m
Height or length of cylinder 6.32 m
Vessel Weight 18563.76 N
Packing Material Weight
Packing diameter (column diameter) 0.94 m
CSA of packing 2.775911269 m2
Liquid loading per plate area 1200 N/m2
Packing Weight 15356.34114 N

Caged Ladder Weight

Caged Ladder weight per length 360 N/m
Caged ladder weight 2275.2 N

Total Dead Weight 36195.30114 N

WIND LOADING
A wind speed of 160 km/h (100 mph) can be used for preliminary design studies,equivalent to a
wind pressure of 1280 N/m2 (25 lb/ft2).
Moment of Inertia is given as:

Also, the bending moment at the bottom tangent line is:

2
Hv
M X =FW 6.12
2

ANALYSIS OF STRESSES
AT the bottom tangent line of the vessel, the pressure stresses present are computed as follows:
Pi D i
σ L= 6.13
4tS
P i Di
σ h= 6.14
2 tS
Dead weight stress:
WD
σ w= 6.15
π (Di+ t s) t s

Bending stresses:
The second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending is also computed below.
π
I v = ( Do −Di )
4 4
6.16
64

σ b=± ( )
M Di
Iv 2
+t 6.17

Stress Analysis Units

Longitudinal stress 32.9 N/mm2
Circumferential stress 65.8 N/mm2
Deadweight stress 1.212770756 N/mm2
Bending stress 7.034633888 N/mm2
Radial Stress 0.7 N/mm2
Resultant Longitudinal Stress (Upwind) 38.72186313 N/mm2
Resultant Longitudinal Stress (Downwind) 24.65259536 N/mm2

Greatest Difference in Principal Stress 65.1 N/mm2

Since Maximum Allowable Stress > Difference in principal stresses

Therefore, the design is satisfactory.
SUPPORT ANALYSIS
The support to be used is a straight cylindrical skirt (θ s=90º) since it is a good option for
vertical vessels. It will be made of stainless steel as detailed in the materials section.
The height of the skirt is assumed to be twice the vessel’s outer diameter. Thus,
H skirt =2× D o

Given the design stress of 89 N/mm2 for stainless steel at atmospheric temperature, the design
stress and Young’s modulus are
2
fs=89 N /m m
2
Young' s modulus , E=200000 N /m m

The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of the liquid.

( )
3
π 2 4 Di
Approximate weight= Di H P ε + π × ρwater × g +¿
4 3 2
( π4 D (H −H )× ρ )
i
2
v p water 6.19

Total weight , W T
Bending moment , Ms
As a first trial, the skirt thickness is taken as that of the bottom section of the vessel.
t skirt =7.46853793 mm
4 Ms
Bending stress∈the skirt , σ bs = 6.20
π (D s+ t s )t s D s
The dead weight stress in the skirt is computed as
WT
σ ws (test )= 6.21
π (D s+ t s)t s
Wv
σ ws (operating)= 6.22
π (Ds +t s )t s

σ^ s (compressive)=σ bs+ σ ws (test )

σ^ s (tensile)=σ bs+ σ ws (operating)

Support Design Units

Chosen Support for Vessel Skirt
Skirt Height (1.5 * Vessel Internal Diameter) 1410 mm
Skirt base angle 90 degrees
Skirt Diameter, Ds 940 mm
Young's Modulus, E 200000 N/mm2
Maximum allowable design stress for the skirt
material, fs 88.94292 N/mm2
Weld joint Factor, J 100.00%

Approximate Weight of water 43026.06948 N

Total Weight of vessel + water 79221.37062 N
Total vessel height + skirt height 7730 mm
Maximum bending moment at skirt base (wind) 72659526.4 Nmm

Thickness of skirt 10 mm
Maximum tensile stress (possible) 88.94292 N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress (possible) 265.9574468 N/mm2
Bending Stress in skirt 10.35979645 N/mm2
Deadweight Stress in skirt (operating) 1.212770756 N/mm2
Deadweight Stress in skirt (test) 2.654415312 N/mm2

Max Resultant Stress (Compressive) 13.01421176 N/mm2

Max Resultant Stress (Tensile) 9.147025695 N/mm2

Criteria for design:

σ^ s (tensile)≯ fs J sin θ
Max Possible Tensile Stress > Max Resultant Tensile

ts
σ^ s (compressive )≯ 0.125 E( )sinθ
Ds
Max Possible Resultant Compressive Stress > Max Resultant Compressive

Thus, both criteria are satisfied. Adding 2 mm for corrosion allowance:

t skirt =9.46853793 mm

BASE RING AND ANCHOR BOLTS

The allowable design stress in the ring material, fr is 140 N/mm2.
Approximating the pitch circle diameter as half the vessel's inner diameter,
D pitch =0.5 m
Circumference of bolt ¿˚ π D
pitch

The minimum recommended bolt spacing is 600 mm.

Number of bolts required
The next higher multiple of 4 to this is 4. However, according to Scheiman guide rules, the
minimum number of bolts should be 8. Thus, 8 bolts are required.
Take bolt design stress as 125N/mm2.

The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area required is
calculated as

Ab =
1
[ 4 Ms
N b f b D pitch
2
−W
] 6.23

¿ 105.2339019 mm
Thus, Bolt root diameter=¿
Since this is less than 25mm, according to Scheiman, the Bolt root diameter is taken a 25 mm.

Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length

F b=
[ 4 Ms W
2
+
π Ds π Ds ] 6.24

Taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm2,

 Fb 1
Lb , min= ×
f c 1 03
Lr =100 mm
Lb , actual=Lr + t skirt +50
Fb
f ' c=
L b ,actual
Base ring thickness, t b=Lr √ ❑ 6.25

Base ring and anchor bolts Units

Pitch-circle diameter (must be > than skirt
diameter) 1000 mm
Circumference of bolt circle 3141.592654 mm
Number of bolts required at min recommended
spacing of 600mm 5.235987756
Closest multiple of 4 (minimum of 8 bolts) 8
Bolt spacing 392.6990817 mm
Bolt design stress 125 N/mm2
Area of one bolt 254.4428045 mm2
Bolt root diameter（minimum should be
25 mm) 17.99907332 mm
Choose M24 Bolt Size (BS 4190:1967) 24 mm
Root area 353 mm2
Lr or B from above 76 mm
Compressive load on base ring per length, Fb 116.9567963 N/mm
Maximum allowable bearing pressure on the
concrete foundation pad, fc 5 N/mm2
Minimum base ring width, Lb 23.39135925 mm
Actual base ring width 136 mm
Actual bearing pressure, f'c 0.859976443 N/mm2
thickness of base, tb 10.56856873 mm
Round up to the nearest 2 mm
Thickness of base, tb (rounded) 12 mm
6.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN FOR LIQUIFIED BIOGAS STORAGE TANK

The mechanical design of the Storage tank begins with calculating the design pressure and
design temperature. After that, material selection for designing the equipment is carried out. The
concept of screening and concept of scoring method will be used for the material selection part.
Then, the thickness of the vessel and also the thickness of the head will be calculated followed
by the calculation of the total weight of the equipment, the wind loading, stress analysis and
elastic stability.

Design Pressure

A vessel must be designed to withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be

subjected in operation. For vessels under internal pressure, the design pressure is normally taken
as the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally be to 10 per cent above the
normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets. When
deciding the design pressure, the hydro-static pressure in the base of the column should be added
to the operating pressure, if significant. Vessels subject to external pressure should be designed
to resist the maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur in service (R. K. Sinnott, 1983).
The working pressure from the material balance was assumed to be 1 atm gauge, meaning an
absolute pressure of Po being 2atm (equivalent of 2bar).
By taking design pressure, Pi as 10% above the operating pressure, the design pressure can be
calculated by using the equation shown below.

Design Pressure, Pi = 2.00N/mm2

Design Temperature

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the maximum allowable design
stress will depend on the material temperature. The maximum design temperature at which the
design stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working temperature of the material,
with due allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall temperatures (R. K.
Sinnott, 1983).
Different temperature allowances are used above and below normal operating temperatures. For
temperatures between -30 and 345 ⁰C, Turton gives a maximum allowance of 25 ⁰C above
maximum operating temperature should be included (R. Turton, 2012). Above this, an even
higher design allowance is used (G. Towler, 2008).
Towler/UOP gives 50 ⁰F above the maximum operating temperature and -25 ⁰F below the
minimum (G. Towler, 2008)
Maximum allowable stress is highly dependent on temperature, because metals weaken with
increasing temperature. The vessel should not operate at a higher temperature than the highest at
which the maximum allowable stress was evaluated. There is also a minimum temperature for
which the vessel can be guaranteed to operate safely. Metals may become brittle at very low
temperatures. The minimum design metal temperature (MDMT) is the lowest temperature that
can be expected in the vessel (G. Towler, 2008).
The operating temperature for the Liquefaction in this design project is -162 ⁰C. Therefore, the
design temperature is taken by the addition of -25 ⁰C to the operating temperature which is the
maximum allowance given by Turton (25 ⁰C).
Design Temperature, TD = 25oC- 162oC = -137oC

Therefore, the design temperature for the absorption column in this design project is -137⁰C.

Design Conditions Units

Safety factor 1.4
Temp Safety factor 25 deg. C
Design Pressure 14 bar
Design Temperature -137 deg. C

Material Selection for Construction

Pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys,
clad plate, and reinforced plastics. Selection of a suitable material must take into account the
suitability of the material for fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the
material with the process environment. The pressure vessel design codes and standards include
lists of acceptable materials; in accordance with the appropriate material standards. (R. K.
Sinnott, 1983).
For this design, low carbon steel (LCS) has been chosen as the material for the construction of
the absorption column. LCS contains a good amount of 99.81% iron (Fe), 0.2% carbon (C), 0.9%
Manganese (Mn), 0.04% phosphorus (P), and 0.05% sulfur (S). LCS contains low C content that
enables the material to be fabricated easily. LCS is selected as the constructing material as it can
be welded, machined, and fabricated easily due to its high ductility. Even though the corrosion
rate of LCS is the highest which is 0.60 – 1.40 m per year, compare to Stainless Steel 316
(SS316) which is only 2.70×10-8 m to 9.40×10-7m per year and propylene that will not corrode,
but the cost of SS316 is the lowest. Even though extra cost is needed for adding corrosion
allowance, the cost will not be as high as SS316‟s cost.

Feasibility Design of the Biomethane storage tank

In this part, the design specification of the Storage tank will be determined. This included the
maximum allowable stress, vessel thickness, head and closure thickness, weight load, wind
loading, stress analysis and elastic stability of the absorption column.
(a) Maximum Allowable Stress

Figure 2 below shows the typical maximum allowable stresses for plate under ASME

BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1. The design temperature is -162 ⁰C and the selected material is
cryogenic steel of 9% Nickel steel.
It shows that the maximum temperature 9% Nickel steel can withstand is -196 ⁰C.

According to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) Section VIII, Division 1,
which provides guidelines for the construction of pressure vessels, the allowable stress for 9%
Nickel Steel at cryogenic temperatures (such as -162°C, which is close to the boiling point of
LNG) is approximately:
Maximum Allowable Stress: About 207 MPa (30,000 psi)

= 207.0 N/mm2
In order to find the amount of corrosion allowance, the assumption of a plant operated for 10
years should be considered.

Corrosion allowance = 10 years x 0.25 mm/yr = 2.5 mm ≈ 3.0 mm

(c) Minimum Practical Wall Thickness

There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that any vessel is sufficiently rigid to
withstand its own weight and any accidental loads. The ASME Code Sec. VIII D.1 specifies a
minimum wall thickness of 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) not including corrosion allowance, and
regardless of vessel dimensions and material of construction. As a general guide the wall
thickness of any vessel should not be less than the values given in Table 2 below which includes
a corrosion allowance of 2 mm.

Table 6.8: A general guide of the wall thickness of any vessel (G. Towler, 2008).

Vessel Diameter (m) Minimum Thickness (mm)

1 5
1 to 2 7
2 to 2.5 9
2.5 to 3.0 10
3.0 to 3.5 12

(d) Vessel Thickness

The thickness of the cylindrical section can be calculated by using this Equation. This equation
has been specified by the ASME BPV Code ((Sec. VIII D.1 Part UG-27) (G. Towler, 2008).
𝑃𝑖𝐷𝑖
t=
2 SE−1.2 Pi

Where:
 t = Minimum thickness
required (mm)
Pi = Design pressure
(N/mm2)
Di = Internal column diameter (mm)
S = Maximum allowable stress (N/mm2)
E = Joint efficiency

From Chapter 5, it is known that the internal diameter, Di of the LBG Storage tank for this
design project is 24.04 m (24040mm). By assuming that the joint is double-welded or equivalent
and the joint is fully radiographed, so that E = 1.00. Therefore, the minimum thickness required
for the absorption column is calculated as below:

Minimum Practical Wall Thickness Units

Welding Efficiency 100.00%
Corrosion allowance 3 mm
Minimum radial thickness 97.38466012 mm
Minimum longitudinal thickness 48.3166573 mm
Minimum thickness (max of radial and
longitudinal) 97.38466012 mm
Total thickness (including corrosion allowance) 100.3846601 mm
Round up to the nearest 2 mm
Total thickness (rounded) 102 mm
External diameter 20244 mm

(e) Thickness of Domed Ends

The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The principal
types used are: a) Hemispherical heads
b. Ellipsoidal heads;
c. Torispherical heads;
 d. Flat plates and formed flat heads;
Hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and torispherical heads are collectively referred to as domed heads.
They are formed by pressing or spinning; large diameters are fabricated from formed sections.
Torispherical heads are often referred to as dished ends.

Selection of Closure

As the thickness of the cylindrical vessel (absorption column) is equal to the thickness of the
ellipsoidal head which is 96.9137066 mm (including corrosion allowance), therefore, the
ellipsoidal head is the most economical one.
The flat ends closure is not suitable because it is too thick (1116.282718 mm) compared to the
vessel thickness which is only 96.9137066 mm. Standard torispherical heads (dished ends) are
the most commonly used end closure for vessels up to operating pressures of 15 bar (the
operating pressure for this absorption column is 2 bar). They can be used for higher pressures,
but above 10 bar their cost should be compared with that of an equivalent ellipsoidal head. A
hemispherical head is the strongest shape, capable of resisting about twice the pressure of a
torispherical head of the same thickness. The cost of forming a hemispherical head will,
however, be higher than that for a shallow torispherical head. Hemispherical heads are used for
high pressures (R. K. Sinnott, 1983). Thus, torispherical heads which are 6.7766mm of thickness
has been selected as the closure ends of the vessel, because as recommended in the industry plant
design, it is better to choose heads that are thicker than the cylindrical vessel thickness itself.
This is because the welding may cause the thickness to decrease if the same thickness value has
been chosen as the vessel thickness.

Thickness of Domed Ends Units

Flat plates

De, bolt circle diameter 22.712 m

C (full-face gasket) 0.25
Flat plate thickness 1116.282718 mm

Hemispherical head
Hemispherical thickness 48.4568533 mm

Ellipsoidal head

Ellipsoidal thickness 96.9137066 mm

Torispherical head

Rc, Crown radius 20040 mm

Torispherical thickness 171.5372607 mm

Most economical head thickness 96.9137066 mm

Ellipsoidal
Chosen head (most economical) thickness
Head Thickness + Corrosion allowance 99.9137066 mm
(f) Dead Weight of Cylindrical Vessel, Wz

Dead Weight Units

Vessel Weight
Cw, design factor 1.15
Dm, mean diameter of vessel 20.142 m
Height or length of cylinder 48.07 m
Vessel Weight 36394513.48 N

Total Dead Weight 36394513.48 N

The calculation of the dead weight of a cylindrical vessel is carried out after
the minimum thickness of a vessel and the minimum thickness of a head is
known. The dead weight of a cylindrical vessel is the sum of the weight of a
cylindrical vessel, weight of packing column, and weight of insulation.

Stress Analysis
Stress analysis involves the calculation of longitudinal stress, circumferential stress, dead weight
stress, bending stress, and the resultant longitudinal stress at the bottom tangent lines.
 Stress Analysis Units
Longitudinal stress 98.23529412 N/mm2
Circumferential stress 196.4705882 N/mm2
Deadweight stress 5.638755737 N/mm2
Bending stress 1.856348971 N/mm2
Radial Stress 1 N/mm2
Resultant Longitudinal Stress (Upwind) 94.45288735 N/mm2
Resultant Longitudinal Stress (Downwind) 90.74018941 N/mm2

Greatest Difference in Principal Stress 195.4705882 N/mm2

Maximum Allowable Stress>Greatest Difference in Principal Stress then the design is

satisfactory

Critical Buckling Stress 100.7705987 N/mm2

A wind speed of 160 km/h (100 mph) can be used for preliminary design studies equivalent to a
wind pressure of 1280 N/m2 (25 lb/ft2).
Bending Moment Units
Dynamic Wind Pressure 1280 N/m2
Wind loading, w 25781.76 N/m2
16241925766
Second moment of area, Iv 9769 mm4
Bending Moment, Mx 29787277399 Nmm

(l) Vessel Support

Designing a support for vessels are based on shape, size, weight of the vessel, design temperature
and pressure, arrangement and location of vessel, and internal and external fittings and
attachments. Therefore, the horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports. The
supports must be designed to carry the weight of the vessel and contents, and superimposed
loads, such as wind loads. Supports will impose localized loads on the vessel wall, and the
design must be checked to ensure that the resulting stress concentrations are below the maximum
allowable design stress. Therefore, support should be designed to allow easy access to the vessel
and fittings for inspection and maintenance. There are three types of support such as saddles,
brackets, and skirts. Saddle is designed for horizontal vessels whereas the bracket and skirt are
used for vertical vessels.

H skirt =2× D o

Given the design stress of 89 N/mm2 for stainless steel at atmospheric temperature, the design
stress and Young’s modulus are
2
fs=207 N /m m
2
Young' s modulus , E=200000 N /m m

The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of the liquid.

( )
3
π 2 4 Di
Approximate weight= Di H P ε + π × ρwater × g +¿
4 3 2

( π4 D (H −H )× ρ )
i
2
v p water 6.19

Total weight , W T
Bending moment , Ms
As a first trial, the skirt thickness is taken as that of the bottom section of the vessel.
 4 Ms
Bending stress∈the skirt , σ bs= 6.20
π (D s+ t s ) t s D s
The dead weight stress in the skirt is computed as
WT
σ ws (test )= 6.21
π (D s+ t s)t s
Wv
σ ws (operating)= 6.22
π (Ds +t s )t s

σ^ s (compressive)=σ bs + σ ws (test )
σ^ s (tensile)=σ bs + σ ws (operating)

Support Design Units

Chosen Support for Vessel Skirt
Skirt Height (1.5 * Vessel Internal Diameter) 30060 mm
Skirt base angle 90 degrees
Skirt Diameter, Ds 20040 mm
Young's Modulus, E 200000 N/mm2
Maximum allowable design stress for the skirt
material, fs 206.981896 N/mm2
Weld joint Factor, J 100.00%

Approximate Weight of water 148740228.8 N

Total Weight of vessel + water 185134742.3 N
Total vessel height + skirt height 78130 mm
15737951764
Maximum bending moment at skirt base (wind) 5 Nmm

Thickness of skirt 102 mm

Maximum tensile stress (possible) 206.981896 N/mm2

Maximum compressive stress (possible) 127.245509 N/mm2
Bending Stress in skirt 4.866960796 N/mm2
Deadweight Stress in skirt (operating) 5.638755737 N/mm2
Deadweight Stress in skirt (test) 28.68370781 N/mm2

Max Resultant Stress (Compressive) 33.5506686 N/mm2

-
Max Resultant Stress (Tensile) 0.7717949416 N/mm2

Criteria for design:

σ^ s (tensile)≯ fs J sin θ
Max Possible Tensile Stress > Max Resultant Tensile

ts
σ^ s (compressive )≯ 0.125 E( )sinθ
Ds
Max Possible Resultant Compressive Stress > Max Resultant Compressive

BASE RING AND ANCHOR BOLTS

The allowable design stress in the ring material, fr is 140 N/mm2.

Approximating the pitch circle diameter as half the vessel's inner diameter,
Circumference of bolt ¿˚ π D pitch

The minimum recommended bolt spacing is 600 mm.

Number of bolts required
The next higher multiple of 4 to this is 4. However, according to Scheiman guide rules, the
minimum number of bolts should be 8. Thus, 8 bolts are required.
Take bolt design stress as 125N/mm2.

The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area required is
calculated as

Ab =
1
[ 4 Ms
N b f b D pitch ]
−W

Since this is less than 25mm, according to Scheiman, the Bolt root diameter is taken a 25 mm.

Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length

F b=
[ 4 Ms W
2
+
π Ds π Ds ] 6.24

Taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm2,

 Fb 1
Lb , min= ×
f c 1 03
Lr =100 mm
Lb , actual=Lr + t skirt +50
Fb
f ' c=
L b ,actual
Base ring thickness, t b=Lr √ ❑

Base ring and anchor bolts Units

Pitch-circle diameter (must be > than skirt
diameter) 1050 mm
Circumference of bolt circle 3298.672286 mm
Number of bolts required at min recommended
spacing of 600mm 5.497787144
Closest multiple of 4 (minimum of 8 bolts) 8
Bolt spacing 412.3340358 mm
Bolt design stress 125 N/mm2
Area of one bolt 563146.5061 mm2
Bolt root diameter（minimum should
be 25 mm) 846.7705717 mm
Choose M24 Bolt Size (BS 4190:1967) 24 mm
Root area 353 mm2
Lr or B from above 76 mm
Compressive load on base ring per length, Fb 1077.037252 N/mm
Maximum allowable bearing pressure on the
concrete foundation pad, fc 5 N/mm2
Minimum base ring width, Lb 215.4074504 mm
Actual base ring width 228 mm
Actual bearing pressure, f'c 4.723847596 N/mm2
thickness of base, tb 16.2371704 mm
Round up to the nearest 2 mm
Thickness of base, tb (rounded) 18 mm
6.6 MECHANICAL DESIGN FOR VALVE

The mechanical design process of a Valve , typically involves the following steps:

1. Selecting the correct type of valves:

The selection of valves in chemical process design is based on a careful consideration of

operational, safety, and economic factors, taking into account a balanced comparison of
empirical results. Before choosing a valve, some initial conditions must be specified.

This includes considering the material state, and Other Properties, such as corrosiveness,
toxicity, solubility in valve construction materials, flammability, and other performance
characteristics. These properties can impact not only material selection but also lead to
specific structural requirements or the need to raise the pipeline's rating.

For gaseous materials, consider properties such as data on material characteristics,

whether the material is pure gas or a mixture, the presence of liquid droplets or solid
particles, and the possibility of condensable components.

For liquid materials, consider properties such as data on material characteristics, whether
the material is pure or a mixture with volatile components or gases that can precipitate
into a two-phase flow when pressure drops, the presence of solid suspensions, and the
liquid's viscosity, solidification point, or pour point.

2. Operating Conditions:

This involves considering both the temperature and pressure under normal operating
conditions, as well as the working conditions during startup, shutdown, or regeneration.
Pump outlet valves should consider the maximum closing pressure of the pump.

In systems where the regeneration temperature significantly exceeds normal temperature,

but the pressure drops, the combined effect of temperature and pressure should be taken
into account. Also, the continuity of operation, i.e., the frequency of valve opening and
closing, also influences the wear and tear requirements. Systems with frequent switching
may require the installation of double valves.

If the system allows a small pressure drop or if pressure drop is significant but no flow
control is required, select a valve type with a smaller pressure drop, such as gate valves or
straight-through ball valves.
 If flow control is needed, choose a valve type with good control performance that incurs a
certain pressure drop (the ratio of pressure drop to the total pipeline pressure drop is
related to sensitivity of control).

In cold outdoor areas, especially for chemical materials, cast iron should generally not be
used for valve bodies. Instead, cast steel (or stainless steel) should be selected.

3. Valve Functions:

● Shut-Off: Nearly all valves have shut-off functionality. If used solely for shut-off
without the need for flow regulation, Gate valves or Ball valves can be chosen.
For rapid shut-off, globe valves, ball valves, and butterfly valves are more
suitable. Globe valves can be used for both flow control and shut-off, while
butterfly valves are also suitable for high-flow regulation.
● Change in Flow Direction: Two-way (L-shaped passage) or three-way (T-shaped
passage) ball valves or plug valves can be used to rapidly change the flow
direction. These valves simplify operation, ensuring accurate and error-free
switching and reducing space requirements.
● Control: Globe valves and piston valves are suitable for general flow control,
while needle valves are used for fine flow adjustment. For stable adjustment of
larger flow ranges (pressure and flow), throttle valves are preferred.
● Check: Check valves are used to prevent fluid backflow.
● Additional functionality can be chosen for various production processes,
including valves with jackets, drain ports, bypasses, and valves with blowdown
ports to prevent solid particle settling.

4. Valve Actuation:
For on-site operated valves, most use handwheels. For valves operated from a distance,
chain wheels or extended stems can be used when the operation involves a considerable
distance. Some large-sized valves come equipped with motors to handle the high starting
torque, especially in explosive environments where explosion-proof motors should be
used. Remote control valves can be actuated using pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric
power, with electric actuation divided into solenoid valves and motor-driven valves. The
choice of actuation depends on the specific requirements and the available power sources.

Throttling Valves

Valves that are utilized as fluid control devices are typically throttling valves.
Such valves experience internal velocity and internal pressure gradients
(both positive and negative) that conclude with a permanent pressure loss
(∆P) from the inlet pipe-to-outlet pipe connections.

Bernoulli’s Theorem is the most useful tool in analyzing what is going on physically within
the walls of a throttling valve, which includes —Velocity gradients, Pressure gradients.
This principle applies to the following for throttling valves: inlet pipe reducer, pressure drop to
main orifice, pressure recovery to outlet and outlet pipe reducer
2 2
P 2−P 1 [C 2❑ −C 1❑ ]
H= + +(Z 2−Z 1)
rho∗g 2g

where:

● H: Total pump head (meters)

● p1: Pressure at pump inlet (Pa)
● p2: Pressure at pump outlet (Pa)
● rho: Fluid density (kg/m³)
● g: Gravitational acceleration (m/s²) (usually taken as 9.81 m/s²)
● c1: Fluid velocity at pump inlet (m/s)
● c2: Fluid velocity at pump outlet (m/s)
● z1: Elevation of pump inlet (meters)
● z2: Elevation of pump outlet (meters)

Sizing A Throttling Valve

To size the throttling valve, we need the following background information.

Process Fluid: The Process fluid is Biogas ( which is then upgraded to biomethane and then
liquefied to produce LBG).

Fluid State: Gaseous, which is transition to liquid state for distribution purposes
Pressure at Pump 1 = 800 Kpa

Pressure after valve is 500 Kpa

Mass Flow Rate (Kg/h) : 22.5 Kg/s is the flowrate of the fluid leaving Pump 1, convert to Kg/hr
= 22.5*3600(Kg/hr) = 81,000 Kg/hr

Density of process fluid at 35°C = 647.48 kg/m³

Density of water at 100°C = 1000 kg/m³

Frictional Pressure drop in between Pump 1 and Pump 2 is 100Kpa.

Assumptions:

● Pressure does not change with flow

● Valve is designed to take the full pressure drop when it is fully open, size the valve for
100% overcapacity (i.e. twice the normal flow)

Formula to size a throttling valve

Cv=Q/ f (x)√ ΔPv / Ps

Cv = Valve Sizing Coefficient

Q= Volumetric Flow Rate

Q (Volumetric Flow Rate ) = Mass Flow Rate/ Density

Q = 81,000Kg/hr / ( 647.48 m^3/kg)

Q = 125.10m^3/hr

Pressure drop between Pump 1 and 2 ( ΔP 12 ) = 100KPa

P = 647.48 kg/m³

Pw = 1000 kg/m³

Ps = P/ Pw = 647.48/1000 = 0.64748
ΔPv = Pressure before Valve - Pressure after Valve

( Pressure at Pump 1- Pressure drop between the pumps 1 and 2 )- Pressure after the valve

= (800-100)- 500 Kpa

= 200 Kpa = 200,000 Pa

100% overcapacity is required, hence required flow = 2Q

= 2*125.10m^3/hr = 250.2 m^3/hr

Q = 250.2 m^3/hr * 1hr/ 3600 secs = 0.0695m^3/s

f(x) =1 ( Fully Open Valve)

Using the formula to size a throttling valve

Cv=0.0695 /1∗√ (200∗1000)/(0.64748)

−4 3
Cv=1.2505∗10 m ¿

Materials of construction:

General Service valves are specified with commonly found materials to match the pipe material.

The standard materials are:

● Carbon Steel

● Stainless Steel

● Chrome-moly

For special services, the construction is often guided primarily by the type of fluid,

service temperature, etc.

Concentration of the material in the fluid is very important. Most chemicals are easier to

handle in dilute concentrations. However, acids such as sulfuric acid become more
 aggressive as they are diluted with water. Some organic materials that are not corrosive

by themselves become so in the presence of water.

Temperature is an important factor in choice of materials because high temperature increases

corrosion. In addition, at very elevated temperatures, the pressure rating of the valve can be

severely lowered due to deterioration of either metallic or non- metallic material properties.

● Materials used in valves in hydrocarbon service experience sulfide stress cracking.

NACE standard MR-01-75 provides specific guidelines for their selection criteria.

● Cast carbon steel (ASTM A216 – Grade WCB) is the most popular steel for valve bodies

in moderate service such as air, superheat or saturated steam, non-corrosive fluids.

● Cast chrome-moly steel (ASTM A217 – Grade WCB-C9) has addition of

chromium/Molybdenum that provide corrosion resistance and also suitable for

temperature up to 1050oF.

● Cast type 304 SST (ASTM A351 – Grade CF8) is for oxidizing and very corrosive fluids.

● Cast type 316 SST (ASTM A351 – Grade CF8M) is the same as 304 SST but since it has

addition of Molybdenum it has better resistance to corrosion.

● Cast Iron (ASTM A126) is used for steam, water, gas and non-corrosive fluids and is

inexpensive.

● Cast Bronze (ASTM B61 and B62) is used for steam, air, water, oil and non-corrosive

fluids.

REFERENCES

Sinnott, R. K. (1983). Chemical Engineering Design (Vol. 6). Butterworth-Heinemann.

Towler, G., & Sinnott, R. K. (2008). Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and
Economics of Plant and Process Design. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Turton, R., Bailie, R. C., Whiting, W. B., Shaeiwitz, J. A., & Bhattacharyya, D. (2012). Analysis,
Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). (n.d.). Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
(BPVC), Section VIII, Division 1. ASME.

Ibrahim, M., Ahmed, M., Habou, D., Misbahu, A., & Mu’ar, P. (2017). Improvement on the
Design,Construction and Testing of Hammer Mill. American Journal of Engineering
Research.

[Link]

Ezurike, B. O., Osazuwa, O. J., Okoronkwo, C. A., & Okoji, K. I. (2018). Design,
construction and performance evaluation of a flat screen hammer mill machine. African
Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 10(6), 683–690.
[Link]
Bi, Z. (2018). Applications—Solid Mechanics Problems. In Finite Element Analysis
Applications (pp. 281–339). Elsevier. [Link]