INTRODUCTION

General

Groundwater is an essential natural resource providing a major source of drinking water and sustaining
agriculture activities. However, its quality is at risk due to contamination by heavy metals such as zinc
(Zn), Lead (Pb) and copper (Cu).These pollutants can seep into groundwater from industrial processes,
mining operations, and other environmental sources. Their accumulation possess serious health hazards
including developmental delays, cancer, kidney damage, and in severe cases life threatening conditions
(Belkhiri, 2018). Groundwater is the water that infiltrates the earth’s surface through pores and spaces
within the soil, sand and rock. It remains concealed within the ground, stored in aquifers. When it
emerges through wells or springs, it plays a crucial role in sustaining surface water bodies such as rivers,
lakes and streams (Belkhiri, 2018). Groundwater is one of the primary sources for drinking, irrigation and
industries, however, it is being regularly challenged by environmental conditions and human
interventions (Nawab et al., 2017; Ullah et al., 2021). In recent decades, water supply has suffered an
increase in challenges, especially quality control issues and the loss of freshwater sources (Nawab et al.,
2016; Ali et al., 2021). Groundwater is being affected by factors like mineralization of watersheds,
recharge sources, lithology, hydrodynamic setting and water rock interactions (Masood et al., 2019: He
et al., 2021).

Some of the significant metals square measure essential for traditional growth of groups of people and
plants (Memo et al., 2016, Samreen et al., 2017, Saleh 2020, Saleh 2021). The concentration of those
metals over the traditional level will cause deadly impacts on the surroundings within the type of water
and soil pollution indirectly touching groups of people (Mortuza and Al-Misned, 2017). Major water
pollutant can be found like inorganic salts, calcium, magnesium and fluoride (Anwar et al., 2010, Imran
et al., 2017). Contamination of groundwater is widely reported in Asian countries, particularly in arid and
dry regions where access to quality water is already an important drawback for each irrigation and
drinking function (Brahman et al., 2016). All living beings, ecological systems, food production and
economic progress depend on the vital resource of water, but the water resources are under pressure.
Hence, fresh and pure drinking water availability is diminishing and is one of the most pressing issue of
contemporary world. A huge portion of the Asian and African population (800 million) do not have
access to safe water for drinking and other purposes. These populations are at risk of exposure to
pathogens and toxic mineral and chemicals. About 5.3% of the death are attributed to unsafe water,
hygiene and sanitation and increasing population from industrial and agricultural activities as well as
burgeoning urban population puts water resources to enormous potential pollution and hence the
health of population is at risk in many regions of the world. According to WHO and UNICEF, about 768
million people were reliant on water having a high level of pathogen contamination (Sharma et al.,
2017).

Heavy metals are natural elements characterized by their high atomic mass and density. Although, they
occur in low concentrations, they can be found throughout the earth’s crust. A common criteria for
defining a heavy metal is a density of at least 5 g/cubic centimeter. These elements occupy columns 3-16
of periods 4 to 6 in the periodic table, including transition metals, pot-transition metals and lanthanides.
The toxicity of metals depends depend on the metals itself, its concentration, the availability of the
metal to the organism and organism itself. Depending on the organism and the metal, different modes
of actions are recognized: binding to macromolecules (proteins, DNA, RNA), disruption of enzymatic
functions, catalysis of radical formation, etc. For example, Zinc (Zn) is a component found in a variety of
enzymes (dehydrogenases, proteinases, peptidases), but it is also involved in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins, phosphates, auxins and in RNA and ribosome formation in plants (Kabata-
pandas et al., 2001: Mangel and Kirkby., 1982).

Groundwater is a basic source of water for residents of Madhubani district. Therefore, it is essential to
carry out detailed research of groundwater to analyze the fundamental parameters. These parameters
are most notably physiochemical parameters such as pH, total dissolved solvents (TDS), turbidity,
electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), chloride, alkalinity and salinity.

Groundwater pollution by heavy metals

Water pollution due to heavy metals is a significant environmental concern. These metals, including lead
(Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and others can contaminate water sources and pose risks to human
health. A study in the Huaihe River Basin in China found that eutrophication was severe, with 67.8% of
water sources classified as mesotrophic and 32.2% as eutrophic. Carcinogenic risks were associated with
Cr while Pb posed no carcinogenic risks (Tong et al., 2024). Globally, reliable technologies exist for
removing heavy metals from drinking water.

The proliferation of heavy metal ions, which possess toxic properties in water bodies has emerged as a
significant global concern in recent years owing to the exponential growth in industrialization,
urbanization and the utilization of chemical compounds in various industries (Huang et al., 2018). These
substances can gave far reaching detrimental effect on both the environment and living organisms and
are therefore a significant concern for environmental protection (Songlin et al., 1993). Wastewater
effluents from industrial processes are contaminated with a wide wide variety of toxic heavy metal
contaminants with human and anthropogenic factors being the main causes of increased environmental
toxicity. Heavy metals can be naturally introduced into the environment through processes such as wind
erosion of soil, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, biogenic processes, and the release of marine salt.
Anthropogenic contamination of the environment by heavy metals can occur through various means,
such as mining operations, the utilization of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides, and the irrigation of
agricultural land with untreated sewage and industrial effluent. For example, mercury, is introduced into
the environment through various human activities, including but not limited to, industries such as
chlorine and caustic soda production, paper and pulp preservation, agricultural practices, and the
production of pharmaceuticals. Cadmium, another heavy metal, is prevalent in various geological
materials such as mineral fertilizers, coal, soils, and rocks. It is also extensively utilized in electroplating
processes for diverse purposes including the manufacture of batteries, pigments, textiles, and metal
coatings. These activities inevitably lead to an increase in heavy metal contamination in the environment
Huang et al., 2018).

Sources of heavy metal pollution in groundwater

Most prevalently, heavy metals can be found as hydroxides, oxides, sulphides, sulphates, phosphates,
silicates, carbonates, and organic matrix amongst others. They emanate from natural and anthropogenic
sources (Selim and Sparks 2001; Selim et al. 2001; Sparks 1995, 2005; Sparks and Sparks 2003; Langmuir
1997; Langmuir et al. 1997). However, anthropogenic sources have been classified as the main source
and route in which heavy metals are distributed to different compartments of the environment.
Transport media are mainly water, soil and air.
Naturally, heavy metals can emanate from the following processes: leaching, weathering, volcanic
eruptions, decomposition, and seismic activities amongst others (Langmuir 1997; Langmuir et al. 1997;
Selim and Sparks 2001; Selim et al. 2001; Sparks 1989, 1995; 2005; Sparks and Sparks 2003).port media
(Langmuir 1916, 1918, 1997; Langmuir et al. 1997). Weathering refers to a process, which breaks down
rocks, soil, and minerals via their contact with the atmosphere, water, and living organisms. Weathering
is an onsite process and it does not involve the movement of weathered materials. Specially, weathering
can be a physical, biological, and chemical process. Physical weathering entails the breakdown of heavy
metals containing minerals via direct contact with micro climatic conditions such as heat, water, ice, and
pressure. On the other hand, chemical weathering entails the reaction of chemicals in the rocks with
micro-climatic conditions leading to the release of heavy metals from the host rock to the surrounding
environment. Both physical and chemical weathering can occur concomitantly or subsequently in any
given system. To be precise, a macule process that entails the physical abrasion of soil or rock particles
by the movement of their surface leading to a reduction in their respective sizes hence increasing
surface area and making them more susceptible to chemical reactions and chemical attacks. The
biological process entails the breaking down of rocks and soil molecules in the quest for nutrients for
plant growth or for microorganisms to survive. The abstraction of nutrients leaves the rock vulnerable to
other reactions. Breaking of rocks by plant roots to anchor a tree also leads to rocks disintegration and
weathering. Minerals will therefore, be broken down into minute molecules and get converted to
secondary minerals in certain circumstances (Selim and Sparks 2001; Selim et al. 2001; Sparks 1989,
1995, 2005; Sparks and Sparks 2003; Langmuir 1997; Langmuir et al. 1997). Minerals from the
weathered rocks comprise problematic heavy metals that are of paramount concern in the
environment. Colloidal chemistry has denoted that, heavy metals exist as abundant trace elements in
the earth crust with the concentration of metals ranging from ppm to ppb (He et al., 2005). This also
communicates to their toxicity since these elements are valuable to living organisms, however, to a
certain extent or limit. Moreover, due to geochemical processes, heavy metals are released from the
surrounding geologies, lithology and strata to the environment. This also depends on a number of
factors such as the physical activities taking place in the weathered area, micro-organisms to aid in the
leaching processes, and the chemistry of the rock being attacked by aqueous medium. Natural
weathering of bedrock has often resulted in the release of these metals into the environment and led to
the enrichment of soil particles with heavy metals. Other natural processes that result in the release of
heavy metals are volcanic eruptions, decaying of vegetation, comets, erosion due to insufficient soil
cover and heavy rainfall (De Vivo et al., 2018).Natural processes also influence the pH of the receiving
environment. The reaction of atmospheric gases and geological materials also alters the pH of the
receiving environment. Volcanic eruption is a natural process. It leads to the emission of particles to the
earth's surface. The trace metals contained in the volcanic dust falling onto the ground migrate to the
soil where they dissolve in water depending on redox, temperature, and pH and they then get adsorbed
by soil particles (Brey 1978; Delmelle and Bernard 2000; Forbes 1860). Increases in socio-economic
activities due to population growth have been linked to the rapid increase of heavy metals present in
the environment. Human activities such as mining, ore processing, agriculture, and power production
contribute immensely in metal contamination. Domestic activities such the use of laundry detergents
also contribute to the concentration of heavy metals in wastewater which has adverse effects during
reuse of the water for irrigation and during sludge disposal (Aonghusa and Gray 2002). Anthropogenic
sources of heavy metals can be divided into two main categories namely; agricultural and industrial
activities (Bradl, 2005). Agriculture activities cause production of pesticides, soil enhancers. Industrial
activities are considered as major contributors of heavy metals towards environmental contamination
(He et al. 2005). Industrial sources of heavy metals include the mining of minerals from the earth’s crust,
metallurgical processes such as ore processing, energy production and the disposal of waste
(Tchounwou et al., 2012). Metallurgical processes also lead to the contamination of the environment.

Table 1.1: Sources of heavy metals

Heavy Metals Natural Anthropogenic

Arsenic Weathering of the earth’s crust- Mining activities, industrial
Geological processes discharge, Urban runoff,
Pesticide, Air pollution fallout
Lead Natural weathering of rocks- Industrial processes, soil
Soil erosion, volcanic activity contamination, Urban areas,
Old paint, Car exhaust
Cadmium Soil minerals- Volcanic Mining and smelting, Fertilizers,
emissions- Natural weathering Batteries, Industrial discharges
Chromium Natural weathering of rocks- Stainless steel production,
Soil sediments Leather tanning, Textile
industry, water contaminations

Physiochemical parameters as an indication for groundwater pollution

Water quality assessment has been extensively researched worldwide with studies focusing on various
sources and testing methodolies. Evaluating physical, chemical and biological can be complex, but it is
essential for determining water safety before its use in domestic, but it is essential for determining
water safety before its use in domestic, agricultural, industrial and drinking applications. Multiple
physiochemical parameters must be analyzed to ensure proper assessment.

The selection of physico-chemical parameters depends entirely on the intended use of the water and
the required purity level. Water can contain various contaminants including floating particles, dissolved
oxygen, suspended solids, microorganisms and bacterial impurities. Testing should include an analysis of
physical characteristics such as color, temperature, odor, turbidity, pH and total dissolved solvents
(TDS). Additionally, chemical tests should examine biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Chemical oxygen
demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), hardness and alkalinity. To achieve higher purity, further testing
is necessary to detect trace metals, heavy metals and organic pollutants.

Ensuring that drinking water meets all these criteria is crucial including maintaining appropriate mineral
levels. In developed countries, these standards are rigorously monitored. Due to the extremely low
concentrations of heavy metals and organic pesticide contaminants, advanced analytical instruments
and trained professionals are required for accurate assessment. Regular testing of various physico-
chemical parameters is essential for continuous water quality monitoring.

Observing physico-chemical parameters of freshwater is crucial for assessing its current hydrologic
condition and identifying potential pollution risks. Regular monitoring of these parameters plays a vital
role in ensuring long-term water quality management, safeguarding human health, and preserving
freshwater ecosystems. The quality of freshwater is directly influenced by its physico-chemical
characteristics. To monitor lake water quality, routine collection of water samples is conducted at
various locations within the lake. These samples are then analyzed to evaluate key physico-chemical
parameters, providing valuable insights into the lake’s overall health and any emerging contamination
threats.

Parameters Sources of occurrence Potential health effect

Turbidity Soil runoff Higher level of turbidity is
associated with disease causing
bacteria
Color Due to the presence of
dissolved salts
Odor Due to biological degradation Bad odor in unpleasant
Electrical conductivity Due to different dissolved solids Conductivity due to ionizable
ions. High conductivity
increases corrosive nature of
water
pH pH is changed due to dissolved Affects mucous membrane,
gases and solids bitter taste, corrosion
Dissolved oxygen D.O. corrode water lines, boilers
and heat exchangers
Total hardness Presence of calcium and Poor lathering with soap, scale
magnesium ions in water forming
supply.
Total alkalinity Due to dissolved gases Embrittlement of boiler steel,
boiled rice turns yellowish
TDS Presence of dissolved salts Undesirable taste, gastro-
intestinal irritation, corrosion
Calcium Precipitate Interference in dyeing, textiles
Magnesium Surfactants, anionic emulsifiers Paper industry
Ammonia Due to dissolved gases and Corrosion of Cu and Zn alloys by
degradation of organics formation of complex ions
BOD Organic material contamination High BOD decreases level of DO
in water
Carbonate Due to dissolution Product imbalance,
unsatisfactory production, short
product life
Chloride Water additive used to control Eyes/nose irritation, Stomach
microbes, disinfectant discomfort, increases corrosive
character of water
Nitrate Runoff from fertilizer use, Effects on infants the age of six
leaking from septic tanks, months
erosion of natural resources
Sulphate Due to dissolved ca/mg/fe Gastro-intestinal irritation,
sulphates Calcium sulphate scale.

Novelty
This study assesses the groundwater contamination of Madhubani District and provides field-based data
analysis. Many existing studies rely solely on secondary data, but this research integrates primary data
collection, including field sampling and laboratory analysis, making it more reliable and location-specific.

Objectives

 The main objective of my research is to study and estimate the concentration of different
physical and chemical parameters in groundwater, river Balan and soil in Madhubani district.
 During this work, different water and soil samples will be collected from selected locations
within the district and tested for analysis
 Pollution sources of heavy metals would be identified

Methodology

Preliminary Survey

 Helps in identifying potential sources of contamination.

Site Selection

 Sites for sample collection were selected based on land use, proximity to pollution sources
(industrial zones, agricultural fields, residential areas), and accessibility to groundwater.
 Hydrogeological parameters such as aquifer type and depth to the water table were analyzed
using available geological maps and field surveys.
 GPS mapping will be used to record exact locations for better spatial analysis.

Water Sampling and Preservation

The sample accurately represents the groundwater quality contaminants that are not lost or altered
during handling.

Sampling bottles like High Density Polyethylene bottles are used for collecting water samples. These are
preferred due to their chemical resistance, durability, and non-reactivity with most contaminants.

Water samples were collected from river Balan, household hand pumps, submersible motors, and bore
wells at multiple depths to assess variations in contamination.

The volume of samples: typically, 200-250 ml of water sample is sufficient

Seal the bottles after sampling with Teflon tape and label properly

Water samples which were collected will then be filtered using a 0.45 μm syringe filter.

A few drops of Double distilled Nitric acid (for trace elements analysis) were added to stabilize the
sample until lab analysis.

Soil Sampling and Preservation

Soil sampling and preservation are critical steps in assessing soil pollution levels and ensuring accurate
laboratory analysis. The process involves systematic collection, proper handling, and storage of soil
samples to prevent contamination or alteration of chemical and biological properties.

Random Sampling Method: When the contamination is expected to be uniform across the study area,
this method is used in which sample locations are chosen randomly across the study site.

For Physical and Chemical Analysis:

 500 g to 1 kg of soil is typically required per sample.

 This ensures enough material for testing parameters like pH, organic matter, nutrient levels, and
heavy metal concentrations.

Field Measurements

Measure pH, temperature, TDS and electrical conductivity (EC) of the water on-site.

Laboratory Analysis

Measurement of Carbonate, Bicarbonate, and Total Alkalinity using Titration

Measure the pH, temperature, TDS and electrical conductivity (EC) of the water sample again in the lab.
Field measurements can sometimes be affected by external factors such as environmental conditions,
instrument calibration, or human error. Laboratory analysis allows for more controlled conditions,
ensuring accuracy and eliminating potential errors from field measurements.

Trace elements analysis: ICP-MS often used to analyze low concentrations of heavy metals such as
Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), Arsenic (As), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu),
Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), etc.

Principle: It uses a high-temperature argon plasma to ionize elements in a sample and then measure the
ions using a mass spectrometer.

Analysis of Different Anions and Cations:

 Anions: Chloride (Cl⁻), Sulphate (SO₄²⁻), Nitrate (NO₃⁻), Phosphate (PO₄³⁻), Bicarbonate
(HCO₃⁻).

 Cations: Calcium (Ca²⁺), Magnesium (Mg²⁺), Sodium (Na⁺), Potassium (K⁺), Iron (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺)
 Techniques Used: Ion Chromatography (IC) and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)

Literature review

General

A literature review plays a crucial role in shaping the study, providing a foundation for analysis and
facilitating the drawing of meaningful conclusions. Extensive research has been conducted, gathering
and critically evaluating information related to key concepts and broader subject area.
Various sources including reports, newspapers, books and websites have been utilized to obtain relevant
data. A range of search techniques has been employed to locate these sources with search engines such
as Google scholar and science direct aiding the process. In addition to exploring conceptual aspects,
further investigation were carried out to assess appropriate methodologies, ensuring the selection of
effective analytical techniques.

Purpose of literature review

The purpose of this chapter is to provide the theoretical framework to the study and introduce
important concepts underpinning this research. As such this chapter presents an overview of different
methods and how heavy metals are generated and transported to various environment media, with
emphasis on soils. The impact of heavy metals on humans, the environment is also briefly discussed as
well as standards used for heavy metal water contamination. The chapter concludes with a brief
background of the similar work done by other researchers on this topic.

Water and soil contamination by heavy metals, anions, and cations is a significant environmental
concern. These pollutants originate from industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, domestic waste, and
natural sources. Their presence in excessive amounts can lead to severe ecological damage, affecting soil
fertility, water quality, biodiversity, and human health.

History of groundwater contamination globally and in India

Global Groundwater contamination:

Groundwater contamination is a significant global concern. Studies have reported contaminants of

geogenic and anthropogenic origin across various regions. Researchers have investigated groundwater
contamination in countries such as India, China, Pakistan, Turkey, Ethiopia, and Nigeria (Peiyue Li et al.,
2021)

India’s Groundwater contamination

India is the largest user of groundwater worldwide. The green revolution in the 1960s led to widespread
groundwater extraction through millions of irrigation wells. Domestic water supply in rural and suburban
areas heavily relies on underlying aquifers. The Jal Jeevan Mission aims to provide 24x7 pipe water
supply to rural households, emphasizing groundwater use. Irrigation consumes over 90% of total
groundwater extraction, contributing significantly to the economy. (Saha et al., 2024) Contaminants in
Indian groundwater include salinity, iron, nitrate, and arsenic. Arsenic contamination was first reported
in West Bengal in 1983. Excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides in agriculture impacts
shallow aquifers. (Aslesha et al., 2019)

Behavior of heavy metals on groundwater

The behavior of heavy metals in groundwater is influenced by various factors, including their chemical
properties, the characteristics of the groundwater system, and environmental conditions. The Chemical
Properties are solubility, complication and adsorption. Heavy metals can exist in groundwater in various
forms, including soluble ions and particulate forms. The solubility of these metals depends on pH, redox
potential, and the presence of complexing agents. Heavy metals often form complexes with organic and
inorganic ligands in groundwater. These complexes can affect the mobility and bioavailability of the
metals. Heavy metals can adsorb onto soil particles and sediments. This process can reduce their
mobility but also means they can be released back into the groundwater if conditions change.
Hydrogeological Factors are flow dynamics, geology, porosity and permeability. Groundwater flow
patterns, including velocity and direction, influence how heavy metals are transported. Faster flow can
lead to more widespread contamination, while slower flow may result in localized contamination. The
type of geological materials, such as soil and rock types, affects how heavy metals interact with
groundwater. For instance, sandy soils may allow for faster movement of contaminants compared to
clayey soils, which can trap metals more effectively. The porosity (space between particles) and
permeability (ease of flow) of the aquifer materials influence how easily heavy metals can move through
the groundwater system. Environmental Conditions are pH, redox reaction, and temperature. The pH of
groundwater affects the speciation of heavy metals. For example, acidic conditions can increase the
solubility of metals like lead and cadmium, making them more mobile. Redox (oxidation-reduction)
conditions impact the chemical state of heavy metals. In reducing environments, metals like iron and
manganese may become more soluble, whereas in oxidizing conditions, they may precipitate out of the
solution. Higher temperatures can increase the solubility and mobility of heavy metals, while lower
temperatures might reduce their mobility. The presence of other contaminants, such as organic
pollutants or nutrients, can influence the behaviour of heavy metals. For instance, organic contaminants
can enhance the mobility of heavy metals through complexation or altering redox conditions.
Microorganisms can influence the transformation and mobility of heavy metals. Some microbes can
bioaccumulate heavy metals, while others may alter their chemical forms through processes like
reduction or oxidation. Understanding these factors is crucial for assessing the risks associated with
heavy metal contamination and for designing effective remediation strategies. (Smith et al., 2020) Heavy
metals can have various mechanisms of action on the human body, leading to a range of adverse health
effects. These mechanisms often involve interactions with cellular processes, enzymatic functions, and
tissue structures. Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium can inhibit or alter the activity of
essential enzymes. For instance, lead interferes with heme synthesis by inhibiting enzymes like δ-
aminolevulinic acid dehydrates, leading to anemia and other hematological issues (Barker et al., 2018).
Heavy metals such as arsenic, cadmium, and mercury can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS),
leading to oxidative stress and damage to cellular components like lipids, proteins, and DNA. This
oxidative damage is associated with various diseases, including cancer. (Bansal and Kaul, 2018) Heavy
metals can disrupt cellular signaling pathways by mimicking or blocking essential metal ions required for
proper cellular function. For example, cadmium can interfere with calcium signaling, affecting muscle
function and bone health (Klaassen et al., 2021). Heavy metals can bind to sulfur-containing groups in
proteins, leading to structural changes and loss of function. For instance, mercury binds to thiol groups
in proteins, which can impair various biological functions and contribute to neurological damage
(Aschner and Syversen, 2019). Exposure to heavy metals like arsenic and cadmium is associated with
genotoxic effects, including DNA damage and mutations, which can increase the risk of cancer. Arsenic,
for example, is a well known carcinogen that affects multiple cellular processes leading to cancer
development (Gebel, 2019).

Effects of Heavy Metals on Water, Soil, and Human Health

a. Plead (Pb)
 Contaminates drinking water through corroded pipes and industrial waste.
 Toxic to aquatic life leading to Bioaccumulation
  Reduces soil fertility and alters microbial activity and also gets absorbed by crops intoxicating
foods
 Causes neurological damage, developmental issues in children, kidney damage and high
blood pressure. (Gupta et al., 2017; WHO 2021)
b. Arsenic (As)
 Common in groundwater, especially in South Asia which causes toxicity in aquatic organisms.
 Soil pollution with industrial and pesticide sources.
 Long term Arsenic exposure causes cancer, skin lesions, cardiovascular diseases and organ
failure (Smedley and Kinniburgh 2002, NRC 2001)
c. Mercury (Hg)
 Bio accumulates in fish leading to Mercury poisoning
 Reduces microbial activity and enzymatic function in the soil.
 Damages the nervous system leading to cognitive impairments and developmental delays
(UNEP 2013, Clarkson et al., 2003)
d. Cadmium (Cd)
 Leaches into water sources from industrial waste and phosphate fertilizers
 Alters soil pH and nutrient balance.
 Causes kidney damage, osteoporosis and lung diseases (Jarup et al., 1998)
e. Chromium (Cr)
 Affect aquatic biodiversity
 Reduces organic matter decomposition and soil fertility
 Causes lung cancers, skin ulcers and liver damage (Kimbrough et al., 1999; EPA 2010).

Water quality parameters

Temperature

Surrounding temperature of the water body affects the temperature of the water. Temperature affects
the other parameters of water quality by altering the reactions rate among chemicals present within
water (WHO, 2011)

pH

pH is is defined as a negative logarithm of H+ ions ranges from 0-14. pH is measured by a pH meter using
a glass electrode which generates a potential varying linearly with pH of solution in which it is immersed.

Turbidity

Turbidity is an important parameter for characterizing the water quality by estimating the concentration
of undissolved substances. The scattering of light in all direction by an undissolved substances and its
angular distribution leads to colored or turbid both. The color arising from the absorption of visible light
is governed by the quantity of the insoluble substances which is relative to their shape and refractive
index (WHO, 2011).

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

EC is an ability of a water to carry an electric current depending upon its ionic strength. EC mostly
depends upon the nature of the various dissolved ionized substances within their actual and relative
concentration. Higher the conductivity of the water indicate the presence of pollutants. It is measured in
µS/cm (WHO, 2011)

Chloride

Chloride is a naturally occurring element and commonly found in all types of natural waters which is
relatively harmless below 250 ppm. The high concentration of chloride in well or groundwater resources
is an indicator of pollution from organic waste of animal (sewage) and industrial discharge. The major
source of contaminants in municipal and domestic wastewater, is highly blamed to the common salt
consumed by the human and cattle eliminated out of their body. A high chloride concentration is one of
the major problems creating the metallic corrodes in pipes as well as harming agricultural plants by the
excessive release of salinity and water logging (WHO, 2011).

Alkalinity

The alkalinity of water is its quantifiable capacity to neutralize a strong acid to a designated pH. Since
the alkalinity of many surface waters is primarily a function of carbonate, bicarbonate & hydroxide ions,
the alkalinity is taken as an indication of the concentration of these constituents. The alkalinity of many
natural and treated waters is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium & magnesium. The pH of
these waters does not exceed 8.3. Their total alkalinity is practically identical with their carbonate
hardness and such samples do not have phenolphthalein alkalinity. A pH above 8.3 contains
bicarbonates, as well as normal carbonates and possibly hydroxide. The alkalinity fraction equivalent to
the amount of acid required to lower the pH of the sample to 8.3 is called Phenolphthalein alkalinity
(WHO, 2011).

Hardness

Ions of calcium and magnesium are the principal causes of water hardness. The polyvalent ions
aluminum, iron, manganese, strontium, and zinc are also important contributors to hardness. Calcium
carbonate is the result of adding the calcium and magnesium ions in natural fluids (CaCO3). Scale
buildup in boilers is a problem caused by hard water. Additionally, it is inappropriate for household and
laundry use. Water becomes hard naturally over time via interaction with soil and geological formations,
or it can be directly contaminated by industrial effluents. There are two types of hardness: temporary
and permanent. Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of bicarbonates of calcium &
magnesium, and it can be removed by boiling. Similarly, Permanent hardness is caused by the presence
of soluble salts of Ca & Mg, other than bicarbonates such as chlorides, sulphates and nitrates (WHO,
2011).

Ammonia

It occurs naturally in sewage from homes, groundwater, and surface water. It is primarily made by urea
hydrolysis and the deamination of organic nitrogen-containing molecules. It is naturally formed in water
bodies through the anaerobic reduction of nitrates. Chlorine added to drinking water supply, when
encountered with ammonia gets neutralized and chloramines are formed. It is toxic to man at high pH,
most of ammonia remains in the gaseous form. Deep well waters usually contain only traces of organic
matter and ammonia. If an excess of ammonia and organic matter are present then it should be
suspected of pollution through seepage (WHO, 2011).
Nitrate

It occurs naturally in sewage from homes, groundwater, and surface water. It is primarily made by urea
hydrolysis and the deamination of organic nitrogen-containing molecules. It is naturally formed in water
bodies through the anaerobic reduction of nitrates. Nitrate is particularly dangerous to infants less than
six months old causing child disease, methemoglobinemia. Nitrate generally occur in traces in surface
water but may obtain high values in some groundwater. Nitrate may occur in surface or ground waters
because of agricultural runoff, which may reach to hazardous level. Nitrate is also one of the most
significant nutrients, limiting growth of autotrophs (WHO, 2011).

Phosphate

It occurs in natural & waste waters as inorganically and organically bound phosphate. Phosphate is
commonly used in laundry, boiler water treatment, and agriculture. The runoffs from all these sources
find their way into water bodies. Organic phosphates are formed primarily by biological processes but
are also contributed to by domestic sewage. Phosphates also occur in bottom sediments and in
biological sludge, both in precipitated inorganic forms and incorporated into organic compounds.
Phosphates play an important role in the eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs. Phosphate may occur in
surface or groundwater as a result of leaching from minerals or ores, from agricultural runoff, as a result
of industrial wastes and as a major element of municipal sewage due to the use of synthetic detergents.
Though present in low concentration, phosphorus is one of the most significant nutrients, limiting the
growth of autotrophs, but the high phosphorus content causes increased algal growth often as blooms
(WHO, 2011).

Iron

It is generally believed that surface water contains less than one part per million of iron. It has been
reported that some groundwater and acid surface drainage systems are contaminated with iron levels
much higher than average. More than 2 ppm of iron in your water will stain your clothes (while washing)
and give them a bitter, astringent taste. In addition to its pure form (ferric), iron is also found in both
oxidized and reduced forms (ferrous). A reduced iron is usually more soluble than an oxidized iron due
to the reduction process. Despite this, it is still considered to be a nuisance in excessive quantities
(WHO, 2011) that iron poses a health risk to humans.

Impacts of Different Cations and Anions on Water, Soil, and Human Health

Cations Effect on water Effect on soil Effect on human References

health

Nitrate (NO₃⁻) - Leads to soil - High intake causes (WHO, 2017)

acidification and methemoglobinemia (Ward et al.,
- Causes reduces soil ("blue baby 2005)
 eutrophication, fertility. syndrome") in
leading to oxygen - Increases infants.
depletion and leaching of other - Linked to cancer and
algal blooms. nutrients, thyroid disorders with
- Contaminates disrupting soil prolonged exposure.
drinking water, balance.
exceeding safe
limits in
agricultural
areas.
Phosphate - Causes - Causes - Not highly toxic to (Sharpley et al.,
(PO₄³⁻) excessive algal excessive algal humans but can 2013)
growth, leading growth, leading indirectly affect (EPA, 2015
to eutrophication to eutrophication health by promoting
and fish and fish harmful algal blooms,
mortality. mortality. which produce toxins
- Increases water - Increases water in water sources.
turbidity, turbidity,
reducing aquatic reducing aquatic
biodiversity. biodiversity.
Sulfate (SO₄²⁻) - High - Contributes to - High intake causes (WHO, 2004)
concentrations soil acidification, gastrointestinal (USEPA, 2016)
cause water reducing the irritation and
hardness and availability of dehydration.
pipe corrosion. essential - Can contribute to
- Can lead to acid nutrients. respiratory issues
mine drainage, - Increases metal when inhaled as
lowering pH and mobility, sulfuric aerosols
making water worsening heavy
toxic. metal
contamination.
Chloride (Cl⁻) - Increases water - Leads to soil - Causes hypertension (Xu et al., 2019)
salinity, making it salinization, and cardiovascular (WHO, 2017)
unsuitable for reducing plant problems when
drinking and growth and consumed in excess.
irrigation. microbial - Affects kidney
- Toxic to diversity. function in people
freshwater - Decreases soil with pre-existing
organisms at high permeability, conditions.
concentrations. affecting water
retention.
Carbonate - Increases - Leads to soil - No direct toxicity (WHO, 2017)
(CO₃²⁻) alkalinity, raising alkalinity, but can cause (Richards, 1954)
pH levels. reducing nutrient digestive issues in
- Reduces metal availability (e.g., high amounts.
solubility, phosphorus, iron, - Alters mineral
decreasing heavy zinc). absorption in the bod
 metal toxicity. - Affects
- Causes scaling in microbial activity,
pipes and water slowing organic
system matter
decomposition.
Bicarbonate - Increases soil - High intake may (FAO, 2003)
(HCO₃⁻) pH, leading to cause metabolic (WHO, 2011)
- Regulates pH, alkalinity. alkalosis, affecting
acting as a buffer - Reduces kidney function.
in water systems. calcium and - Can contribute to
magnesium electrolyte
- Can contribute availability, imbalances
to hardness and affecting plant
scaling in pipes. growth.
- Excess levels
affect aquatic life
by altering
carbonate
equilibrium.
Anions

Sodium (Na⁺) - Increases - Causes soil - Excess intake causes (Richards, 1954)
salinity, making sodicity, reducing hypertension and (WHO, 2020)
water unsuitable permeability and cardiovascular
for consumption aeration. diseases.
and irrigation. - Leads to soil - Can lead to
- Toxic to compaction, dehydration and
freshwater affecting plant kidney stress.
organisms at high growth.
levels.
Potassium (K⁺) - Generally, not - Important for - Essential for nerve (Marschner,
harmful but can plant growth and and muscle function. 1995)
disrupt aquatic soil fertility. - Excessive intake can (WHO, 2012)
balance if - Excessive levels cause kidney
excessive. can lead to dysfunction and heart
- Essential for nutrient issues.
biological imbalances,
processes in reducing
aquatic magnesium and
organisms. calcium uptake.
Magnesium - Contributes to - Essential for - Important for nerve (WHO, 2011)
(Mg²⁺) water hardness, chlorophyll function and (Volpe, 2013)
affecting taste production in metabolism.
and usability. plants. - Deficiency leads to
- Helps maintain - Improves soil muscle weakness,
aquatic structure and heart arrhythmias,
ecosystem water retention. and fatigue.
balance.
Calcium (Ca²⁺) - Essential for - Improves soil - Essential for bone (FAO, 2003)
water hardness, structure by health and enzyme (Heaney, 2009)
helps prevent reducing functions.
pipe corrosion. compaction and - Deficiency leads to
- Reduces enhancing osteoporosis and
solubility of toxic aeration. muscle cramps.
metals in water. - Promotes
microbial activity
and plant root
development

COUNTRY LOCATION SAMPLE TYPE CONCENTRATION CITATION

INDIA BIHAR (Middle GROUNDWATER Approximately Sushant [Link]

Gangetic plain) 46% of the 2015
geographical
regions were
found to be
arsenic
contaminated

INDIA UTTAR PRADESH GROUNDWATER Cd:0-0.48 ppm Aggarwal [Link],

Cr:0-0.33 ppm 2014
Cu:0-0.19 ppm
Mn:0-0.26 ppm
Zn:0.01-1.8ppm

INDIA KANPUR, GROUNDWATER Cd:0.001-0.054 Agarwal et al., 2016

UTTAR PRADESH ppm
Cr:0.060-0.085 ppm
Cu:0.012-0.045
ppm
Ni:0.01-0.044 ppm
Zn:0.095-0.380
ppm

INDIA AGRA CANTT., GROUNDWATER Zn:0.194 ppm Bhaskar et al.,2016

UTTAR PRADESH Fe:0.034 ppm
Cu:0.006 ppm
Mn:0.02 ppm
Cd:0.023 ppm

INDIA SIKANDRA FOREST GROUNDWATER Pb:0.026-0.077 Suman et al.,2021

AREA, mg/L
UTTAR PRADESH Cd:0.016 to 0.046
 mg/L
Cu:0.241 to 0.979
mg/L
Mn:0.452 to 1.021
mg/L
Ni -0.005 to 0.052
mg/L
Zn -0.430 1.036
mg/L

INDIA BHOJPUR, BIHAR GROUNDWATER As: 24-168 ppb Maity et al.,2020

INDIA BIHAR GROUNDWATER 56.8 % 0f the Charkraborti et al.,

samples exceeded 2003
the arsenic
concentration of 50
micro gram per liter
and 19.9 %
exceeded 300
micro gram per
liter.

INDIA BIHAR GROUNDWATER out of 532 Dinakaran et

community al.,2021
blocks, roughly
13% of the
blocks had
nitrate
contamination;
no district had
100% nitrate
contamination.
Of the districts
in the state,
only 4 had
nitrate
contamination
levels of ≥50%,
while eleven
were
completely free
of nitrate
pollution
INDIA UTTAR PRADESH GROUNDWATER Cd:0.40-0.56 ppm Singh [Link].,2015
Cr:0-1.64 ppm
Cu:0.183- 1.16 ppm
 Mn:0-0.87 ppm
Ni:0.23- 7.45 ppm
Zn:0.014- 3.8 ppm
Co:0- 0.504 ppm

INDIA DELHI GROUNDWATER Cd:0.01-0.07 ppm Aggarwal [Link].,

Cr:0.01-0.09 ppm 2014
Cu:0-0.08 ppm

INDIA Malwa Region, GROUNDWATER Pb: 7.79 mg/l Sharma et al.,2017

PUNJAB As:1.03 mg\l
Cd:0.0058 mg\l
Cr:0.987 mg\l
Hg:0.12 mg/l

INDIA CHENNAI, GROUNDWATER Cd: 1.33 micro Kumar et al.,2012

TAMIL NADU gram/l
Cr:17.29 micro
gram/l
Pb:8.47 micro
gram/l
Cu:139.28 micro
gram/l
Zn:213.78 micro
gram/L

INDIA JHANSI GROUNDWATER Ni: 0.02–0.07 mg/l Verma et al., 2021

Pb:0.14-0.41 mg/l
Fe:0.20–7.21 mg/l
Mn:0.01–0.14 mg/l
Cr:0.03–0.05 mg/L

INDIA DEHRADUN, GROUNDWATER Cu: 0.0036 mg/l Gupta et al., 2017

UTTRAKHAND Mn: 0.0020 mg/l
Pb:0.0013 mg/l
Cr:0.0013 mg/l
Zn:0.0070 mg/l
Fe:0.0240 mg/l
INDIA BATHINDA, PUNJAB GROUNDWATER pH:9.24 Mittal et al., 2014
Ca:57.5 mg/l
Fe:0.03 mg/l
K:24.2 mg/l
Mg:47.3 mg/l

INDIA PATIALA GROUNDWATER Cd:0.14–0.41 mg/l Sekhon et al., 2013

Cr:0.03–0.05 mg/l
Ni:0.88-0.97 mg/l
 Pb:0.005-0.07 mg\l

INDIA LUCKNOW GROUNDWATER Fe: 2.79 mg/l Singh et al., 2021

Ni: 0.21 mg/l
Pb:0.67mg/l
Cr:0.05 mg/l
Cu:0.15 mg/l
INDIA LAKHIMPUR, GROUNDWATER Pb:0.40 mg/l Kakati et al., 2012
ASSAM Cu:0.178 mg/l
Zn: 3.91mg/l
Ni:0.084 mg/l
As:0.118 mg/l

INDIA HAKINAKA TALUK, GROUNDWATER Fe:0.081 mg/l Rajappa et al., 2023

KARNATAKA Zn:0.052 mg/l

INDIA VISHAKHAPATNAM GROUNDWATER Cr:0.096 ppm Reddy et al., 2012

Mn:0.144 ppm
Fe:1.569 ppm
Hg:0.011 ppm
Ni:0.203 ppm

INDIA PERAMBALUR GROUNDWATER Cd:0.083 ppm Ibraheem et al,

DISTRICT, TAMIL Cr:0.042ppm 2017
NADU Cu:0.111 ppm
Fe:0.263 ppm
Pb:0.091 ppm

INDIA RAMGARH, GROUNDWATER EC: 417 to 2002 Kumar et al., 2020

JHARKHAND µS/cm
Cl:96.73 mg/l
Ca:22 and 170 mg/l
Mg:10 and 94 mg/l
Na:2–118 mg/l
F:0.0 and 1.34 mg/l
K:16 mg/l

INDIA UTTARAKHAND RIVER As:(7.06 ± 5.09) Ankur et al., 2012

Zn:(3.44 ± 3.40)
Cr:(1.98 ± 5.84)
Ni:(1.82 ± 3.51)
Cu: (1.76 ± 0.96)
Pb:(0.19 ± 0.21)
 Co:(0.07 ± 0.10)
Cd:(0.07 ± 0.08)
INDIA ALLAHABAD GANGA RIVER Cu:0-.03 ppm Gupta et al., 2009
Cr:0-0.18 ppm
Cd:0-0.01 ppm
Pb:0.018-0.0186
ppm

INDIA UTTAR PRADESH YAMUNA RIVER Cd:0.051 mg/l Idrees et al., 2020
Pb:0.019 mg/l
Cr:1.019 mg/l
Pb>Cr>Cd while
comparison to
WHO standards

INDIA TAMIL NADU RIVER WATER Cd:1.33 µg/l Kumar et al., 2012
Cr:17.19 µg/l
Cu:139.28 µg/l
Zn:213.78 µg/l
PAKISTAN SIALKOT GROUNDWATER pH- 7.11± 0.32 Ullah et al., 2008
EC (us/cm)- 555.28
± 248.69
Cl (mg/L) 21.17 ±
40.77
Fe+3 (mg/L) 0.13 ±
0.10
Mn (mg/L) 0.03 ±
0.03
Zn (mg/L) 0.16 ±
0.20
Pb (mg/L) 0.49 ±
0.21
Ni (mg/L) 0.10 ±
0.07

NIGERIA KWARA STATE GROUNDWATER Ca:6.40 mg/l Okoro et al., 2012

Mg: 0.52 mg/l
Fe:0.18 mg/l
Mn: 0.20 mg/l
Zn:0.26 mg/l

NIGERIA UPPER BENOUNE GROUNDWATER Avg pH:6.60 Yusuf et al., 2017

TROUGH Cu:0.17 mg/l
Cd:0.08 mg/l
Cr:0.08 mg/l
Ni:0.88 mg/l
Pb:1.85 mg/l
 Mn:0.42 mg/l

PALESTINE NORTHWEST BANK GROUNDWATER PH: 6.9 - 7.8 Mallasa et al., 2014
EC:394 - 1432
µS/cm
TDS- 225.0 - 816.0
mg/L
Cr:56.1 ppb
Mn:112.6 ppb
Ni:4.1 ppb
Co:1.5 ppb

IRAQ SAMARA CITY GROUNDWATER EC (dS/m)- 387 Ibraheem et al.,

Fe- 4760 µg/L 2018
Mn- 3160 µg/L
Cd- 160.2 µg/L
Pb- 950 µg/L

BANGLADESH MIDDLE WESTERN GROUNDWATER Cr- 0.04 mg/L Islam et al., 2021
REGION Mn- 1.51 mg/L
Fe- 9.81 mg/L
Cd- 0.002 mg/L
Co- 0.04 mg/L

Materials and Methods

Study area

The district of Madhubani lies between the north latitudes of 26°03’ to 26°40’ and east longitudes of
85°45’ and 86°44’. With the total geographical area of 3501 sq. km, it is bounded by Darbhanga district
in south, Sitamrhi district in the west, Kosi River in the east and Nepal in north. The district is
headquartered at Madhubani town which is located at the center of the district and is well connected to
its other towns like Babubarhi, Benipatti, Bhagalpur, Phulparas, etc. (Sahu at al 2008).Madhubani district
has five subdivisions namely, Madhubani, Jainagar, Benipatti, Jhanjharpur and Phulparas. The district has
twenty one blocks namely Madhubani, Jainagar, Pandaul, Bisfi, Benipatti, Basopatti, Babubarhi,
Rajnagar, Madhepur, Khutauna, Khajauli, Jhanjharpur, Ghoghardiha, Ladania, Madhwapur, Harlakhi,
Laukhi, Andharatharhi, Lakhnaur and Phulparas (Census 2011). Paddy is the main crop of the district.
Sugar factories are also present in the district which helps in income generation. Madhubani is famous
worldwide for its Madhubani painting. The district is intersected by Kamala and Butahi Balan rivers.
Research and Design

Issue Identification

Setting Objectives Literature review

Sample collection technique

Sample Collection

Laboratory analysis of water sample

Result compilation and analysis

Determination of groundwater scenario

This study applied only numerical research technique. Random sampling method was applied to
withdraw the samples from hand-pumps. The sample were collected from 44 locations of Madhubani
district. The steps was followed above to accomplish the study.

Methods

Desk study

Desk study was conducted to review the literatures relevant to the study site and the status of
groundwater quality of Kathmandu valley. Together the government published water quality report,
relevant data base, online information, journal articles, books, reports, thesis were reviewed to
understand the research gap, sampling, and analysis method was reviewed.

Field study

Field study was arranged to acquire the ground information. The sampling sites was observed, and the
information was collected with the interaction with residents of Madhubani area. The GPS location was
also noted down to each sampling sites. The sample was taken between January 9 to 13 2025.

Sample collection

A total of 44 groundwater samples were collected from different location across Madhubani district
from hand pumps, tube wells and bore wells using standard protocol. The samples were collected in 250
ml sample bottles (pp.) and sealed with Teflon tape. On-site measurements of some parameters such as
pH, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC) and total dissolved solvents (TDS) were performed at each
sampling locations using multipara meter kit to obtain immediate reading.

The samples were then taken to lab, Department of Environmental Science (Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi) at controlled temperature of 4°C. In the laboratory, EC and TDS were measured again for quality
control and to compare with on-site readings and no significant changes seen in the measurement. Each
sample was then filtered using 0.45 µm syringe filter to remove suspended particles. The filtration
process involved taking water out from 250 ml sample bottle into a syringe, passing it through the
membrane filter and then distributing the filtered water into two centrifuge tubes (15 ml each). One
acidified for heavy metals measurement and another for cation-anion measurement without any acid
treatment. The rest of the filtered samples were stored for future use or repeat measurements. All
prepared samples were properly labelled and stored until further lab analysis.

Sample
ID Latitude Longitude
AK 01 26.510745 86.398818
AK 02 26.50749 86.397914
AK 03 26.500727 86.395167
AK 04 26.4819 86.389136
AK 05 26.453284 86.461306
AK 06 26.453284 86.461306
AK 07 26.360678 86.493155
AK 08 26.356322 86.492651
 AK 09 26.278639 86.28007
AK 10 26.283691 86.279547
AK 11 26.278399 86.26714
AK 12 26.348244 86.077034
AK 13 26.349929 86.071389
AK 14 26.363295 86.072182
AK 15 26.350396 86.073321
AK 16 26.394437 86.155569
AK 17 26.398992 86.173732
AK 18 26.40354 86.183157
AK 19 26.457185 86.27276
AK 20 26.458331 86.28145
AK 21 26.479064 86.55689
AK 22 26.488628 86.55689
AK 23 26.548832 86.47129
AK 24 26.548776 86.471013
AK 25 26.56859 86.419441
AK 26 26.56859 86.419441
AK 27 26.61387 86.32147
AK 28 26.610725 86.319646
AK 29 26.590449 86.161815
AK 30 26.596019 86.138651
AK 31 26.589682 86.142004
AK 32 26.58863 86.139806
AK 33 26.584726 86.138355
AK 34 26.585062 86.137214
AK 35 26.591523 86.135107
AK 36 26.589878 86.137988
AK 37 26.593625 86.137977
AK 38 26.623626 86.137979
AK 39 26.623624 86.13998
AK 40 26.451375 86.4642642
AK 41 26.446504 86.480175
AK 42 26.449817 86.484505
AK 43 26.455465 86.454926
AK 44 26.589879 86.137985

In addition, the temperature test of the sample were taken immediately on the sampling spot whereas
for further analysis, the collected water samples were transported to the laboratory of CCR IITM and
GOD, CSIR NIO GOA.

Sample analysis

The physiochemical and heavy metal analysis was performed using Standard techniques set by WHO and
BIS.
Physiochemical analysis

 Temperature
The groundwater temperature was measured with the help of a mercury thermometer.
The bulb of thermometer was dipped into the water and its temperature was noted
down in °C.
 Determination of pH
The pH was measured by multipara meter kit. The glass electrode was washed with
distilled water in the beaker and the reading was noted down.
 Determination of electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity of the groundwater sample was measured by multipara meter
kit. The device was dipped into the water sample and the reading was recorded in
µS/cm.
 Determination of Alkalinity
To determine the total alkalinity of the collected water sample, 25 ml of water was taken
in a conical flask and 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added as a reagent. The
sample was titrated with the standard H2SO4 until pink colour just disappeared which
was phenolphthalein end point. Then 2-3 drops of methyl indicator were added to the
same solution and the titration was continued until sharp orange colour changed from
orange to red which was total alkalinity. The process was repeated again until the
concurrent value appeared. For the calculation of PA and TA, equation (1) and (2)
respectively are used:
( A∗Normality of H 2 SO 4 )∗50
PA as CaCO3 (mg/l) = ∗1000 ……… (1)
Volume of Sample taken

( B∗Normality of HCl )∗50

TA as CaCO3 = ∗1000 ……………………. (2)
Volume of sample taken
Here A= Volume of H2SO4 used with phenolphthalein only, B = Total volume of H2SO4
used with phenolphthalein and methyl orange, PA = Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, TA= Total
Alkalinity.
 Determination of Chloride
Chloride in a water sample was determined by Argentometric method (APHA, 2005). 25
ml of sample was taken in conical flask and 1 ml of potassium chromate solution was
added to it. The mixture was titrated against 0.02 N silver nitrate solution until brown,
red ppt appeared. Chloride was calculated using the equation (3).
( ml∗N ) of AgNO 3∗35.5
Chloride (mg/l) = ∗1000 … … … … (3)
Volume of sample taken
Here, ml = Volume of AgNO3 consumed during titration, N = Normality of AgNO3 (i.e.,
0.02), (1ml of 0.0282 N AgNO3)
 Determination of total hardness
The total hardness of the water is measured by Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
Titrimetric method (APHA, 2005). To determine the total hardness in 25 ml of water
sample was taken in a conical flask with 1 ml of ammonia buffer solution and a pinch of
Erichrome. The black T- indicator was added in the prepared sample which turned to
 wine red colour. The sample was titrated against EDTA solution till the colour changed
from wine red colour to blue. Further, after the analysis, the total hardness was the
calculated using equation (4).
Volume of EDTA used∗1000
Total hardness as CaCO3 (mg/l) = ……………. (4)
Volume of sample taken
Here, CaCO3 is the amount of calcium carbonate present in the per water sample in the
unit mg/l.
 Determination of Phosphate

To determine the presence of phosphate in the water sample, 25 ml of clear filtered

solution was collected in a volumetric flask. After that, 2 ml of ammonium molybdenum
solution was added, followed by 5 drops of stannous chloride solution. As a result, we
noticed a change in colour from blue to green. Further, 690 nm on the
spectrophotometer was taken with distilled water with the same amount of chemicals
which shows the readings. The readings shown in the spectrophotometer were taken
after a period of five minutes. As a precaution, the time interval between the sample
measurements should be at least 12 minutes for better results. Additionally, the
concentration of phosphate in the water sample was determined by plotting the
standard curve between absorbance and concentration.
 Determination of Ammonia
Ammonia of a water sample was determined by Phenate method. 25 ml of water sample
was taken in a volumetric flask. 1 ml of phenol solution, 1 ml of Nessler’s reagent and 1
ml of Rochelle’s salt were added and mixed thoroughly after each addition and waited
for 15 minutes for colour development (brown colour). The spectrophotometer was set
at 425 nm by using distilled water as blank. Similarly, sample procedure was carried out
for each standard solution (0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1 mg/l and blank).
 Determination of TDS
Firstly, porcelain basin was heated to 103C – 105C for an hour in an oven. Then it was
left to cool the porcelain basin in desiccator and weighed it for notification. Then 100 ml
of mixed water (sample water) was pipette out. Then, it was kept into the porcelain
basin that we had dried it out. And again, heat was given to the porcelain basin. Then
after complete evaporation porcelain basin was kept for cooling and again the weight
was noted out. The process of drying, cooling, and weighing was repeated until constant
weight is obtained. Then the calculation was done by using equation (5).
( A−B )∗1000
TDS (mg/l) = ……………… (5)
Volume of sample taken
Here, TDS = Total dissolved solvents; A = weight of dried residue and dish; B = weight of
empty basin (g).

S. No Parameters Unit Methods Instruments

1. Temperature °C Thermometry Mercury-Thermometer
2. pH
3. Electrical Conductivity µS/cm Conductivity meter
4. Chloride Mg/l Nephelometric Chemicals and Lab
Glassware
5. Hardness Mg/l Titration (EDTA) Chemicals and Lab
glassware
6. Nitrate Mg/l Brucine Method Spectro Photometer
7. Ammonia Mg/l Phenate Spectro Photometer
Method
8. TDS Evaporation

Results
The quality of groundwater depends upon the interaction of water with underlying soil, rock,
minerals and gases. Besides, from natural phenomena, human actions can have a significant
impact on water quality. Human actions, as well as naturally occurring components, add
unnecessary elements known as contaminants. Groundwater analysed in terms of its physical,
chemical, and biological properties to have a better picture of how it can be used for various
applications such as drinking, household, industry, and agricultural. It includes information on
the geology of the recharge area, aquifer types, groundwater circulation, recharge relationship,
groundwater storage mode, and climatic factors, in addition to groundwater chemistry. The
WHO recommendations value and the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) presented in Annexes III
and IV to compare the quality of groundwater from various sample locations. The obtained
results of physico-chemical properties of studied groundwater were illustrated in Table 3.
 pH
Range is 7.19 (min) to 8.84 (max), with an average of 7.87. The groundwater is slightly is
slightly alkaline which is suitable for drinking and agricultural use as pH values between
6.5 to 8.5 are ideal for most uses.
 Temperature
Range is 19°C (min) to 19.4 °C (max) with an average of 24.14 °C. The groundwater
typically has a temperature range from 20°C to 30°C.
 Electricity Conductivity (EC)
Range is 278 µS/cm (min) to 1316 µS/cm (max) with an average of 528.14 µS/cm.
Moderate EC values indicate moderate iconic content. The water is likely suitable for
most uses, but high EC can affect irrigation particularly for salt-sensitive crops.
 Total dissolved Solids (TDS)
Range is 177.92 mg/l (min) to 842.24 mg/l (max) with an average of 338.01 mg/l. The
TDS values are within acceptable limit for drinking and agricultural uses (TDS<500 mg/l is
ideal)
 Salinity
Range is 152.9 mg/l (min) to 723.8 mg/l (max) with an average of 290.48 mg/l.
Moderate salinity may not significantly affect agricultural use for most crops, though it
should be monitored in salt-sensitive crops.
 Sodium (Na)
Range is 8.08 mg/l (min) to 124.47 mg/l (max) with an average of 57.21 mg/l. Sodium
concentration is moderate and generally not problematic for drinking or irrigation unless
level increased substantially.
 Ammonium (NH4)
The absence of ammonium is positive indicating minimal contamination from fertilizers
or wastewater.
 Potassium (K)
Range is 0.00 mg/l (min) to 52.42 mg/l (max) with an average of 2.85 mg/l.. Potassium
concentration are typical for groundwater and it is an essential for plants.
 Magnesium (Mg)
Range is 4.31 mg/l (min) to 36.93 mg/l (max) with an average of 14.63 mg/l. Magnesium
contributes to water hardness and the values suggest moderate hardness which is
acceptable for most purposes.
 Calcium (Ca)
Range is 9.65 mg/l (min) to 72.73 mg/l (max) with an average of 54.62 mg/l. The calcium
concentration contributes to moderate to hard water. This could require softening for
certain sensitive applications.
 Bicarbonates (HCO3-)
Range is from 107.98 mg/l (min) to 339.93 mg/l (max) with an average of 178.96 mg/l.
The groundwater has moderate alkalinity. This is typical for groundwater and does not
pose any significant issues.
 Chlorides (Cl)
 Range is 0.03 mg/l (min) to 119.60 mg/l (max) with an average of 8.10 mg/l. Chloride
levels are low indicating no significant salinity or industrial contamination in the water.
 Nitrate (NO3)
Low or undetected nitrate levels are beneficial since elevated nitrate levels can be a
health risk especially for infants (methemoglobinemia)
 Sulphate (SO4)
Range is 3.72 mg/l (min) to 37.35 mg/l (max) with an average of 20.37 mg/l. Sulphate
concentration are moderate and do not pose any significant concern for groundwater
use.
 RSC (Residual Sodium Carbonate)
Range is 29.54 mg/l (min) to 239.66 mg/l (max) with an average of 109.72 mg/l. High
RSC values suggest potential alkalinity that could affect soil quality for irrigation,
potentially leading to soil degradation if not managed properly.
 SAR (Sodium Adsorption ratio)
Range is 1.6 (min) to 17.7 (max) with an average of 9.84. The SAR value indicate
moderate risk of soil dispersion. SAR values above 10 can cause soil permeability issues.
 Kelly’s index
Range is 0.16 (min) to 1.84 (min) with an average of 0.85. The Kelly’s index values
indicate that the water is suitable for irrigation with no significant risk of sodium-induced
soil salinization.
 MG ratio
Range is 4.43 (min) to 36.83 (max) with an average of 21.16. The MG ratio suggests a
higher proportion of magnesium to calcium in the water which could lead to soil
structure problems in irrigation if values exceed 50.
 WQI (Water quality index)
Range is 9.51 (min) to 100.5 (max) with an average of 45.83. The WQI values indicate
that the groundwater is marginally suitable for drinking. The higher values (>50) suggest
that the water treatment may be required for potable uses.
 PI (Permeability index)
Range is 9.31 (min) to 75.37 (max) with an average of 54.97. The PI values indicate that
the water is moderately is moderately suitable for irrigation. Higher PI values (>75)
would indicate better permeability and less risk to soil quality.

Discussions

 Temperature
The temperature of groundwater is one of the most significant characteristics since it
determines its hydro chemical and biological conditions. It affects both the amount of
dissolved oxygen and the degree of mineralization in the water. The effects of climate
change and urbanization on groundwater quantity and quality will be determined
through temperature fluctuations in groundwater over time. Temperature plays a vital
role in water quality determination. While talking about the samples, the reason behind
the changes in the temperature is may be due to the depth of the deep boring and time
of groundwater sample collection.
 pH
 The mechanism to identify the intensity of the acidic or basic character as well as the
level of hydrogen ionic activity is determined with the presence of pH. The pH scale is
also used to determine the sensitivity of acidity and alkalinity in particulate sample.
According to the WHO, a pH value ranging 6.5-8.5 is an appropriate for drinking purpose
whereas, the value less than 7 denotes acidic and greater determine basicity. Similarly,
the pH value 7 indicates the neutrality in the water. As reported by (Diwakar et al., 2008)
pH less than 7.0 can cause metal pipes to corrode, releasing harmful metals including Zn,
Pb, and Cd, while a pH more than 8.0 can harm the disinfection process. Although, in
most cases, the pH in water has direct effect on humans the water pollutants add a
negative impact on the water. Hence, as long as groundwater is safe and sustainable the
health of the people is always out of danger.
 Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity of water can be defined as the ability of the water to conduct
an electric current. The reaction that occurs between salts and other compounds as they
dissolve in water can produce ions which is positively and negatively charged. Since free
ions conduct electricity, the electrical conductivity of water is proportional to the
concentration of the free ions. To determine the purity of water, the EC can be calculated
using salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS), which are two factors that can be used to
determine how purified water is. The lower the conductivity, the purer the water. To
offer an example, purified water is nearly insulating, yet saltwater is an excellent
electrical conductor. Sodium, calcium, potassium, and magnesium are the major
positively charged ions that determine water conductivity. Chloride, sulphate, carbonate,
and bicarbonate are the most common negatively charged ions. Nitrates and phosphates
are small conductivity donors, yet they play a critical role in biology. Electrical
conductivity gives an indication of the amount of total dissolved substitution in water
(Yilmaz & Koç, 2014) Conductivity measured in micromhos per centimeter (µmhos/cm)
or microsiemens per centimeter (µs/cm). NDWQS guideline value for electrical
conductivity is 1500 mg/L. and according to the WHO guideline value for it is 500 mg/L.
Therefore, the sample was found to lie within permissible value of National Standards.
Rainfall, geology, and evaporation all have the natural effects on EC in water. In contrast
road salt, septic tank, landfill leachate, impermeable surface runoff together with
agricultural runoff are all human induced impacts on water resources.
 Total Alkalinity
Alkalinity is important in a variety of natural water and wastewater applications and
treatments. Natural water alkalinity is principally created by the hydroxide, carbonate,
and bicarbonate bases, which are classified in order of their relationship with high pH
values: hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate. When compared to BIS, the total
alkalinity value was found to be within the range, since the value had to be 200mg/l.
 Turbidity
Insoluble particles such as sand, silt, clay, organic waste, phytoplankton, and other
microscopic organisms generate turbidity. Turbidity causes water to lose its
transparency. Although turbidity does not necessarily indicate a direct threat to public
health, it can indicate the presence of hazardous microbes. It is actually the scattering of
light from the particles present in water, which is an optical property. It can be used to
 track the quality of the source water, the performance of the water treatment plant, and
the efficiency of the distribution system (Ganesh, 2018). It can track the calibre of the
source water, the efficiency of the coagulation and clarifying processes, the performance
of the filtration and disinfection processes in the water treatment facility, and the
management efficiency of the distribution systems. However, excessive turbidity was
also caused by a high iron concentration in other groundwater sample sites. The iron
content in groundwater samples is also connected to turbidity, according to (Koju et al.,
2015). In addition, turbidity has a significant impact on microbiological quality, making it
difficult to detect bacteria and viruses. Water disinfection is less effective because the
bacteria are masked by the particles that generate turbidity (Diwakar et al., 2008).
Moreover, presence of particulate matter in the source water, always consequences in
quality degradation as a result of poor filtering or sediment suspension in the delivery
system, of water supply causing turbidity in drinking water. Consumers normally tolerate
turbidity of less than 5 NTU in drinking water, but this can vary based on local
conditions. The appearance, color, taste, and odor of water with a high turbidity level are
usually disagreeable.
 Ammonia
Mineral ammonia is uncommon in natural waterways, but its presence is almost always
the result of natural degradation processes, which is due to ammonification of organic
materials. The sewage containing a considerable amount of nitrogenous waste, and its
disposal in ground tends to raise the ammonia level of the water. In addition, as the
intake of ammonia exceeds the capacity to detoxify from human body it become
harmful to a healthy person. Moreover, ammonia does not provide a direct health risk,
but it can diminish disinfection efficiency by increasing the demand for chlorine. The
maximum permissible limit of WHO and NDWQS limits the ammonia concentration on
1.5 mg/l. As ammonia in water can be harmful to human health, aquatic animals, biota
the deep wells may have high ammonia levels due to the underlying intercalated layers
of peat and lignite together it can be transformed to nitrate. Therefore, the similar
findings of our study also indicate the threats in groundwater and its use in the
periphery of BIA. The recent study conducted by (Shrestha et al., 2018) depicts that the
conjunction of NO2 with ammonia indicates the recent contamination of groundwater in
Nagarjun Municipality, neighboring to Kathmandu valley. Similarly, less the pH toxicity
from ammonia transformed into ammonium ion, which is far less dangerous than the
gaseous form. Moreover, the open drainage and sewer inside the Kathmandu valley
since ages has been problematic and always a severe threat on all form of water
including the household level water supply system. Hence, the groundwater resources
are even more vulnerable towards the exposure with multiple contaminants.
 Nitrate
Nitrates are ions that occur naturally as part of the nitrogen cycle. Excessive use of
agricultural fertilizers, decaying vegetable water, home effluent, sewage disposal
industrial discharges, leachable from trash dumps, and atmospheric and atmospheric
precipitation are all factors that contribute to high nitrate levels in drinking water.
Organic contamination is indicated by the presence of nitrate in drinking water. Humans
are not poisoned by nitrate, but it is harmful when microbial action converts it to nitrite.
 Methemoglobinemia, also known as "blue baby syndrome," is a transient blood
condition in neonates caused by high levels of nitrate in drinking water. When nitrate-
rich water is consumed in excess and continues to be consumed, this sickness can result
in the death of a newborn. Suffocation from a lack of oxygen can cause brain damage
and finally death. Sapkota (2010) discovered no nitrate pollution in deep tube wells
throughout both dry and rainy seasons. In the Kathmandu valley, studies by (Diwakar et
al., 2008; Jayana et al., 1970; Koju et al., 2015; Pant, 2011) found reduced nitrate
concentrations in groundwater. Water quality reveals that water contamination is rising
at an unprecedented rate, posing a significant threat to human health and the
environment. The results demonstrate that the quality of water consumed is critical in
the prevention of infectious diseases and other health issues.
 Phosphate
Phosphate is found in nature in the form of apatite, a tri-calcium phosphate mineral
found in phosphate rock. It is a good supplier of phosphorus, and also is an inorganic
substance found in bones and teeth. The phosphate concentration in the groundwater is
higher than in surface water. Phosphates can be found in both precipitated inorganic
form and integrated into organic components at the bottom of sediments and sludge.
 Chloride
Chloride is a significant component that comes in the form of sodium (NaCl), potassium
(KCl), and calcium (CaCl2) salts. Chloride concentrations higher than 200 mg/l are
considered to be a risk to health and may cause unpleasant taste of water. Drinking
water standards require chloride levels not to exceed 250 mg/l. The presence of chloride
in drinking water can be used to detect pollution. Drinking water containing deionizing
salts and saline infiltration receives chloride from natural sources, sewage and industrial
effluents, and urban runoff. When chloride levels are high in combination with nitrate or
ammonium, the water has most likely been contaminated by home sources. A
considerable level of chloride imparts a saline flavour to water and beverages and is
corrosive to metal in the distribution system, especially in water with low alkalinity. The
chloride concentration in all ground water samples in this analysis was determined to be
much below the NDWQ standard and WHO guideline value. The low chloride
concentration in deep tube well samples could be attributable to the lower risk of direct
urban runoff and sewage pollution. According to (Koju et al., 2015), 0.8 percent of
groundwater samples in the Kathmandu valley exceeded the WHO and NDWQ permitted
level. Ground water consumed by humans contains multiple chemical compounds and
elements like chloride, phosphate, ammonia, calcium, manganese, lead or arsenic.
However, it poses no significant risk to human health until it is beyond the limits set by
WHO guidelines. The risk to health increases when the presence of compounds or
elements exceeds the threshold concentrations caused by pollution and acidification
caused by natural, physical or anthropogenic activity. The contamination of groundwater
can occur through underground leakage of septic tanks, illegal drainage of industrial
wastewater through sewer lines, excessive use of pesticides, and dumping of illegal
restricted wastes without proper treatment. Here, we have compared the results
obtained from the respective sampling with WHO guideline values. Changing physical,
biological, and chemical conditions of water reflect water quality changes, which in turn
 are influenced by physical and anthropogenic activities. Different parameters reveal that
there are significant pollutants in groundwater, which is itself a major concern for human
health. The spread of communicable diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, and
typhoid in Kathmandu valley during these times is very common. The chloride content is
well within the range of the sampling sites.

Conclusion and Recommendation