ME -MODULE- 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

MODULE – 2 3. Laminar & turbulent flow

 Laminar flow the fluid particles move in layers, gliding
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
smoothly over the adjacent layers.
1. Steady & unsteady flow
2. Uniform & non uniform flow The fluid particles in any layer move along a well defined
3. Laminar & turbulent flow path (Stream line) and all the stream lines are straight &
4. Compressible & incompressible flow parallel.
5. Rotational & Irrotational flow The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to
6. One, Two & Three dimensional flow turbulent flow is known as critical velocity.
1. Steady & unsteady flow
 In steady flow the fluid characteristics like velocity,
density, pressure etc at a point do not change with
respect to time.

 Turbulent flow occurs in nature. This flow is

Mathematically; characterized by random, unpredictable, zig-zag motion
dv/dt = 0; dρ/dt = 0; dp/dt = 0 of fluid particles which results in eddies formation which
are responsible for high energy loss.
In unsteady flow the fluid characteristics like velocity,
density, pressure etc at a point changes with respect to
time.
Mathematically;

dv/dt ≠ 0; dρ/dt ≠ 0; dp/dt ≠ 0

2. Uniform & non uniform flow Reynolds number > 4000; it is Turbulent flow
 In Uniform flow the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure, density etc. at a given instant Reynolds number < 2300; it is Laminar flow
remain the same at all points. Reynolds number in between 2300 & 4000 is called
transition region in which the laminar flow changes to
turbulent flow.

4. Compressible & incompressible flow

 A fluid in which the density of fluid changes from point
to point is called compressible flow.
 A fluid in which the density of fluid is constant during the
Mathematically; flow is called compressible flow.
(dv/ds) t=const = 0; (dp/ds) t=const = 0; (dρ/ds) t=const = 0 All liquids are generally considered as incompressible.
 In non uniform flow the fluid characteristics like 5. Rotational & Irrotational flow
velocity, pressure, density etc. have different  Rotational flow is a type of flow In which liquid partials
values at different points at a given instant of while flowing along a stream line also rotate about their
time. own axis.
 If liquid partials while flowing along a stream line and do
not rotate about their own axis is called irrotational flow.
6. One, Two & Three dimensional flow
 A flow in which the stream lines of its moving particles
may be represented by a straight line is called one
dimensional flow.
V = f(x) steady one dimensional flow.
Mathematically;
V = f(x,t) unsteady one dimensional flow.
(dv/ds) t=const ≠ 0; (dp/ds) t=const ≠ 0; (dρ/ds) t=const ≠0

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ME -MODULE- 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

 A flow in which the flow path may be represented by a 1. Pressure Energy

curve is called a two dimensional flow.  It is the energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its
pressure.
V = f(x , y) steady two dimensional flow. w = Sp. weight of liquid (N/𝒎𝟑 )
V = f(x , y , t) unsteady two dimensional flow. p = Pressure intensity at any point in a liquid (N/𝒎𝟐 )
h = Pressure energy in terms of head of water
 A flow in which the flow path may be represented by Then,
three mutually perpendicular directions is called a Pressure exerted by the liquid on the piston is P = ρ g h
three dimensional flow. where h is the height of liquid column above the axis of
the side tube.
V = f(x , y, z) steady three dimensional flow. We know that,
Sp. weight, w = ρ g
V = f(x , y , z , t) unsteady three dimensional flow.
ρ = Density
RATE OF FLOW / DISCHARGE Pressure head, h =
𝐩
in meters of liquid per kg.
 The quantity of fluid flowing per unit time across any 𝐰
𝐩
section of a pipe or conduit is called rate of flow or Pressure head, h = meter of fluid.
𝝆𝒈
discharge and is denoted by ‘Q’.
2. Potential Energy
 It is the energy possessed by a fluid body by virtue of
Q=a×v
its position or location in space.
a = Area of cross section of the flow (𝒎𝟐 )  If a point ‘A’ in liquid is at a height of ‘z’ meters from a
datum plane.
v = Average velocity of fluid (m/s)  The potential energy per Newton of fluid = Z meter of
Unit of discharge (Q) is m3/s. fluid.

CONTINUITY EQUATON OF LIQUID FLOW 3. Kinetic Energy or Velocity Energy

 When a liquid flows through any stream or pipe the  Energy possessed by liquid in motion due to its velocity
is called K.E.
mass (or volume) of liquid at any cross-section remains If;
same provided no additional liquid is added to it or V = Velocity of liquid at any instant in m/s.
removed from it. This is called the law of continuity. m = mass of liquid (kg)
𝟏
Kinetic Energy = 𝟐 m 𝐯 𝟐 N.m
Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown,
𝐖
Where; m =
𝐠
𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏 − 𝟏
𝐖𝐯 𝟐
𝝆𝟏 = 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏 − 𝟏 KE of W Newton of fluid =
𝟐𝐠
𝒂𝟏 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝟏 − 𝟏
𝐯𝟐
KE per Newton of fluid =
𝒗𝟐 , 𝝆𝟐 and 𝒂𝟐 are the corresponding values at section 2-2. 𝟐𝐠

 The mass of liquid flowing across 1-1, = ρ × 𝒂𝟏 × 𝒗𝟏 𝐯𝟐

Kinetic head or Velocity head = meter of fluid
𝟐𝐠
 The mass of liquid flowing across 2-2 = ρ × 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒗𝟐
TOTAL ENERGY
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎
Density = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒂 ×𝒗 ; m = ρ a v
 Total energy (E) of liquid in motion is the sum of
By law of continuity, Pressure energy, Potential energy and Kinetic energy.

ρ × 𝒂𝟏 × 𝒗𝟏 = ρ × 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒗𝟐 Hence,

𝒂𝟏 × 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒗𝟐 𝐩 𝐯𝟐
E = 𝝆 𝒈 + 𝟐𝐠 + z
Q=av
𝐩 𝐯𝟐
Or we say that, the total head = + + z meter of
HYDRAULIC ENERGY (ENERGY OF LIQUIDS) 𝝆 𝒈 𝟐𝐠
 Hydraulic energy is the capacity of a liquid to do work. fluid.
It exists in different interchangeable forms.
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
 In fluid mechanics we study the following three types
of energies.  In a study continuous flow of frictionless, irrotational,
1. Pressure energy or Flow energy incompressible fluid, the sum of the potential head,
pressure head and kinetic head is the same at all
2. Potential energy or Elevation energy or Static energy
points.
3. Kinetic energy or Velocity energy.
Some of these three energies are called total energy.
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ME -MODULE- 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

𝐩 𝐯𝟐 ORIFACE METER / ORIFACE PLATE

+ + z = Constant
𝝆 𝒈 𝟐𝐠
 It is used to measure the rate of flow of fluid through
𝟐 𝟐 pipe.
𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒗𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐  It consists of a plate having sharp edged circular hole
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝐠 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝐠
called orifice.
P = Pressure intensity  The plate can be fitted to the pipe by flanged joint.
ρ = Density
v = Velocity of liquid at any instant
z = Datum head
Sample problems (using Bernoulli’s theorem)
ASSUMPTIONS IN BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
 The fluid is ideal, i.e. viscosity is zero.
 The flow is study.
 The flow is incompressible.
 The flow is rotational.
 The flow is one dimensional.  Theoretical discharge, Qth =
𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐
× √𝟐𝐠𝐡
LIMITATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM √𝐚𝟐𝟏 −𝐚𝟐𝟐
 In this theorem, it is assumed that the velocity of every
𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐
liquid particle at any cross-section is uniform. But  Actual discharge, Qact = Cd × × √𝟐𝐠𝐡
√𝐚𝟐𝟏 −𝐚𝟐𝟐
actually the velocity of liquid particle at the center of
the pipe is maximum and gradually decreases towards
the walls of the pipe due to friction. Thus while using VENTURIMETER
 This is an instrument in which the practical application
this theorem, we take only mean velocity.
of Bernoulli’s theorem is applied.
 It is also assumed that no external force except the  It is used to measuring the discharge or rate of flow of
gravity force is acting on the liquid. But actually there fluid.
are some external forces like pipe friction is acting on  It consists of three parts.
the liquid, which may affect the flow of liquid. 1. A short converging part: It is that portion of the venturi
 It is assumed that there is no loss of energy while where the fluid gets converges.
flowing. But actually, it is not true. 2. Throat: It is the portion that lies in between the
 If the fluid is flowing in a curved path, the energy due converging and diverging part of the venturi. The cross
to centrifugal force should also be taken into account. section of the throat is much less than the cross section
But normally we neglect the energy due to centrifugal of the converging and diverging parts. As the fluid
force. enters in the throat, its velocity increases and pressure
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM decreases.
3. Diverging part: It is the portion of the venturimeter
 Pitot - tube
 Orifice meter (venturi) where the fluid gets diverges.
 Venturimeter
PITOT TUBE
 It is used to find the velocity of flow at any point in a
pipe line or a channel.
 The lower end of the tube faces the direction of flow.
The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of
kinetic energy into pressure energy.
 The velocity of fluid is determined by measuring the
rise of fluid in the tube.

 Venturimeter is bolted in a pipe line by two flanges at

the two ends.
 The venturimeter may be connected to a U- tube
manometer to read difference of pressure as shown in
figure.
 As the fluid flows through the meter, velocity will
increases at the throat, consequently the pressure will
be reduced which can be read by the manometer.
Velocity (v) = √𝟐𝐠𝐡

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ME -MODULE- 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering MPTC

 Theoretical discharge, Qth =

𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐
× √𝟐𝐠𝐡  In terms of Discharge, Q (rate of flow),
√𝐚𝟐𝟏 −𝐚𝟐𝟐
𝒇𝒍𝑸𝟐
𝐚𝟏 𝐚𝟐 𝒉𝒇 =
 Actual discharge, Qact = Cd × × √𝟐𝐠𝐡 𝟑𝒅𝟓
√𝐚𝟐𝟏 −𝐚𝟐𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = Head lost due to friction (m)
 Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, f = Darcy’s friction factor
l = Length of pipe (m)
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐐𝒂𝒄𝒕 Q = Discharge (𝐦𝟑 /s)
Cd = 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 = 𝐐𝒕𝒉 d = Diameter of pipe (m)
Cd < 1 (0.9 -0.99) CHEZY’S FORMULA

Sample problems (Venturimeter…) Velocity of flow (v) = C.√𝒎𝒊 (Chezy’s formula)

LOSS OF ENERGY IN PIPIES
C = Chezy’s constant
 When a liquid runs under pressure in a pipe, there will
M = Hydraulic mean depth
be some losses of head (energy). These losses are
i = Loss of head per unit length = (hf / l)
broadly classified as Major or primary losses and minor
hf = Head loss due to friction
or secondary losses.
l = length of pipe (m)
MAJOR / PRIMARY LOSSES
The value of ‘m’ for a uniform circular pipe is always equal
 This loss is due to friction and known is as head loss
𝒅
due to friction. to
𝟒
 It can be evaluated by using
This formula is used to determine the head loss due to
a) Darcy-Weisbach formula friction if the mean velocity through the pipe and also the
b) Chezy’s formula. value of Chezy’s constant C is known.
MINOR / SECONDARY LOSSES
Sample problems (using Darcy-Weisbach formula &
 This loss is due some other reasons rather than friction
Chezy’s formula)...
 Minor losses in case of long pipes are negligible
compared to frictional losses. However, in case of short
MINOR / SECONDARY LOSSES
pipes minor losses are of appreciable amount.  Head loss due to sudden enlargement (he) = (V1-V2)2
 Various minor losses are: 2g
• Losses at inlet or entry to a pipe line.
 Head loss due to sudden contraction (hc) = 0.375 x V22
• Losses due to sudden enlargement of pipe cross
2g
section.
• Losses due to sudden contraction of pipe cross  In theoretical case Head loss due to sudden contraction
section is taken as(hc) = 0.5 x V22
• Losses due to change of direction (Due to bends, 2g
elbows etc.,)  Loss of head at the entrance in a pipe (hi) = 0.5 x V22
• Losses due to obstruction in path of flow. 2g
• Losses at exit or outlet.  Loss of head at the exit of a pipe (hd) = V22
DARCY – WEISBACH FORMULA 2g
Where;
 Due to frictional force in the pipe flow, the available
V1 = Velocity of fluid flow at section 1-1 (m/s).
head (total energy) gradually reduces implying loss of V2 = Velocity of fluid flow at section 2-2 (m/s).
head. g = acceleration due to gravity.
 Darcy’s equation gives head lost due to frictional or
turbulent flow through a pipe in terms of velocity of
flow of fluid, friction factor and diameter of pipe.

𝟒𝒇𝒍𝒗𝟐 ************
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟐𝒈𝒅

𝒉𝒇 = Head lost due to friction (m)

f = Darcy’s friction factor JITHESH NP
HOD in Mechanical Engineering
l = Length of pipe (m)
Ma’din Polytechnic College
v = Velocity of flow (m/s) Malappuram
d = Diameter of pipe (m) Mob: 9895771828; 9061414555
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