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7) (A) State two distinguishing features of nuclear force.

(B) Draw a plot showing the variation of potential energy of a pair of nucleons as a function of their
separation.
Mark the regions on the graph where the force is:
(i) attractive, and (ii) repulsive
8) The nuclear radius of 13Al27 is 3.6 fermi. Find the nuclear radius of 29Cu64.
9) An atomic power nuclear reactor can deliver 300 MW. The energy released due to fission of
each nucleus of uranium atom 92U238 is 170 MeV. Find the number of uranium atoms
fissioned per hour.

10) A heavy nucleus X of mass number 240 and binding energy per nucleon 7.6 MeV is split into
two fragments Y and Z of mass numbers 110 and 130. The binding energy of nucleons in Y
and Z is 8.5 MeV per nucleon. Calculate the energy Q released per fission in MeV.

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14. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICES AND

SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative

ideas only) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n junction
Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse
bias, application of junction diode -diode as a rectifier.

Before the discovery of transistor, devices such as vacuum diode were used to
control the flow of electrons in a circuit. But these devices were bulky, consumed high power,
operated at high voltages and had limited life and low reliability. In the 1930’s it was realized
that come solid state semiconductors and their junction offered the possibility of controlling the
flow of charge carriers through them. This led to the development of the modern solid-state
semiconductors. They consume low power, are small in size, operate at low voltages and have a
long life and high reliability.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

1)On the basis of conductivity

.
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Semiconductors can be
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge
(ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are:
· Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.
· Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.
· Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.
2) On the basis of energy bands
• According to Bohr model, every electron of an isolated atom has well defined energy [Link] when
the atoms come together to form a solid they are close to each other. So the energy levels of
electrons from neighbouring atoms would come very close or could even overlap
• These different energy levels with continuous variation forms what are called energy bands.
• The energy band which contains the energy levels of valence electrons is known as valence band.
This is the lower energy band. This band is never empty.
• The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction [Link] the conduction band
is empty. But when it overlaps on the valence band electrons can move freely into it. This is the case
with metallic conductors.
• The separation between the highest energy level of valence band and the lowest energy level of
conduction band is known as Energy band gap. (Eg). ). It may be large, small, or zero, depending
upon the material.

Metals:One can have a metal either when the conduction band is partially filled and the balanced
band is partially empty or when the conduction and valance bands overlap. When there is overlap
electrons from valence band can easily move into the conduction band. This situation makes a
large number of electrons available for electrical conduction. When the valence band is partially
empty, electrons from its lower level can move to higher level making conduction possible.
Therefore, the resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high.

Insulator: In this case, as shown in Fig, a large band

gap Eg exists (Eg > 3 eV). There are no electrons in the conduction band, and therefore no
electrical conduction is possible. Note that the energy gap is so large that electrons cannot
be excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal excitation.
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Semiconductors: This situation is shown in Fig. Here a finite but small band gap (Eg < 3

eV) exists. Because of the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from
valence band can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the
conduction band. These electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the conduction
band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators.

Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier whereas
electrons are the negatively charged Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in
polarity.
The bond model of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below. Here, when one of the free
electrons (blue dots) leaves the lattice position, it creates a hole (grey dots). This hole thus created
takes the opposite charge of the electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers moving in
he lattice
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Types of Semiconductors Semiconductors can be classified as:

• Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductors

Classification of Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor

An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is made up of only
a single type of element.
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Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic Semiconductors (a) In absence of electric field (b) In
presence of electric Field
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic semiconductor elements.
They have four valence electrons (tetravalent). They are bound to the atom by covalent bond at
absolute zero temperature.
When the temperature rises, due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded and become free to
move through the lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position (hole). These free
electrons and holes contribute to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The negative
and positive charge carriers are equal in number.
The thermal energy is capable of ionizing a few atoms in the lattice, and hence their conductivity is
less.
Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures

• At absolute zero kelvin temperature: At this temperature,

the covalent bonds are very strong and there are no free electrons and the semiconductor
behaves as a perfect insulator.
• Above absolute temperature: With the increase in temperature few valence electrons
jump into the conduction band and hence it behaves like a poor conductor.
Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor
The energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below:

T = 0 Kelvin, behaves like an insulator At T>0 K

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In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons as well as holes. The
total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to thermally generated electrons and the hole
current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of electrons to exist in
conduction band decreases exponentially with increasing bandgap (Eg)

n = n0e-Eg/[Link].T Where,

Eg = Energy bandgap
Kb = Boltzmann’s constants

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a small number of
suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure
semiconductor is called DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the
doped semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into:

• N-type Semiconductor
• P-type Semiconductor
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Classification of Extrinsic Semiconductor

N-Type Semiconductor

• Mainly due to electrons

• Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes

When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb,
Bi) then, four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus the impurity atom donates a free electron for
conduction in the lattice and is called “Donor“.
Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative charge
carriers increase. Hence it is called n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive ion. As conduction
is due to a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the
MAJORITY CARRIERS and holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.
When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb,
Bi) then, four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus the impurity atom donates a free electron for
conduction in the lattice and is called “Donor“.
Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative charge
carriers increase. Hence it is called n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive ion. As conduction
is due to a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the
MAJORITY CARRIERS and holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.
P-Type Semiconductor

• Mainly due to holes

• Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
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When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the three valence
electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are ready to
accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are increased.
Hence, it is called p-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative ion. As conduction is
due to a large number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are MAJORITY CARRIERS
and electrons are MINORITY CARRIERS.
What is P-N Junction?
Definition: A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types,
namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side or the
negative side has an excess of electrons. In a semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the
method of doping. The process of doping is explained in further details in the next section.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a p-n junction, there will be a
grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by scattering
the electrons and holes and thus we use the process of doping. We will understand the process of
doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we
add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-
type silicon. This sheet will now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a junction
between these two regions. The processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two
types – diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a difference in the concentration of holes and
electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and the
electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. This gives rise to a diffusion current across the
junction.
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Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on the
n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on the n-
side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is
left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in the p-side of the
junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed
as the depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an
electric field direction from positive charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this
electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to the n-side of the junction. This
motion is termed as the drift. Here, we see that the direction of drift current is opposite to that of the
diffusion current.

Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in p-n junction diode:

• P-type
• N-type
There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based on the voltage applied:

• Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.

• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type while
the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type and
the positive is connected to the n-type.
Forward Bias
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When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-type to the negative
terminal then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased. When the p-n junction is forward
biased, the built-in electric field at the p-n junction and the applied electric field are in opposite
directions. When both the electric fields add up the resultant electric field has a magnitude
lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region. The
depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the
voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region becomes completely negligible and the
current flows across it unimpeded

Forward characteristics of pn junction diode.

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Reverse Bias

When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-type is connected to
the positive side then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric
field and the applied electric field are in the same direction. When the two fields are added, the
resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field creating a more resistive,
thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied
voltage becomes larger.
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The flow of electrons from n-side towards p-side of the junction takes place when there is increase in
the voltage. Similarly, flow of holes from p-side towards n-side of the junction takes place along with
the increase in the voltage. This results in the concentration gradient between on both the sides of the
terminals. Because of formation of concentration gradient, there will be flow of charge carriers from
higher concentration region to lower concentration region. The movement of charge carriers inside the
pn junction is the reason behind current flow in the circuit.

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

Applications of PN Junction Diode

• p-n junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light when the
configuration of the diode is reverse- biased.
• It can be used as a solar cell.
• When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.
• It is used as rectifiers in many electric circuits and as voltage-controlled oscillator
The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These circuits are used
to describe the conversion of a.c signals to d.c in power supplies. Diode rectifier gives an
alternating voltage which pulsates in accordance with time. The filter smoothes the pulsation
in the voltage and to produce d.c voltage, a regulator is used which removes the ripples
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There are two primary methods of diode rectification:

• Half Wave Rectifier

• Full Wave Rectifier

What is Half Wave Rectifier?

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n junction diode is
forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversing biased it provides high resistance.
During one- half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is applied and in the
opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During alternate half cycles, the optimum result can be
obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

• The half wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of the
input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only positive half
cycle of the a.c supply. When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be
decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply will
reduce and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.
In the second half cycle, current will flow from negative to positive and the diode will be reverse
biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current generated and we cannot get power at the load
resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse bias due to minority carrier.
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Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half wave rectification:

• Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with transformer for power
rectification as a powering equipment.
• Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.

• Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform.

What is Full Wave Rectifier?

Full wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current which is purely
DC. The main advantage of full wave rectifier over half wave rectifier is that such as the average
output voltage is higher in full wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in full wave rectifier when
compared to half wave rectifier.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

Full wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the
diode offers low resistance and when it is reversing biased it gives high resistance. The circuit is
designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is forward biased then in the second
half cycle it is reverse biased
and so on.
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Rectifier Efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is used as a parameter to determine the efficiency of the rectifier to convert AC
into DC. It is ratio of DC output power to the AC input power. Rectifier efficiency of a full wave
rectifier is 81.2%.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full wave rectifiers and they are:

• Two diode full wave rectifier circuit (requires center-tapped transformer and
is used in vacuum tubes)
• Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require centre-tapped transformer and is used along with
transformers for efficient usage)

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is high

• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated are less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• Very expensive

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier Following are the

uses of full wave rectifier:

• Full wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this bridge
rectifiers are used.
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• Full wave rectifiers are used for detecting amplitude of modulated radio signals.

Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

The filter is one type of electronic device mainly used to perform signal processing. The main function
of this filter is to allow the ac components and blocks the dc components of the load. The filter circuit
output will be a stable dc voltage. The construction of a filter circuit can be done with the basic
electronic components like resistors, inductors, and capacitors. There are different types of filters
available namely LPF (low pass filter), BPF (bandpass filter), HPF (high pass filter), capacitor filter,
etc. The main function of the capacitor, as well as an inductor in this circuit, is, a capacitor allows the
ac and blocks the dc, whereas an inductor permits only DC components to supply and blocks ac.
What is a Capacitor Filter?

A typical capacitor filter circuit diagram is shown below. The designing of this circuit can be done
with a capacitor (C) as well as load resistor (RL). The rectifier’s exciting voltage is given across the
terminals of a capacitor. Whenever the voltage of the rectifier enhances then the capacitor will be
charged as well as supplies the current to the load.

At the last part of the quarter phase, the capacitor will be charged to the highest rectifier voltage
value that is denoted with Vm, and then the voltage of the rectifier starts to reduce. As this happens,
the capacitor starts discharging through the voltage across it and load. The voltage across the load
will reduce little only because the next peak voltage occurs instantaneously to charge the capacitor.
This procedure will repeat many times and the output waveform will be seen that very slight ripple
is missing in the output.
Furthermore, the output voltage is superior because it remains significantly close to the highest value
of the output voltage of the rectifier.
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\
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FORMULAE
1) Electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal
equilibrium
nenh= ni 2

2) Resistance of a Diode:
a) Static or DC Resistance Rdc= V/I
b) Dynamic or AC Resistance = V/I

MNEMONICS
1) To remember names of impurities in semiconductors
BIG PAA
Boron, Indium, Gallium (all three are trivalent impurities)
Phosphorus, Antimony, Arsenic (all three are pentavalent impurities)

2) TO REMEMBER THE P AND N SECTIONS OF A DIODE.

The arrow in the schematic symbol

for diodes points in the direction of
Conventional (positive) current flow
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MCQ

1) The energy gap is maximum in:

a) metals
b) superconductors
c) insulators
d) semiconductors

2) Choose the only false statement from the following

a) In conductors the valence and conduction bands overlap.
b) Substances with energy gap of the order of 10eV are insulators.
c) The resistivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature
d) The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature.
3) The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature because:
a. number density of free current carries increases
b. relaxation time increases
c. number density of carriers and relaxation time increases
d. number density of current carries increase, relaxation time decreases but effect of
decrease in relaxation time is much less than increase in number density

4) If a small amount of antimony is added to germanium crystal

a) it becomes a p-type semiconductor.

b) the antimony becomes an acceptor atom.
c) there will be more free electrons than holes in the semiconductor.
d) its resistance is increased

5) The impurity atoms with which pure silicon may be doped to make it a p-type semiconductor are
those of
a) phosphorus
b) boron
c) Antimony
d) nitrogen

6) The forbidden gap for germanium is,

a) 0.12 eV
b) 0.72 eV
c) 7.2 eV
d) None of these
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7) In Conductor, Semiconductor and Insulator, the forbidden energy gaps are E1, E2 and E3
respectively. Which one is correct?
(a) E1<E2<E3
(b) E1>E2=E3
(c) E1=E2<E3
(d) E1>E2>E3

8) When p-n junction diode is forward biased then

(a) both the depletion region and barrier height are reduced
(b) the depletion region is widened and barrier height is reduced
(c) the depletion region is reduced and barrier height is increased
(d) Both the depletion region and barrier height are increased
9) In the energy band diagram of a material shown below, the open circles and filled circles denote
holes and electrons respectively. The material is a/an

(A) p type semiconductor

(B) n type semiconductor
(C) insulator
(D) metal
10) In a full wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz mains frequency, the frequency in the output
waveform would be
(a) 50 Hz
(b) 100 Hz
(c) 25 Hz
d) 150Hz
11) In a semiconductor diode, the barrier potential offers opposition to
(a) holes in P-region only
(b) free electrons in N-region only
(c) majority carriers in both regions
(d) majority as well as minority carriers in both regions
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12) Depletion region in a p-n junction is

(a) a region without free electrons and holes
(b) a region with more free electrons and holes
(c) a region without free electrons only
(d) a region without holes only

13) In figure given, assuming the diodes to be ideal In figure given, assuming the diodes to be ideal

(a) D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased and hence current flows from A to B.
(b) D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and hence no current flows from B to A and
vice versa.
(c) D1 and D2 are both forward biased and hence current flows from A toB.
(d) D1 and D2 are both reverse biased and hence no current flows from A to B and vice versa.

14) Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. These are characterized by
valence and conduction bands separated by energy band gap respectively equal to (Eg)C, (Eg)Si
and (Eg)Ge. Which of the following statements is true?
(a) (Eg)Si < (Eg)Ge < (Eg)c
(b) (Eg)c < (Eg)Ge < (Eg)Si
(c) (Eg)c > (Eg)Si > (Eg)Ge
(d) (Eg)c = (Eg)Si = (Eg)Ge
15) If no external voltage is applied across p-n junction, then there would be
(a) no electric field across the junction
(b) an electric field pointing from n-type to p-type side across the junction
(c) an electric field pointing from p-type to n-type side across the junction
(d) a temporary electric field during formation of p-n junction that would subsequently
disappear.
16) The dominant mechanism for the motion of charge carriers in forward and reverse biased silicon
p-n junction are
(a) drift in forward bias, diffuse in reversed bias
(b) diffuse in forward bias, drift in reversed bias
(c) diffusion in both forward and reverse bias
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(d) drift in both forward and reverse bias

17) In intrinsic semiconductors at room temperature, the number of electrons and holes are
a. Unequal,
b. Equal,
c. Infinite,
d. Zero
18) The breakdown in a reverse biased p-n junction diode is more likely to occur due to
(a) large velocity of the minority charge carriers if the doping concentration is small
(b) large velocity of the minority charge carriers if the doping concentration is large
(c) strong electric field in a depletion region if the doping concentration is small
(d) none of these
19) The circuit shown in the figure contains two diodes each with forward resistance of
30  and with infinite backward resistance. If the battery is 3 V, the
current through the 50  resistance (in ampere) is

(a) zero
(b) 0.01
(c) 0.02
(d) 0.03

20) The V-I characteristic of a diode is shown in the figure. The

ratio of forward to reverse bias
resistance is

(a) 100
(b) 106
(c) 10
(d) 10–6
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Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c c d c d b a a b b
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
c a b c b b b b c d

ASSERTION – REASON QUESTIONS:

(A) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and Reason is correct
explanation forAssertion
(B) Assertion and Reason both are correct statement but Reason is not correct
explanationfor assertion.
(C) Assertion is correct statement but reason is wrong statement.
(D) Assertion is Wrong statement but Reason is correct statement.

1) Assertion: The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase

in temperature.
Reason: With increase in temperature, large number of electrons from the valence
band can jump to the conduction band.
2) Assertion: When two semiconductors of p and n type are brought in contact, they
form p-n junction which act like a rectifier.
Reason-A rectifier is used to convert alternating current into direct current

3) Assertion- The diffusion current in a p-n junction is from the p side to n side.
Reason- The diffusion current in a p-n junction is greater than the drift current when the
junction is in forward biased.

4) Assertion- The drift current in a p-n junction is from the n side to the p side.
Reason- It is due to free electrons only.

5) Assertion : A pure semiconductor has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Reason : In a semiconductor on raising the temperature, more charge carriers are
released, conductance increases and resistance decreases.
6) Assertion :Silicon is preferred over germanium for making semiconductor devices.
Reason :The energy gap in germanium is more than the energy gap in silicon.
7) Assertion: The p-n junction diode primarily allows the flow of) current only in one
direction
(forward bias)
Reason: The forward bias resistance is low as compared to the reverse bias resistance.
8) Assertion: The diffusion current in a p-n junction is from the p-side to the n-side.
Reason: The diffusion current in a p-n junction is greater than the drift current when the
junction is in forward biased.
9) Assertion: The diffusion current in a p-n junction is from the p-side to the n-side.
Reason: The diffusion current in a p-n junction is greater than the drift current when the
junction is in forward biased.
10) Assertion: An N-type semiconductor has a large number of electrons but still it is
electrically
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neutral.
Reason: An N-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with
a pentavalent impurity.

11) Assertion: When diode is used as a rectifier, its specified reverse breakdown voltage
should not be exceeded.
Reason: When p-n junction diode crosses the reverse break down voltage, it gets
destroyed.
12) Assertion (A): An intrinsic semiconductor has equal number of electron and hole.
Reason (R): Thermally generated electron- hole pairs are the charge carriers in intrinsic
semiconductor.
13) Assertion: For a half wave rectifier the output frequency is half of input
Reason: Half wave rectifier got its name from such phenomena.
14) Assertion: At 0K germanium behaves as insulator.
Reason:- No free electrons present in conduction band at 0K.
15) Assertion : A p-type semiconductors is a positive type crystal.
Reason : A p- type semiconductor is an uncharged crystal.
Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A B B A A C A B A B A A D A D

1) Distinguish between Intrinsic and Extrinsic semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Semiconductor in pure form Semiconductor obtained by adding impurities

Density of electrons is equal to the Density of electrons is not equal to the

density of holes density of holes

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Conductivity depends on Conductivity depends on amount of

temperature only doping.

2) Explain briefly with the help of necessary diagrams, the forward and the reverse biasing of a p-n junction
diode. Also draw their characteristic curves in the two cases.
Answer:
The circuit arrangement for studying the V– I characteristics of a diode, are shown in figures The
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battery is connected to the silicon diode through a potentiometer (or rheostat), so that the applied
voltage can be changed for different values of voltages, the corresponding values of current are
noted. A graph between V and I is obtained as shown in figure.

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

Forward Bias & Reverse Bias Characteristics of a P-N Junction Diode

3) Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied potential up to a critical
voltage?
Ans : Under the reverse bias condition, the holes of p-side are attracted towards the
negative terminal of the battery and the electrons of the n-side are attracted towards the
positive terminal of the battery. This increases the depletion layer and the potential barrier.
However, the minoritycharge carriers are drifted across the junction producing a small
current. At any temperature, thenumber of minority carriers is constant, so there is the small
current at any applied potential.
This is the reason for the current under reverse bias to be almost independent of
appliedpotential.
4) Under the reverse bias condition, the holes of p-side are attracted towards the
negative terminal of the battery and the electrons of the n-side are attracted towards
the positive terminal of the battery. This increases the depletion layer and the
potential barrier. However, the minoritycharge carriers are drifted across the
junction producing a small current. At any temperature, thenumber of minority
carriers is constant, so there is the small current at any applied potential.
This is the reason for the current under reverse bias to be almost
independent of appliedpotential.
5) What do you mean by depletion region and potential barrier in a junction diode?
Ans. Depletion region. A layer, created around the junction between p and n-sections of a
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junction diode devoid of holes and electrons, is called depletion region. Potential barrier. The
potential difference developed across the junction due to migration of majority carriers is called
potential barrier.
6) Diffentiate between n-type and p-type semiconductors on the basis of energy band diagrams

7) Draw the circuit diagram to show the use of a p-n junction diode as a half-waverectifier. Also
show the input and the output voltages, graphically.

In the above diagram, during positive half cycle of the

input AC, the p-n junction is forward biased. Thus the
resistance in p-n junction becomes low and current flows.
Hence we get output in the load.
During negative half cycle of the input AC, the p-n
junction is reverse biased. Thus the resistance of the
junction is high and current does not flow. Hence no
output in the load. So, for complete cycle of AC current flows through the load resistance in the same
direction. The output voltage is unidirectional but pulsating. This process is called half
wave rectification and the arrangement is called half wave rectifier.

8) Draw the circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier. Also, give the input and output waveform

During the first half ofinput cycle, the upper end of the coil is at positive potential and lower end at
negative potential. The function diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. Current flows in
output load resistance in the direction shown in the figure. During the second half of input cycle, D2 is
forward biased. In this way, current flows in the load in in the single direction

9) Explain with the help of a suitable diagram, the two processes which occur
during theformations of a p-n junction diode.
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During the formation of p-n junction and due to difference in the

concentration of charge carriers holes diffuse from p-
side to n-side(p→n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-
side9 (n→p). This motion of charge carriers gives rise to
diffusion current across the junction. Drift is the process of
movement of charge carriers due to the net electric field.
Thus when a hole diffuses from p side to n side, it leaves
behind an acceptor (negative charge) which is immobile. As
the holes continue to diffuse, a
layer of negatively charged immobile ions is developed on the p side of the junction. The
diffused charge carriers combine with their counterparts in the immediate vicinity of the junction
and neutralize each other. The region on either side of the junction which becomes depleted from
the mobile charge carriers is called the depletion region or depletion layer whose width is of the
order of 10-6m. This sets up a potential difference across the junction and an internal electric
field E directed from n side to p side. This electric field set up stops further diffusion of majority
charge carriers

10) Differentiate between conductors, insulators and semiconductors on the basis of energy band
diagrams,
Ans:
In metals, either when the conduction band is partially filled and the balanced band is partially empty or
when the conduction and valance bands overlap. When there is overlap electrons from valence band can
easily move into the conduction band. This situation makes a large number of electrons available for
electrical conduction. When the valence band is partially empty, electrons from its lower level can move to
higher level making conduction possible. Therefore, the resistance of such materials is low or the
conductivity is high.

In insulators, the conduction band is empty and valence band is completely filled
and forbidden gap is quite large ≈6 eV(>3eV).
Note that the energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be
excited from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal
excitation.
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In semiconductors, the
conduction band is empty and valence band is totally filled at T<0K. The forbidden gap
between conduction band and valence band is quite small, which is about 1eV(<3eV).

Because of the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence band can acquire
enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These electrons (though small
in numbers) can move in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of semiconductors is not as high
as that of the insulators.

CASE BASED QUESTIONS

1)Read the passage given below and answer the following questions
The device used for convertion of AC to DC is called rectifier. Usually crystal diode are used in rectifier. The output of the
rectifier is not 100% DC but consists of pulsating voltage. To reduce it again it will fed to filter circuit.

1) The property of crystal diode which makes it suitable for rectification is

(a) made of semiconductor

(b) Unidirectional flow of current

(c) Less current in reverse bias

(d) After knee voltage it expontially increase.

2) Capacitor is used in filter circuit because

(a) It allow DC
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(b) It connect series with load resistor

(c) The pulsating AC can easily passed through capacitor

(d)None of above

3) The efficiency of rectifier is more when

(a) one diode is used

(b) two diode used in series

(c)two diode used in parallel

(d) one diode and a capacitor connected in parallel

2) Band theory of solid:

Consider that the Si or Ge crystal contains N atoms. Electrons of each atom will have discrete energies
in different orbits. The electron energy will be same if all the atoms are isolated, i.e., separated from
each other by a large distance. However, in a crystal, the atoms are close to each other (2 Å to 3 Å) and
therefore the electrons interact with each other and also with the neighbouring atomic cores. The overlap
(or interaction) will be more felt by the electrons in the outermost orbit while the inner orbit or core
electron energies may remain unaffected. Therefore, for understanding electron energies in Si or Ge
crystal, we need to consider the changes in the energies of the electrons in the outermost orbit only. For
Si, the outermost orbit is the third orbit (n = 3), while for Ge it is the fourth orbit (n = 4). The number of
electrons in the outermost orbit is 4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence, the total number of outer electrons in
the crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of outer electrons in the orbit is 8 (2s + 6p electrons).
So, out of the 4N electrons, 2N electrons are in the 2N s-states (orbital quantum number l = 0) and 2N
electrons are in the available 6N p-states. Obviously, some p-electron states are empty. This is the case
of well separated or isolated atoms.

1) The energy of electrons of atoms of a substance will be same if:

(A) atoms are isolated.
(B) atoms are closely spaced.
(C) atoms are excited.
(D) atoms are charged.

2) In a crystal, the distance between two atoms is:

(A) 200 Å to 300 Å
(B) 2 Å to 3 micron
(C) 2 Å to 3 Å
(D) 2 mm to 3 mm

3) The overlap (or interaction) will be more felt by the electrons when they are:
a) (A) in the outermost orbit
b) in the innermost orbit.
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c) free.
d) in any orbit.
4) . For Silicon and Germanium the outermost orbits are respectively:
(A) n = 3 and n = 5
(B) n = 4 and n = 3
(C) n = 5 and n = 4
(D) n = 3 and n =
5) The maximum possible electrons in an orbit is:
(A)8 (2s + 6p electrons)
(B) 8 (6s + 2p electrons)
(C) 8 (4s + 4p electrons
(D)8 (1s + 7p electrons)
6) If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode in series with a load and a pulsating voltage
will appear across the load only during the half cycles of the ac input during which the diode is
forward biased. Such rectifier circuit is called a half-wave rectifier. The reverse saturation
current of a diode is negligible and can be considered equal to zero for practical purposes.

(i) If input frequency of signal in half wave rectifier is 50 Hz then the output frequency will be
(A) 25 Hz
(B) 50 Hz
(C) 100 Hz
(D) Uncertain
(ii) If input frequency of signal in full wave rectifier is 50 Hz then the output frequency
will be
(A) 25 Hz
(B) 50 Hz
(C) 100 Hz
(D) Uncertain
(iii) Rectifier converts- (A) AC to DC
(B) DC to AC
(C) AC to AC of different waveform
(D) All of these
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(iv) Full wave rectifier can be used over half wave rectifier because Full wave rectifier is-
(A) More energy efficient
(B) More energy consuming
(C) More handy to use
(D)
(E) More cost effective to manufacture
7) Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small quantity
of pentavalent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are several
processes by which a semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now contains p-region and n-
region and a metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region. Two important processes occur
during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and drift. We know that in an n-type
semiconductor, the concentration of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) is more
compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration
of holes is more than the concentration of electrons. During the formation of p-n junction, and
due to the concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes diffuse from p- side to n-side (p
→ n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This motion of chargecarries gives rise
to diffusion current across the junction.

1) How can a p-type semiconductor be converted into n- type semiconductor?

a) adding pentavalent impurity
b) adding trivalent impurity
c) not possible
d) heavy doping

2) How can a p-type semiconductor be converted into n- type semiconductor?

a) adding pentavalent impurity

b) adding trivalent impurity

c) not possible
d) heavy doping

3. Which of the following is true about p type semiconductor?

a) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.

b)concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.

c)concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.

d)None of these

4 . Which of the following is the reason about diffusion current?

a) diffusion of holes from p to n

b)diffusion of electronss from n to p

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c) both (a) and (b)

d) None of these

SELF ASSESSMENT-SEMICONDUCTOR

Note: Q. No. 1-4 is of 01 mark each, Q. 5-6 is of 02 marks each, [Link].7 is of 03 marks, Q. No. 8 is a case
study based and is of 04 marks, Q. No. 11 is of 5 marks.
No Question Marks

1 The substance which is doped in an intrinsic semiconductor to make p-type 1

semiconductor is
(a) phosphorus (b) antimony
(c) aluminium (d) arsenic
2 Assertion (A): The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is 1
greater insilicon than in germanium.
Reason (R): Thermal energy produces fewer minority carriers in silicon than in
germanium.
i- Both assertion and reason are correct and the reason is the correct explanation
of assertion.j- Both assertion and reason are correct and reason is not a correct
explanation of assertion.
k- Assertion is correct but the reason is incorrect
l- Assertion is incorrect but the reason is correct.
3 The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature because 1
(a) number density of free current carriers increases.
(b) relaxation time increases.
(c) both number density of carriers and relaxation time increase.
(d) number density of current carriers increases; relaxation time decreases but
effect of decrease in relaxation time is much less than increase in number density.
4 Electrical conduction in a semiconductor occurs due to 1
(a) electrons only (b) holes only
(c) electrons and holes both (d) neither electrons nor holes
5 Write two characteristic features to distinguish between n-type and p-type 2
semiconductors.
6 Draw the energy band diagram when intrinsic semiconductor (Ge) is doped with impurity 2
atoms of
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Antimony (Sb). Name the extrinsic semiconductor so obtained and majority charge
carriers in it.
7 (i) Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductor on the basis of energy band 3
diagram.
(ii) Compare their conductivities at absolute zero temperature and at room temperature.
Case study-based questions (questions no 8- 10) ENERGY BAND GAP 4
From Bohr’s atomic model, we know that the
electrons have well defined energy levels in an
isolated atom. But due to interatomic interactions
in a crystal, the electrons of the outer shells are
forced to have energies different from those in
isolated atoms.

Each energy level splits into a number of energy

levels forming a continuous band.

‘The gap between top of valence band and bottom

of the conduction band in which no allowed
energy levels for electrons can exist is called
energy gap.

8. What is the energy gap in an insulator? 1

9. What is Fermi energy level? 1
10. Based on the band theory of conductors, insulators and
semiconductors,which has thesmallest forbidden energy gap? 2
O
R

10. Name the solids having highest energy level partially filled with electrons. 2
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11 Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the V–I characteristics of a p-n junction diode 5
(i) in forward bias and
(ii) in reverse bias.
Draw the typical V–I characteristics of a silicon diode. Describe briefly the following terms:

(i) “minority carrier injection” in forward bias

(ii) “breakdown voltage” in reverse bias.

152