SCIENCE – CLASS 10

Chapter 1: Chemical Reactions and Equations

(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Chemical Reaction

1. A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances react to form new substances.
2. The substances which take part in a reaction are called reactants.
3. The substances formed as a result of the reaction are called products.
4. In a chemical reaction, chemical bonds are broken and formed.
5. A chemical reaction results in a chemical change.

2️⃣ Chemical Equation

1. A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction in a symbolic form.
2. It shows the reactants and products using chemical symbols and formulae.
3. Reactants are written on the left-hand side.
4. Products are written on the right-hand side.
5. A chemical equation helps in understanding a chemical reaction easily.

3️⃣ Balanced Chemical Equation

1. A balanced chemical equation has an equal number of atoms of each element on both sides.
2. It follows the law of conservation of mass.
3. Balancing is done by adjusting coefficients, not subscripts.
4. An unbalanced equation is also called a skeletal equation.
5. A balanced equation represents a real chemical reaction.

4️⃣ Types of Chemical Reactions

🔹 (a) Combination Reaction

1. A combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single
product.
2. Heat is often released in such reactions.
3. These reactions are usually exothermic.
4. Example: Burning of magnesium in air.
5. Combination reactions result in formation of new substances.

🔹 (b) Decomposition Reaction

1. A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler
substances.
2. Energy is required in the form of heat, light or electricity.
3. These reactions are endothermic.
4. Example: Decomposition of calcium carbonate.
5. Decomposition reactions are opposite of combination reactions.

🔹 (c) Displacement Reaction

1. A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from
its compound.
2. These reactions depend on the reactivity series.
3. Example: Zinc displacing copper from copper sulphate solution.
4. Only one element is displaced.
 5. These reactions show relative reactivity of metals.

🔹 (d) Double Displacement Reaction

1. A double displacement reaction involves exchange of ions between two compounds.
2. It usually occurs in aqueous solutions.
3. A precipitate, gas or water may be formed.
4. Example: Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride.
5. These reactions are also called precipitation reactions.

🔹 (e) Oxidation and Reduction (Redox Reaction)

1. Oxidation is the addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.
2. Reduction is the removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen.
3. Oxidation and reduction always occur together.
4. Such reactions are called redox reactions.
5. Example: Rusting of iron.

5️⃣ Effects of Oxidation in Everyday Life

🔹 (a) Corrosion
1. Corrosion is the slow destruction of metals by chemical reactions with air and moisture.
2. Rusting of iron is a common example of corrosion.
3. Corrosion causes loss of metal.
4. It weakens structures and machinery.
5. Corrosion results in economic loss.

🔹 (b) Rancidity
1. Rancidity is the oxidation of fats and oils in food.
2. It causes food to develop bad smell and taste.
3. Rancidity spoils food items.
4. It can be prevented by adding antioxidants.
5. Refrigeration and airtight containers slow down rancidity.

6️⃣ Prevention of Corrosion

1. Painting prevents contact of metal with air and moisture.
2. Galvanisation protects iron by coating it with zinc.
3. Electroplating forms a protective layer on metals.
4. Alloying improves resistance to corrosion.
5. Prevention of corrosion increases life of metals.

7️⃣ Importance of Chemical Reactions

1. Chemical reactions are essential for life processes.
2. They are involved in respiration and digestion.
3. Chemical reactions are used in industries.
4. They help in production of energy and materials.
5. Chemical reactions support daily life activities.

Science – Chapter 2
Acids, Bases and Salts
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Acids
1. Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water.
2. Acids have a sour taste.
3. They turn blue litmus paper red.
4. Acids are corrosive in nature.
5. Examples of acids include hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid.

2️⃣ Bases
1. Bases are substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in aqueous solution.
2. Bases are bitter in taste and feel soapy to touch.
3. They turn red litmus paper blue.
4. Bases are corrosive when concentrated.
5. Examples include sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide.

3️⃣ Alkalis
1. Alkalis are bases that are soluble in water.
2. All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.
3. Alkalis produce OH⁻ ions in solution.
4. They are commonly used in household products.
5. Examples include sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.

4️⃣ Chemical Properties of Acids

1. Acids react with metals to form salt and hydrogen gas.
2. Acids react with metal carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide.
3. Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water.
4. Acids show their acidic nature only in aqueous solution.
5. Dry hydrogen chloride gas does not change the colour of dry litmus paper.

5️⃣ Chemical Properties of Bases

1. Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
2. Bases react with non-metal oxides to form salt and water.
3. Bases in aqueous solution conduct electricity.
4. Strong bases are highly corrosive.
5. Bases also show their properties only in aqueous state.

6️⃣ Strength of Acids and Bases (pH Scale)

1. The pH scale is used to measure the strength of acids and bases.
2. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
3. Acids have a pH value less than 7.
4. Bases have a pH value greater than 7.
5. A pH value of 7 indicates neutrality.

7️⃣ Importance of pH in Everyday Life

1. pH of soil affects crop production.
2. pH change in water bodies affects aquatic life.
3. pH of stomach acid helps in digestion.
4. Tooth decay occurs due to decrease in pH of mouth.
 5. Antacids are used to control excess stomach acid.

8️⃣ Salts
1. Salts are formed by the reaction of an acid and a base.
2. Salts may be neutral, acidic or basic in nature.
3. Salts are usually solid substances.
4. Salts are widely used in daily life.
5. Examples include sodium chloride and potassium nitrate.

9️⃣ Common Salts – Sodium Chloride

1. Sodium chloride is commonly known as common salt.
2. It is obtained from sea water.
3. It is used as a preservative.
4. Sodium chloride is an important raw material.
5. It is used to prepare many useful chemicals.

🔟 Washing Soda
1. Washing soda is chemically known as sodium carbonate.
2. Its chemical formula is Na₂CO₃·10H₂O.
3. It is used as a cleaning agent.
4. It is used in softening of hard water.
5. Washing soda is used in glass and soap industries.

1️⃣1️⃣ Baking Soda

1. Baking soda is chemically known as sodium hydrogen carbonate.
2. Its chemical formula is NaHCO₃.
3. It is used in baking to make food soft and spongy.
4. Baking soda releases carbon dioxide gas on heating.
5. It is also used as an antacid.

1️⃣2️⃣ Plaster of Paris

1. Plaster of Paris is obtained from gypsum.
2. Its chemical formula is CaSO₄·½H₂O.
3. It is a white powder.
4. It sets into a hard mass when mixed with water.
5. It is used for making toys, statues and decorative materials.

1️⃣3️⃣ Uses of Salts

1. Salts are used in food preservation.
2. They are used in medicine.
3. Salts are used in manufacturing industries.
4. They are used in agriculture.
5. Salts play an important role in daily life.

📘 Science – Chapter 3
Metals and Non-metals
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)
1️⃣ Metals
1. Metals are elements that are generally hard, shiny and strong.
2. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
3. Most metals are malleable and ductile.
4. Metals usually form positive ions by losing electrons.
5. Examples of metals include iron, copper and aluminium.

2️⃣ Non-metals
1. Non-metals are elements that lack the properties of metals.
2. They are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity.
3. Non-metals are usually brittle and not malleable.
4. They form negative ions by gaining electrons.
5. Examples of non-metals include oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen.

3️⃣ Physical Properties of Metals

1. Metals are generally lustrous in appearance.
2. They are malleable, meaning they can be beaten into sheets.
3. Metals are ductile, meaning they can be drawn into wires.
4. Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat.
5. Most metals have high melting points.

4️⃣ Physical Properties of Non-metals

1. Non-metals are generally dull in appearance.
2. They are not malleable or ductile.
3. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
4. They have low melting points.
5. Many non-metals exist as gases at room temperature.

5️⃣ Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
2. Metal oxides are generally basic in nature.
3. Metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
4. Metals react with acids to form salt and hydrogen gas.
5. More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their compounds.

6️⃣ Chemical Properties of Non-metals

1. Non-metals react with oxygen to form non-metal oxides.
2. Non-metal oxides are generally acidic in nature.
3. Non-metals do not react with water.
4. They usually do not react with dilute acids.
5. Non-metals form covalent compounds.

7️⃣ Reactivity Series of Metals

1. The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in decreasing order of reactivity.
2. Metals at the top are highly reactive.
3. Metals at the bottom are least reactive.
4. It helps in predicting displacement reactions.
5. It is useful in extraction of metals.
8️⃣ Occurrence of Metals
1. Metals occur in the earth’s crust as ores.
2. Highly reactive metals are found in combined form.
3. Less reactive metals may occur in free state.
4. Ores are extracted from mines.
5. Minerals contain metal compounds.

9️⃣ Extraction of Metals

1. Metals are extracted from their ores through metallurgical processes.
2. Highly reactive metals are extracted by electrolysis.
3. Moderately reactive metals are extracted by reduction with carbon.
4. Low reactivity metals are obtained by simple heating.
5. Extraction depends on the reactivity of metals.

🔟 Corrosion
1. Corrosion is the slow destruction of metals by chemical reaction with air and moisture.
2. Rusting of iron is a common example of corrosion.
3. Corrosion causes loss of metal.
4. It weakens structures and machinery.
5. Corrosion leads to economic loss.

1️⃣1️⃣ Prevention of Corrosion

1. Painting prevents contact of metal with air and moisture.
2. Galvanisation protects iron by coating it with zinc.
3. Electroplating forms a protective layer.
4. Alloying improves resistance to corrosion.
5. Prevention of corrosion increases the life of metals.

1️⃣2️⃣ Uses of Metals

1. Metals are used in construction of buildings and bridges.
2. They are used in making machinery and tools.
3. Metals are used in electrical wires.
4. They are used in transport vehicles.
5. Metals play an important role in industrial development.

1️⃣3️⃣ Uses of Non-metals

1. Oxygen is essential for respiration.
2. Nitrogen is used in fertilisers.
3. Sulphur is used in making chemicals.
4. Chlorine is used for water purification.
5. Non-metals are important for life processes.

1️⃣4️⃣ Properties of Ionic Compounds

1. Ionic compounds are formed by transfer of electrons.
2. They have high melting and boiling points.
3. Ionic compounds are soluble in water.
4. They conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state.
5. Ionic compounds are generally hard and brittle.
📘 Science – Chapter 4
Carbon and its Compounds
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Carbon
1. Carbon is a non-metal that plays an important role in living organisms.
2. Carbon forms a very large number of compounds.
3. The atomic number of carbon is 6.
4. Carbon shows the property of covalent bonding.
5. Carbon compounds form the basis of organic chemistry.

2️⃣ Covalent Bond

1. A covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons.
2. Carbon forms covalent bonds due to its valency of four.
3. Covalent compounds do not have free ions.
4. They have low melting and boiling points.
5. Covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.

3️⃣ Allotropes of Carbon

1. Allotropes are different forms of the same element.
2. Carbon exists as diamond, graphite and fullerenes.
3. Diamond is the hardest natural substance.
4. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
5. Allotropes differ in physical properties.

4️⃣ Properties of Carbon Compounds

1. Carbon compounds have low melting and boiling points.
2. They are generally poor conductors of electricity.
3. Most carbon compounds are insoluble in water.
4. They are combustible in nature.
5. These properties are due to covalent bonding.

5️⃣ Hydrocarbons
1. Hydrocarbons are compounds made of carbon and hydrogen only.
2. They are important fuels.
3. Hydrocarbons are classified as saturated and unsaturated.
4. They form the basis of petroleum products.
5. Hydrocarbons show homologous series.

6️⃣ Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes)

1. Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds.
2. They are also called alkanes.
3. Alkanes follow the general formula CₙH₂ₙ₊₂.
4. They undergo substitution reactions.
5. Alkanes burn with a clean flame.

7️⃣ Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

1. Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain double or triple bonds.
2. Alkenes have double bonds.
 3. Alkynes have triple bonds.
4. They undergo addition reactions.
5. Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a yellow flame.

8️⃣ Homologous Series

1. A homologous series is a group of compounds with similar properties.
2. Members differ by a –CH₂– unit.
3. They have similar chemical properties.
4. Physical properties show gradual change.
5. Homologous series helps in systematic study of compounds.

9️⃣ Functional Groups

1. A functional group is an atom or group of atoms that gives characteristic properties.
2. Examples include –OH, –COOH, –CHO.
3. Functional groups determine chemical behaviour.
4. Compounds with same functional group have similar reactions.
5. Functional groups simplify classification of compounds.

🔟 Alcohols
1. Alcohols contain the functional group –OH.
2. Ethanol is a common alcohol.
3. Alcohols are soluble in water.
4. They are used as fuels and solvents.
5. Alcohols undergo oxidation reactions.

1️⃣1️⃣ Carboxylic Acids

1. Carboxylic acids contain the functional group –COOH.
2. They have a sour taste.
3. Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid.
4. Carboxylic acids react with bases to form salts.
5. They are used in food preservation.

1️⃣2️⃣ Esters
1. Esters are formed by reaction of an acid and alcohol.
2. This reaction is called esterification.
3. Esters have a pleasant smell.
4. They are used in perfumes and flavouring agents.
5. Esters can be broken down by hydrolysis.

1️⃣3️⃣ Soaps
1. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids.
2. They are formed by saponification.
3. Soaps are effective in soft water.
4. They form scum in hard water.
5. Soaps are biodegradable.

1️⃣4️⃣ Detergents
1. Detergents are synthetic cleaning agents.
2. They work in both soft and hard water.
 3. Detergents do not form scum.
4. Some detergents are non-biodegradable.
5. Detergents have replaced soaps in many uses.

1️⃣5️⃣ Cleansing Action of Soap

1. Soap molecules have hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends.
2. The hydrophobic end attaches to oil and grease.
3. The hydrophilic end remains in water.
4. Dirt is removed in the form of micelles.
5. This process cleans clothes and skin.

📘 Science – Chapter 5
Life Processes
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Life Processes

1. Life processes are the basic activities that are necessary to maintain life.
2. These processes include nutrition, respiration, transportation and excretion.
3. All living organisms perform life processes to survive.
4. Energy is required for carrying out life activities.
5. Life processes help in growth, repair and maintenance of the body.

2️⃣ Nutrition
1. Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain food.
2. Food provides energy and materials for growth.
3. Nutrition is essential for repair of tissues.
4. Living organisms show different modes of nutrition.
5. Nutrition is necessary for all life processes.

3️⃣ Autotrophic Nutrition

1. Autotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which organisms make their own food.
2. Green plants show autotrophic nutrition.
3. It occurs through the process of photosynthesis.
4. Plants use carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.
5. Chlorophyll is essential for this process.

4️⃣ Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare food.
2. It takes place in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide and water as raw materials.
4. Glucose is formed as food.
5. Oxygen is released as a by-product.

5️⃣ Heterotrophic Nutrition

1. Heterotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which organisms depend on others for food.
2. Animals and human beings show heterotrophic nutrition.
3. This type includes holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition.
4. Food is obtained from plants or other animals.
5. Heterotrophic nutrition provides ready-made food.
6️⃣ Holozoic Nutrition
1. Holozoic nutrition involves ingestion of solid food.
2. It includes the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
3. Human beings show holozoic nutrition.
4. Food is digested inside the body.
5. Energy is obtained from digested food.

7️⃣ Digestive System in Human Beings

1. The digestive system helps in digestion of food.
2. It includes mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
3. Digestion begins in the mouth.
4. Enzymes break down complex food into simpler substances.
5. Digested food is absorbed in the small intestine.

8️⃣ Respiration
1. Respiration is the process of breaking down food to release energy.
2. It involves oxidation of glucose.
3. Respiration may be aerobic or anaerobic.
4. Energy released is used for life activities.
5. Respiration is essential for survival.

9️⃣ Aerobic Respiration

1. Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen.
2. It occurs mainly in the mitochondria.
3. Glucose is completely broken down.
4. A large amount of energy is released.
5. End products are carbon dioxide and water.

🔟 Anaerobic Respiration
1. Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen.
2. It occurs in yeast and muscles.
3. Less amount of energy is released.
4. End products are alcohol or lactic acid.
5. It is a partial breakdown of glucose.

1️⃣1️⃣ Transportation in Human Beings

1. Transportation is the movement of substances within the body.
2. The circulatory system performs transportation.
3. It consists of heart, blood and blood vessels.
4. Oxygen and nutrients are transported to cells.
5. Waste materials are carried to excretory organs.

1️⃣2️⃣ Heart
1. The heart is a muscular organ.
2. It pumps blood to all parts of the body.
3. The human heart has four chambers.
4. It maintains double circulation.
5. Heartbeat helps in continuous flow of blood.
1️⃣3️⃣ Blood
1. Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
2. It transports oxygen, nutrients and hormones.
3. Red blood cells carry oxygen.
4. White blood cells protect the body from diseases.
5. Platelets help in blood clotting.

1️⃣4️⃣ Transportation in Plants

1. Plants transport water through xylem.
2. Food is transported through phloem.
3. Transpiration pull helps in upward movement of water.
4. Root pressure assists transportation.
5. Transportation supports growth and photosynthesis.

1️⃣5️⃣ Excretion
1. Excretion is the removal of waste products from the body.
2. Waste materials are harmful if accumulated.
3. Excretion maintains internal balance.
4. It is a vital life process.
5. Proper excretion is necessary for health.

1️⃣6️⃣ Excretory System in Human Beings

1. The excretory system removes nitrogenous wastes.
2. It consists of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
3. Kidneys filter blood and form urine.
4. Urine is temporarily stored in the urinary bladder.
5. Excretion maintains homeostasis.

📘 Science – Chapter 6
Control and Coordination
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Control and Coordination

1. Control and coordination refer to the processes by which activities of the body are regulated and
organised.
2. All living organisms need control and coordination to respond to stimuli.
3. These processes help in maintaining internal balance.
4. Control and coordination are carried out by nervous and hormonal systems.
5. They ensure proper functioning of the body.

2️⃣ Stimulus and Response

1. A stimulus is any change in the environment that causes a response.
2. Living organisms detect stimuli through receptors.
3. The reaction shown by an organism is called response.
4. Response helps organisms to adapt to surroundings.
5. Stimulus–response mechanism ensures survival.

3️⃣ Nervous System

 1. The nervous system controls activities through electrical impulses.
2. It helps in quick responses to stimuli.
3. The nervous system includes brain, spinal cord and nerves.
4. It coordinates both voluntary and involuntary actions.
5. Nervous system ensures immediate control.

4️⃣ Neuron
1. A neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
2. It consists of dendrites, cell body and axon.
3. Neurons transmit nerve impulses.
4. They carry messages from receptors to effectors.
5. Neurons enable coordination of activities.

5️⃣ Reflex Action

1. A reflex action is a quick and automatic response to a stimulus.
2. It is controlled by the spinal cord.
3. Reflex actions do not involve thinking.
4. They help protect the body from harm.
5. Example: withdrawing hand from a hot object.

6️⃣ Reflex Arc

1. A reflex arc is the pathway followed during a reflex action.
2. It includes receptor, sensory neuron, spinal cord, motor neuron and effector.
3. Reflex arc allows fast transmission of impulses.
4. It reduces response time.
5. Reflex arc ensures immediate action.

7️⃣ Human Brain

1. The brain is the main control centre of the body.
2. It is protected by the skull.
3. The brain controls thinking, memory and emotions.
4. It also regulates voluntary actions.
5. Brain coordinates activities of the nervous system.

8️⃣ Parts of the Brain

1. The forebrain controls thinking and voluntary actions.
2. The midbrain controls visual and auditory reflexes.
3. The hindbrain controls involuntary actions.
4. Cerebellum maintains balance and posture.
5. Medulla oblongata controls breathing and heartbeat.

9️⃣ Autonomic Nervous System

1. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary actions.
2. It includes sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
3. It regulates heart rate and digestion.
4. These actions are not under conscious control.
5. It maintains internal coordination.

🔟 Endocrine System
 1. The endocrine system controls activities using hormones.
2. Hormones are chemical messengers.
3. Hormones are released directly into the bloodstream.
4. Endocrine control is slow but long-lasting.
5. It works in coordination with the nervous system.

1️⃣1️⃣ Hormones
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands.
2. They regulate growth, development and metabolism.
3. Hormones act on target organs.
4. Only a small amount of hormone is required.
5. Hormones maintain homeostasis.

1️⃣2️⃣ Major Endocrine Glands

1. The pituitary gland is the master gland.
2. Thyroid gland controls metabolism.
3. Pancreas regulates blood sugar level.
4. Adrenal glands prepare the body for emergencies.
5. Gonads control sexual development.

1️⃣3️⃣ Plant Hormones

1. Plant hormones regulate growth and development in plants.
2. They are also called phytohormones.
3. Hormones control growth, flowering and ripening.
4. They act in very small quantities.
5. Plant hormones coordinate plant responses.

1️⃣4️⃣ Auxins
1. Auxins promote cell elongation.
2. They help in phototropism.
3. Auxins are produced in the growing tips.
4. They control direction of plant growth.
5. Auxins help plants respond to light.

1️⃣5️⃣ Gibberellins
1. Gibberellins promote stem elongation.
2. They help in seed germination.
3. Gibberellins increase internode length.
4. They regulate growth of plants.
5. They are growth-promoting hormones.

1️⃣6️⃣ Cytokinins
1. Cytokinins promote cell division.
2. They delay ageing in plants.
3. Cytokinins help in growth of lateral buds.
4. They are produced in roots and fruits.
5. Cytokinins maintain plant vitality.

1️⃣7️⃣ Ethylene
 1. Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone.
2. It promotes fruit ripening.
3. Ethylene accelerates ageing.
4. It controls leaf fall.
5. Ethylene regulates senescence.

1️⃣8️⃣ Abscisic Acid

1. Abscisic acid inhibits plant growth.
2. It is called a growth inhibitor.
3. It promotes dormancy.
4. It helps plants during stress conditions.
5. Abscisic acid controls stomatal closure.

📘 Science – Chapter 7
How do Organisms Reproduce
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Reproduction
1. Reproduction is the biological process by which organisms produce new individuals of the same
species.
2. It is essential for the continuity of life on earth.
3. Reproduction helps in maintaining the population of a species.
4. It allows transfer of genetic information from parents to offspring.
5. Reproduction may be asexual or sexual.

2️⃣ Importance of Reproduction

1. Reproduction ensures survival of species.
2. It helps in replacement of old individuals.
3. Reproduction introduces variations in organisms.
4. Variations are important for evolution.
5. It maintains biological balance.

3️⃣ Asexual Reproduction

1. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent.
2. It does not involve fusion of gametes.
3. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent.
4. It is a rapid method of reproduction.
5. It occurs in simple organisms.

4️⃣ Binary Fission

1. Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction.
2. The parent organism divides into two identical individuals.
3. It occurs in unicellular organisms.
4. Example: Amoeba and bacteria.
5. Binary fission is a simple and fast process.

5️⃣ Multiple Fission

1. Multiple fission involves division of a single parent into many offspring.
2. The nucleus divides repeatedly.
 3. It occurs under unfavourable conditions.
4. Example: Plasmodium.
5. This method produces a large number of individuals.

6️⃣ Budding
1. Budding is a form of asexual reproduction.
2. A small outgrowth called bud develops on the parent body.
3. The bud grows and separates to form a new individual.
4. Example: Yeast and Hydra.
5. Budding produces genetically identical offspring.

7️⃣ Fragmentation
1. Fragmentation occurs when the body breaks into fragments.
2. Each fragment develops into a new organism.
3. It occurs in simple multicellular organisms.
4. Example: Spirogyra.
5. Fragmentation helps in rapid multiplication.

8️⃣ Vegetative Propagation

1. Vegetative propagation is reproduction using vegetative parts of plants.
2. These parts include root, stem and leaves.
3. It is a method of asexual reproduction in plants.
4. It produces genetically similar plants.
5. It is useful for growing seedless plants.

9️⃣ Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

1. Only one parent is required.
2. It is a fast method of reproduction.
3. It produces a large number of offspring quickly.
4. It preserves favourable traits.
5. It is useful in stable environments.

🔟 Sexual Reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction involves two parents.
2. It includes formation and fusion of gametes.
3. Offspring show genetic variation.
4. Sexual reproduction is a slow process.
5. It promotes evolution.

1️⃣1️⃣ Human Reproductive System (Male)

1. The male reproductive system produces male gametes.
2. Testes produce sperms and testosterone.
3. Sperms are carried through sperm ducts.
4. Accessory glands provide nutrition to sperms.
5. The system ensures successful fertilisation.

1️⃣2️⃣ Human Reproductive System (Female)

1. The female reproductive system produces ova.
2. Ovaries produce female gametes and hormones.
 3. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.
4. The uterus supports development of embryo.
5. Female system supports pregnancy and childbirth.

1️⃣3️⃣ Fertilisation
1. Fertilisation is the fusion of male and female gametes.
2. It results in formation of a zygote.
3. Fertilisation occurs in the fallopian tube.
4. It marks the beginning of development of new individual.
5. Fertilisation restores diploid chromosome number.

1️⃣4️⃣ Development of Embryo

1. The zygote divides repeatedly to form an embryo.
2. The embryo gets embedded in the uterus wall.
3. This process is called implantation.
4. The embryo develops into a foetus.
5. Development continues till birth.

1️⃣5️⃣ Puberty
1. Puberty is the age when reproductive organs become functional.
2. It occurs due to hormonal changes.
3. Secondary sexual characters appear.
4. Boys and girls show physical and emotional changes.
5. Puberty prepares the body for reproduction.

1️⃣6️⃣ Menstrual Cycle

1. The menstrual cycle occurs in females.
2. It is a monthly cycle of about 28 days.
3. It prepares the uterus for pregnancy.
4. If fertilisation does not occur, menstruation takes place.
5. Menstrual cycle stops during pregnancy.

1️⃣7️⃣ Reproductive Health

1. Reproductive health refers to healthy reproductive organs.
2. It includes physical, mental and social well-being.
3. Proper hygiene prevents infections.
4. Awareness helps in family planning.
5. Reproductive health improves quality of life.

1️⃣8️⃣ Methods of Birth Control

1. Birth control methods prevent unwanted pregnancies.
2. Barrier methods prevent fusion of gametes.
3. Chemical methods include oral pills.
4. Surgical methods include vasectomy and tubectomy.
5. Birth control promotes small family norm.
📘 Science – Chapter 8
Heredity and Evolution
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)
1️⃣ Heredity
1. Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
2. Traits are passed through genes.
3. Heredity explains similarities among family members.
4. It ensures continuity of characters in a species.
5. Heredity plays an important role in variation and evolution.

2️⃣ Variation
1. Variation refers to differences among individuals of the same species.
2. Variations arise due to sexual reproduction.
3. Some variations are inherited while others are acquired.
4. Variations help organisms adapt to changing environment.
5. Variations are the basis of evolution.

3️⃣ Inherited Traits

1. Inherited traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes.
2. They are present in the DNA.
3. Inherited traits appear at birth.
4. They remain unchanged throughout life.
5. Example: blood group and eye colour.

4️⃣ Acquired Traits

1. Acquired traits develop during the lifetime of an organism.
2. They are caused by environmental factors.
3. Acquired traits are not inherited.
4. They do not involve changes in DNA.
5. Example: muscular body of a wrestler.

5️⃣ Rules of Inheritance

1. Traits are controlled by genes.
2. Genes occur in pairs.
3. One gene is inherited from each parent.
4. Some traits are dominant while others are recessive.
5. These rules explain inheritance patterns.

6️⃣ Gregor Mendel

1. Gregor Mendel is known as the Father of Genetics.
2. He conducted experiments on pea plants.
3. Mendel studied inheritance of contrasting traits.
4. He proposed laws of inheritance.
5. His work explained pattern of heredity.

7️⃣ Monohybrid Cross

1. A monohybrid cross involves inheritance of one trait.
2. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants.
3. All plants in F₁ generation were tall.
4. The trait tallness was dominant.
5. The ratio in F₂ generation was 3:1.
8️⃣ Genotype and Phenotype
1. Genotype refers to the genetic makeup of an organism.
2. Phenotype refers to the physical appearance.
3. Genotype determines the phenotype.
4. Same genotype may produce same phenotype.
5. Phenotype depends on genes and environment.

9️⃣ Dominant and Recessive Traits

1. Dominant traits are expressed even in presence of another trait.
2. Recessive traits are expressed only when dominant trait is absent.
3. Dominant trait masks the recessive one.
4. Example: Tallness is dominant over dwarfness.
5. These traits follow Mendel’s laws.

🔟 Sex Determination in Human Beings

1. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes.
2. Females have XX chromosomes.
3. Males have XY chromosomes.
4. The father determines the sex of the child.
5. This system ensures equal probability of male and female child.

1️⃣1️⃣ Evolution
1. Evolution is the gradual change in organisms over generations.
2. It results in formation of new species.
3. Evolution occurs due to variations.
4. It explains diversity of life on earth.
5. Evolution is a slow and continuous process.

1️⃣2️⃣ Speciation
1. Speciation is the formation of new species.
2. It occurs due to geographical isolation.
3. Accumulation of variations leads to speciation.
4. Environmental factors influence speciation.
5. Speciation increases biodiversity.

1️⃣3️⃣ Evolution and Classification

1. Classification is based on evolutionary relationships.
2. Organisms with common ancestry are placed together.
3. More similarities indicate closer evolutionary relation.
4. Classification helps trace evolutionary history.
5. It simplifies the study of organisms.

1️⃣4️⃣ Homologous Organs

1. Homologous organs have same basic structure.
2. They perform different functions.
3. They indicate common ancestry.
4. Example: forelimbs of humans and whales.
5. Homologous organs support divergent evolution.
1️⃣5️⃣ Analogous Organs
1. Analogous organs perform same function.
2. They have different structures.
3. They do not indicate common ancestry.
4. Example: wings of birds and insects.
5. Analogous organs show convergent evolution.

1️⃣6️⃣ Fossils
1. Fossils are preserved remains of dead organisms.
2. They provide evidence of evolution.
3. Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
4. Older fossils are found in deeper layers.
5. Fossils help trace evolutionary changes.

1️⃣7️⃣ Evolution by Natural Selection

1. Natural selection was proposed by Charles Darwin.
2. Organisms with useful variations survive.
3. Others are eliminated by environmental pressure.
4. Survivors reproduce and pass variations.
5. Natural selection leads to evolution.

1️⃣8️⃣ Human Evolution

1. Humans evolved from ape-like ancestors.
2. Evolution involved gradual changes.
3. Increase in brain size occurred.
4. Development of upright posture took place.
5. Human evolution shows common ancestry.

📘 Science – Chapter 9
Light – Reflection and Refraction
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Light
1. Light is a form of energy that enables us to see objects.
2. Light travels in a straight line in a uniform medium.
3. It shows the phenomena of reflection and refraction.
4. Light can travel through transparent media.
5. The behaviour of light explains many optical phenomena.

2️⃣ Reflection of Light

1. Reflection of light is the bouncing back of light from a surface.
2. It occurs when light strikes a polished or shiny surface.
3. Reflection follows certain laws.
4. A plane mirror shows regular reflection.
5. Reflection helps in formation of images.

3️⃣ Laws of Reflection

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal lie in the same plane.
 3. These laws apply to all reflecting surfaces.
4. They explain the direction of reflected rays.
5. Laws of reflection are fundamental to optics.

4️⃣ Plane Mirror – Image Formation

1. A plane mirror forms a virtual and erect image.
2. The image is formed at the same distance behind the mirror.
3. Image size is equal to the object size.
4. Image shows lateral inversion.
5. Plane mirrors are used in daily life.

5️⃣ Spherical Mirrors

1. Spherical mirrors are mirrors with curved surfaces.
2. They are of two types: concave and convex mirrors.
3. A concave mirror converges light rays.
4. A convex mirror diverges light rays.
5. Spherical mirrors are widely used in optical devices.

6️⃣ Concave Mirror

1. A concave mirror has its reflecting surface curved inwards.
2. It is also called a converging mirror.
3. It can form real or virtual images.
4. Image nature depends on object position.
5. It is used in torches and shaving mirrors.

7️⃣ Convex Mirror

1. A convex mirror has its reflecting surface curved outwards.
2. It is also called a diverging mirror.
3. It always forms a virtual, erect and diminished image.
4. It provides a wide field of view.
5. It is used as rear-view mirrors.

8️⃣ Important Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors

1. Pole is the centre of the mirror.
2. Centre of curvature is the centre of the sphere of which mirror is a part.
3. Radius of curvature is the distance between pole and centre of curvature.
4. Principal axis is the straight line through pole and centre of curvature.
5. Principal focus is the point where parallel rays meet or appear to meet.

9️⃣ Mirror Formula

1. The mirror formula relates object distance, image distance and focal length.
2. It is written as 1/f = 1/v + 1/u.
3. This formula is valid for spherical mirrors.
4. Sign convention must be followed carefully.
5. Mirror formula helps in numerical problems.

🔟 Magnification
1. Magnification is the ratio of image height to object height.
2. It indicates the size of image formed.
 3. Magnification for mirrors is given by m = –v/u.
4. Positive magnification indicates erect image.
5. Negative magnification indicates inverted image.

1️⃣1️⃣ Refraction of Light

1. Refraction of light is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another.
2. It occurs due to change in speed of light.
3. Light bends towards the normal in a denser medium.
4. It bends away from the normal in a rarer medium.
5. Refraction explains many natural phenomena.

1️⃣2️⃣ Laws of Refraction

1. The incident ray, refracted ray and normal lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is constant.
3. This constant is called refractive index.
4. Laws of refraction are also known as Snell’s laws.
5. These laws explain bending of light.

1️⃣3️⃣ Refractive Index

1. Refractive index indicates the speed of light in a medium.
2. It is the ratio of speed of light in air to that in the medium.
3. Higher refractive index means denser medium.
4. It has no unit.
5. Refractive index depends on nature of medium.

1️⃣4️⃣ Refraction Through a Glass Slab

1. Light bends on entering a glass slab.
2. It bends again while leaving the slab.
3. Emergent ray is parallel to incident ray.
4. There is a lateral displacement.
5. Thickness of slab affects displacement.

1️⃣5️⃣ Lens
1. A lens is a transparent medium with curved surfaces.
2. Lenses are of two types: convex and concave.
3. Lenses refract light to form images.
4. They are used in optical instruments.
5. Lenses follow lens formula.

1️⃣6️⃣ Convex Lens

1. A convex lens is thicker at the centre.
2. It is a converging lens.
3. It can form real and virtual images.
4. Image nature depends on object position.
5. It is used in magnifying glasses.

1️⃣7️⃣ Concave Lens

1. A concave lens is thinner at the centre.
2. It is a diverging lens.
 3. It always forms a virtual and diminished image.
4. Image is erect.
5. It is used in spectacles.

1️⃣8️⃣ Lens Formula

1. The lens formula relates focal length, image distance and object distance.
2. It is written as 1/f = 1/v + 1/u.
3. It is valid for thin lenses.
4. Proper sign convention is required.
5. Lens formula is used in numerical problems.

1️⃣9️⃣ Magnification by Lens

1. Magnification indicates enlargement or reduction of image.
2. It is given by m = v/u.
3. Positive magnification shows erect image.
4. Negative magnification shows inverted image.
5. Magnification depends on lens type and position.

📘 Science – Chapter 10
The Human Eye and the Colourful World
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Human Eye

1. The human eye is a natural optical instrument that enables us to see objects.
2. It works like a camera by forming images on the retina.
3. The eye can distinguish between different colours and intensities of light.
4. The size of the eyeball is about 2.3 cm in diameter.
5. The human eye can see objects clearly within a limited range of distance.

2️⃣ Structure of the Human Eye

1. The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye.
2. The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye.
3. The pupil is the small opening in the iris.
4. The eye lens focuses light on the retina.
5. The retina contains rods and cones for vision.

3️⃣ Functions of Different Parts of the Eye

1. The cornea provides most of the refraction of light.
2. The iris adjusts the size of the pupil.
3. The eye lens forms a real and inverted image.
4. The retina acts as a screen for image formation.
5. The optic nerve carries visual signals to the brain.

4️⃣ Accommodation of the Eye

1. Accommodation is the ability of the eye lens to change its focal length.
2. It allows us to see both near and distant objects clearly.
3. Ciliary muscles help in accommodation.
4. The focal length decreases for near objects.
5. The focal length increases for distant objects.
5️⃣ Defects of Vision
1. Defects of vision occur when the eye cannot focus images properly.
2. Common defects include myopia, hypermetropia and presbyopia.
3. These defects reduce the clarity of vision.
4. Defects may be due to change in shape of eye lens.
5. Defects can be corrected using suitable lenses.

6️⃣ Myopia (Short-sightedness)

1. Myopia is a defect in which near objects are seen clearly.
2. Distant objects appear blurred.
3. The image is formed in front of the retina.
4. It is caused by elongation of eyeball.
5. Myopia is corrected using a concave lens.

7️⃣ Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness)

1. Hypermetropia is a defect in which distant objects are seen clearly.
2. Near objects appear blurred.
3. The image is formed behind the retina.
4. It is caused by short eyeball or weak eye lens.
5. Hypermetropia is corrected using a convex lens.

8️⃣ Presbyopia
1. Presbyopia occurs due to ageing.
2. The eye lens loses its flexibility.
3. Ciliary muscles become weak.
4. Near objects cannot be seen clearly.
5. It is corrected using bifocal lenses.

9️⃣ Dispersion of Light

1. Dispersion of light is the splitting of white light into its constituent colours.
2. It occurs when light passes through a glass prism.
3. Different colours bend by different amounts.
4. Violet light deviates the most.
5. Red light deviates the least.

🔟 Spectrum
1. The band of colours obtained after dispersion is called a spectrum.
2. It consists of seven colours.
3. These colours are VIBGYOR.
4. Spectrum shows the composition of white light.
5. Each colour has a different wavelength.

1️⃣1️⃣ Scattering of Light

1. Scattering of light is the redirection of light in different directions.
2. It occurs due to particles in the atmosphere.
3. Shorter wavelengths scatter more than longer wavelengths.
4. Scattering explains many natural phenomena.
5. It depends on size of particles.
1️⃣2️⃣ Why the Sky Appears Blue
1. The sky appears blue due to scattering of light.
2. Blue light has shorter wavelength.
3. It is scattered more by air molecules.
4. Blue light reaches our eyes from all directions.
5. Hence, the sky looks blue.

1️⃣3️⃣ Sun Appears Red at Sunrise and Sunset

1. At sunrise and sunset, sunlight travels a longer path.
2. Most blue light is scattered away.
3. Only red light reaches our eyes.
4. Red light has longer wavelength.
5. Therefore, the Sun appears red.

1️⃣4️⃣ Tyndall Effect

1. The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by colloidal particles.
2. It makes the path of light visible.
3. It occurs in fog, smoke and dust.
4. It is used to distinguish true solutions and colloids.
5. Tyndall effect supports scattering of light.

1️⃣5️⃣ Atmospheric Refraction

1. Atmospheric refraction is refraction of light by layers of air.
2. It occurs due to variation in air density.
3. It causes twinkling of stars.
4. It makes stars appear slightly higher.
5. Atmospheric refraction affects vision of celestial objects.

1️⃣6️⃣ Twinkling of Stars

1. Stars appear to twinkle due to atmospheric refraction.
2. Light from stars passes through different air layers.
3. Continuous bending causes change in brightness.
4. Stars are distant point sources of light.
5. Hence, twinkling is observed.

1️⃣7️⃣ Why Planets Do Not Twinkle

1. Planets are closer to the Earth.
2. They appear as extended sources of light.
3. Light from planets reaches the eye from many points.
4. Variations cancel each other.
5. Therefore, planets do not twinkle.
s

📘 Science – Chapter 11
Electricity
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Electric Current

 1. Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor.
2. It is measured as the amount of charge flowing per unit time.
3. Electric current is represented by the symbol I.
4. The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A).
5. Electric current flows only in a closed circuit.

2️⃣ Electric Circuit

1. An electric circuit is a closed path through which current flows.
2. It consists of a battery, conductor, switch and bulb.
3. If the circuit is broken, current does not flow.
4. A closed circuit allows continuous flow of charges.
5. Electric circuits are used in all electrical appliances.

3️⃣ Electric Potential Difference

1. Electric potential difference is the work done to move a unit charge.
2. It is represented by the symbol V.
3. The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (V).
4. Potential difference causes electric current to flow.
5. A voltmeter is used to measure potential difference.

4️⃣ Ohm’s Law

1. Ohm’s Law states that current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends.
2. This law is valid when temperature remains constant.
3. It is expressed as V = IR.
4. Here V is potential difference, I is current and R is resistance.
5. Ohm’s Law explains the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.

5️⃣ Resistance
1. Resistance is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of current.
2. It is represented by the symbol R.
3. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
4. Higher resistance means less current flows.
5. Resistance depends on material, length and thickness.

6️⃣ Factors Affecting Resistance

1. Resistance increases with increase in length of the conductor.
2. Resistance decreases with increase in cross-sectional area.
3. Resistance depends on the nature of material.
4. Resistance increases with increase in temperature.
5. These factors control the flow of current.

7️⃣ Resistors in Series

1. In a series combination, resistors are connected end to end.
2. The same current flows through all resistors.
3. Total resistance is the sum of individual resistances.
4. Series combination provides high resistance.
5. It is used when same current is required.
8️⃣ Resistors in Parallel
1. In a parallel combination, resistors are connected across the same points.
2. Potential difference across each resistor is same.
3. Total resistance is less than the smallest resistance.
4. Current divides among different branches.
5. Parallel combination is used in household wiring.

9️⃣ Electric Power

1. Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed.
2. It is represented by the symbol P.
3. The SI unit of electric power is the watt (W).
4. Power is given by the formula P = VI.
5. Electric power indicates energy consumption rate.

🔟 Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy

1. Electrical energy is measured commercially in kilowatt-hour (kWh).
2. One kilowatt-hour is also called one unit.
3. It is the energy consumed by a 1000 W appliance in one hour.
4. Electricity bills are calculated in units.
5. kWh is a larger unit of energy.

1️⃣1️⃣ Heating Effect of Electric Current

1. The heating effect of electric current is produced when current flows through a resistor.
2. Electrical energy is converted into heat energy.
3. This effect depends on current, resistance and time.
4. It is given by Joule’s law of heating.
5. Heating effect is useful in electric heaters and irons.

1️⃣2️⃣ Joule’s Law of Heating

1. Joule’s law states that heat produced is proportional to square of current.
2. Heat is also proportional to resistance.
3. Heat is proportional to time of flow of current.
4. Formula is H = I²Rt.
5. Joule’s law explains heating devices.

1️⃣3️⃣ Electric Fuse

1. An electric fuse is a safety device.
2. It protects appliances from overloading and short circuit.
3. Fuse wire has low melting point.
4. It melts when excess current flows.
5. Fuse prevents damage and fire hazards.

1️⃣4️⃣ Overloading
1. Overloading occurs when too many appliances are connected.
2. Excess current flows in the circuit.
3. Wires get overheated.
4. It may cause fire accidents.
5. Fuse prevents damage during overloading.
1️⃣5️⃣ Short Circuit
1. Short circuit occurs when live wire comes in direct contact with neutral wire.
2. Resistance becomes very low.
3. Large current flows suddenly.
4. It produces sparks and heat.
5. Short circuit is dangerous and causes fire.

📘 Science – Chapter 12
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Magnet
1. A magnet is an object that produces a magnetic field.
2. A magnet attracts materials like iron, nickel and cobalt.
3. A magnet has two poles, namely north and south.
4. Like poles repel each other.
5. Unlike poles attract each other.

2️⃣ Magnetic Field

1. A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where its effect is felt.
2. Magnetic field is represented by magnetic field lines.
3. Field lines are denser near the poles.
4. The direction of magnetic field is from north pole to south pole.
5. Magnetic field lines never intersect each other.

3️⃣ Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying Conductor

1. A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
2. This was discovered by Hans Christian Oersted.
3. The magnetic field is circular around the conductor.
4. The direction of the field depends on the direction of current.
5. This shows the connection between electricity and magnetism.

4️⃣ Right-Hand Thumb Rule

1. The right-hand thumb rule is used to find the direction of magnetic field.
2. The thumb points in the direction of current.
3. The curled fingers show the direction of magnetic field lines.
4. It applies to a straight current-carrying conductor.
5. This rule helps in determining field direction easily.

5️⃣ Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Loop

1. A current-carrying circular loop behaves like a magnet.
2. Magnetic field lines are stronger near the centre of the loop.
3. The direction of magnetic field depends on the direction of current.
4. When current flows anticlockwise, the loop behaves like a north pole.
5. Strength of field increases with increase in current.

6️⃣ Solenoid
1. A solenoid is a coil of many turns of insulated copper wire.
2. When current flows, it produces a strong magnetic field.
 3. The magnetic field inside a solenoid is uniform.
4. A solenoid behaves like a bar magnet.
5. It is used to make electromagnets.

7️⃣ Electromagnet
1. An electromagnet is a temporary magnet.
2. It is formed by passing current through a solenoid with soft iron core.
3. Strength of electromagnet depends on current and number of turns.
4. It loses magnetism when current is switched off.
5. Electromagnets are used in electric bells and cranes.

8️⃣ Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

1. A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
2. This force depends on current, magnetic field and length.
3. The direction of force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
4. This principle is used in electric motors.
5. It shows interaction between electric current and magnetic field.

9️⃣ Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule

1. Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to find direction of force.
2. The forefinger shows direction of magnetic field.
3. The thumb shows direction of motion of conductor.
4. The middle finger shows direction of current.
5. This rule is applied in electric motors.

🔟 Electric Motor
1. An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
2. It works on the principle of force on a current-carrying conductor.
3. It consists of armature, magnet, split ring and brushes.
4. The split ring acts as a commutator.
5. Electric motors are used in fans, mixers and pumps.

1️⃣1️⃣ Electromagnetic Induction

1. Electromagnetic induction is the production of electric current due to change in magnetic field.
2. It was discovered by Michael Faraday.
3. Relative motion between magnet and coil induces current.
4. It is a temporary current.
5. This principle is used in electric generators.

1️⃣2️⃣ Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

1. Fleming’s right-hand rule is used to find direction of induced current.
2. The thumb shows direction of motion of conductor.
3. The forefinger shows direction of magnetic field.
4. The middle finger shows direction of induced current.
5. This rule is used in electric generators.

1️⃣3️⃣ Electric Generator

1. An electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
2. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
 3. It consists of armature, magnet, slip rings and brushes.
4. It produces alternating current (AC).
5. Generators are used in power stations.

1️⃣4️⃣ Alternating Current (AC)

1. Alternating current changes direction periodically.
2. It is produced by AC generators.
3. AC is used for domestic supply.
4. It can be transmitted over long distances.
5. Frequency of AC in India is 50 Hz.

1️⃣5️⃣ Direct Current (DC)

1. Direct current flows in one direction only.
2. It is produced by cells and batteries.
3. DC is used in electronic devices.
4. It has constant magnitude.
5. DC cannot be transmitted over long distances easily.

1️⃣6️⃣ Difference Between AC and DC

1. AC changes direction, while DC flows in one direction.
2. AC is produced by generators, DC by cells.
3. AC is suitable for long-distance transmission.
4. DC is used in portable devices.
5. Both have different applications.

📘 Science – Chapter 13
Our Environment
(FULL Notes | NCERT Language | 5 Points Each | Keywords Highlighted | Board-Ready)

1️⃣ Environment
1. The environment includes all living and non-living components around us.
2. It consists of biotic and abiotic components.
3. Living organisms interact continuously with their environment.
4. The environment provides resources necessary for life.
5. A balanced environment is essential for survival of organisms.

2️⃣ Biotic Components

1. Biotic components are the living organisms in an environment.
2. They include plants, animals and microorganisms.
3. Plants act as producers.
4. Animals act as consumers.
5. Biotic components are interdependent.

3️⃣ Abiotic Components

1. Abiotic components are the non-living factors of environment.
2. They include air, water, soil, sunlight and temperature.
3. Abiotic factors influence growth of living organisms.
4. They determine the distribution of plants and animals.
5. Abiotic components support life processes.
4️⃣ Ecosystem
1. An ecosystem is a functional unit of the environment.
2. It consists of biotic and abiotic components interacting together.
3. Energy flows from one component to another.
4. Examples include forest, pond and grassland.
5. Ecosystems maintain ecological balance.

5️⃣ Producers
1. Producers are green plants that make their own food.
2. They prepare food by photosynthesis.
3. Producers form the first trophic level.
4. They convert solar energy into chemical energy.
5. Producers support all other organisms.

6️⃣ Consumers
1. Consumers depend on producers for food.
2. Herbivores eat plants.
3. Carnivores eat other animals.
4. Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
5. Consumers occupy higher trophic levels.

7️⃣ Decomposers
1. Decomposers break down dead plants and animals.
2. They include bacteria and fungi.
3. Decomposers recycle nutrients back to the soil.
4. They help in nutrient cycling.
5. Decomposers maintain soil fertility.

8️⃣ Food Chain

1. A food chain shows transfer of energy from one organism to another.
2. It starts with producers.
3. Energy flows in one direction only.
4. Each step is called a trophic level.
5. Food chains maintain balance in ecosystem.

9️⃣ Food Web

1. A food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
2. It provides alternative paths of energy flow.
3. Food webs make ecosystems more stable.
4. Organisms may occupy more than one trophic level.
5. Food webs show complex feeding relationships.

🔟 Trophic Levels
1. Trophic levels represent steps in a food chain.
2. Producers occupy the first trophic level.
3. Herbivores form the second trophic level.
4. Carnivores occupy higher trophic levels.
5. Energy decreases at each trophic level.
1️⃣1️⃣ Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
1. Energy enters the ecosystem as sunlight.
2. Producers convert solar energy into chemical energy.
3. Only 10% energy is transferred to next trophic level.
4. Remaining energy is lost as heat.
5. Energy flow is unidirectional.

1️⃣2️⃣ 10% Law

1. The 10% law was proposed by Lindeman.
2. Only 10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level.
3. Most energy is lost during metabolic activities.
4. This limits the length of food chains.
5. It explains why food chains are short.

1️⃣3️⃣ Biological Magnification

1. Biological magnification refers to increase in concentration of toxic substances.
2. It occurs at successive trophic levels.
3. Non-biodegradable pollutants accumulate in organisms.
4. Top consumers are most affected.
5. It causes serious health hazards.

1️⃣4️⃣ Biodegradable Waste

1. Biodegradable waste can be decomposed by microorganisms.
2. Examples include vegetable waste and paper.
3. They do not accumulate in the environment.
4. They are environment-friendly.
5. Biodegradable waste forms manure.

1️⃣5️⃣ Non-biodegradable Waste

1. Non-biodegradable waste cannot be decomposed easily.
2. Examples include plastic and pesticides.
3. They persist in the environment for long time.
4. They cause pollution.
5. Non-biodegradable waste harms ecosystems.

1️⃣6️⃣ Ozone Layer

1. The ozone layer is present in the stratosphere.
2. It protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
3. Ozone depletion is caused by CFCs.
4. UV rays can cause skin cancer.
5. Protection of ozone layer is essential for life on Earth.

1️⃣7️⃣ Ozone Depletion

1. Ozone depletion refers to thinning of the ozone layer.
2. It is caused by release of chlorofluorocarbons.
3. Depletion allows harmful UV rays to reach Earth.
4. It affects human health and crops.
5. International efforts aim to reduce CFC use.
1️⃣8️⃣ Role of Human Activities
1. Human activities affect the environment.
2. Industrialisation causes pollution.
3. Deforestation disturbs ecological balance.
4. Excessive resource use leads to environmental degradation.
5. Sustainable practices protect the environment.
🎯 MOST-EXPECTED SCIENCE QUESTIONS (2026)
Class 10 – Board-Ready Answers (NCERT Language)

🧪 CHEMISTRY

1️⃣ Explain the types of chemical reactions with examples. (5 marks)

1. A combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single
product.
2. A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a compound breaks down into simpler substances.
3. A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element.
4. A double displacement reaction involves exchange of ions between two compounds.
5. A redox reaction involves oxidation and reduction occurring simultaneously.

2️⃣ What is corrosion? Explain methods of prevention. (5 marks)

1. Corrosion is the slow destruction of metals by chemical reactions with air and moisture.
2. Rusting of iron is a common example of corrosion.
3. Painting prevents contact of metal with air and water.
4. Galvanisation protects iron by coating it with zinc.
5. Alloying improves resistance to corrosion.

3️⃣ Explain the pH scale and its importance in everyday life. (5 marks)
1. The pH scale is used to measure the strength of acids and bases.
2. It ranges from 0 to 14.
3. pH value less than 7 indicates acidic nature.
4. pH value more than 7 indicates basic nature.
5. pH affects soil fertility, digestion and tooth decay.

4️⃣ What are homologous series? State its characteristics. (5 marks)

1. A homologous series is a group of organic compounds with similar chemical properties.
2. Members differ by a –CH₂– unit.
3. They have same functional group.
4. Physical properties show gradual variation.
5. Homologous series helps in systematic study of carbon compounds.

⚡ PHYSICS

5️⃣ State and explain Ohm’s Law. (5 marks)

1. Ohm’s Law states that current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference.
2. The law is valid when temperature remains constant.
3. It is expressed as V = IR.
4. Here V is potential difference, I is current and R is resistance.
5. Ohm’s Law explains the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.
6️⃣ Distinguish between series and parallel combination of resistors. (5 marks)
1. In series combination, resistors are connected end to end.
2. In series combination, same current flows through all resistors.
3. In parallel combination, resistors are connected across the same points.
4. In parallel combination, same potential difference exists across each resistor.
5. Parallel combination is used in household wiring.

7️⃣ Explain the heating effect of electric current. (5 marks)

1. When electric current flows through a conductor, heat is produced.
2. Electrical energy is converted into heat energy.
3. The amount of heat depends on current, resistance and time.
4. This is given by Joule’s law of heating.
5. Heating effect is used in electric iron and heaters.

8️⃣ State the laws of reflection of light. (3 marks)

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal lie in the same plane.
3. These laws apply to all reflecting surfaces.

9️⃣ Explain refraction of light and its causes. (5 marks)

1. Refraction of light is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another.
2. It occurs due to change in speed of light.
3. Light bends towards the normal in a denser medium.
4. Light bends away from the normal in a rarer medium.
5. Refraction explains many optical phenomena.

🔬 BIOLOGY

🔟 Explain the process of photosynthesis. (5 marks)

1. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare food.
2. It takes place in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide and water as raw materials.
4. Glucose is formed as food.
5. Oxygen is released as a by-product.

1️⃣1️⃣ Explain aerobic and anaerobic respiration. (5 marks)

1. Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen.
2. It releases a large amount of energy.
3. Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
4. It releases less energy.
5. Anaerobic respiration occurs in yeast and muscles.

1️⃣2️⃣ Describe the human circulatory system. (5 marks)

1. The circulatory system transports substances in the body.
2. It consists of heart, blood and blood vessels.
3. The heart pumps blood to all body parts.
4. Arteries carry oxygenated blood.
5. Veins carry deoxygenated blood.
1️⃣3️⃣ What is reproduction? Explain asexual reproduction. (5 marks)
1. Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals.
2. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent.
3. No fusion of gametes occurs.
4. Offspring are genetically identical.
5. It occurs in Amoeba, Hydra and yeast.

1️⃣4️⃣ Explain Mendel’s monohybrid cross. (5 marks)

1. A monohybrid cross studies inheritance of one trait.
2. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants.
3. All plants in F₁ generation were tall.
4. Tallness was the dominant trait.
5. The ratio in F₂ generation was 3:1.

1️⃣5️⃣ Explain biological magnification. (5 marks)

1. Biological magnification is the increase in concentration of toxic substances.
2. It occurs at successive trophic levels.
3. Non-biodegradable substances accumulate.
4. Top consumers are most affected.
5. It causes serious health hazards.

🎯 MOST-EXPECTED SCIENCE ANSWERS (2026)

Exam-Style | NCERT Language | Full Sentences

🧪 Q1. Explain the types of chemical reactions with examples. (5 marks)

1. A combination reaction is a chemical reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a
single product, such as calcium oxide formed from calcium and oxygen.
2. A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more simpler
substances, usually on heating or by electricity.
3. A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from
its compound.
4. A double displacement reaction involves the exchange of ions between two compounds to form new
compounds.
5. A redox reaction is a reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.

🧪 Q2. What is corrosion? Explain methods to prevent it. (5 marks)

1. Corrosion is the slow destruction of metals due to chemical reactions with air, moisture or chemicals.
2. Rusting of iron is a common example of corrosion.
3. Painting prevents corrosion by stopping the contact of metal with air and moisture.
4. Galvanisation protects iron by coating it with a layer of zinc.
5. Alloying improves resistance to corrosion by mixing metals with other elements.

⚡ Q3. State and explain Ohm’s Law. (5 marks)

1. Ohm’s Law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends.
2. This law is valid only when the temperature remains constant.
3. The mathematical form of Ohm’s Law is V = IR.
4. In this equation, V represents potential difference, I represents current and R represents resistance.
 5. Ohm’s Law explains the relationship between voltage, current and resistance in an electric circuit.

⚡ Q4. Explain the heating effect of electric current. (5 marks)

1. When an electric current flows through a conductor, heat is produced due to resistance.
2. Electrical energy is converted into heat energy during this process.
3. The amount of heat produced depends on the square of current, resistance and time.
4. This relationship is given by Joule’s law of heating.
5. The heating effect of current is used in electric irons, heaters and geysers.

🔬 Q5. Explain the process of photosynthesis. (5 marks)

1. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare their own food.
2. This process takes place in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
3. Plants use carbon dioxide and water as raw materials.
4. During photosynthesis, glucose is formed as food.
5. Oxygen is released as a by-product of this process.

🔬 Q6. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic respiration. (5 marks)

1. Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen, whereas anaerobic respiration occurs in the
absence of oxygen.
2. Aerobic respiration releases a large amount of energy, while anaerobic respiration releases less energy.
3. Aerobic respiration results in carbon dioxide and water, whereas anaerobic respiration produces
alcohol or lactic acid.
4. Aerobic respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria.
5. Anaerobic respiration occurs in yeast and muscle cells.

🔬 Q7. Explain Mendel’s monohybrid cross. (5 marks)

1. A monohybrid cross is a cross made between two individuals differing in one pair of contrasting traits.
2. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study inheritance of height.
3. All plants of the F₁ generation were tall, showing that tallness is a dominant trait.
4. In the F₂ generation, both tall and dwarf plants appeared.
5. The phenotypic ratio obtained in the F₂ generation was 3:1.

🌱 Q8. Explain biological magnification. (5 marks)

1. Biological magnification refers to the gradual increase in the concentration of non-biodegradable toxic
substances in organisms.
2. These substances enter the food chain through producers.
3. Their concentration increases at each higher trophic level.
4. Top consumers are most affected by biological magnification.
5. Biological magnification causes serious environmental and health problems.

🎯 MOST-EXPECTED 5-MARK QUESTIONS – SCIENCE (2026)

🧪 Q1. Explain the process of photosynthesis. (5 marks)

1. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare their own food.
2. This process takes place in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
3. Plants take carbon dioxide from air and water from soil.
4. These raw materials are converted into glucose.
5. Oxygen is released as a by-product.
🧪 Q2. What is corrosion? Explain any three methods to prevent it. (5 marks)
1. Corrosion is the slow destruction of metals by chemical reactions with air and moisture.
2. Painting prevents corrosion by stopping contact with air and water.
3. Galvanisation protects iron by coating it with zinc.
4. Alloying increases resistance to corrosion.
5. Corrosion causes economic loss and damage to metals.

⚡ Q3. State and explain Ohm’s Law. (5 marks)

1. Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it.
2. This law is valid when temperature remains constant.
3. The mathematical form is V = IR.
4. Here V is potential difference, I is current and R is resistance.
5. Ohm’s Law explains the relationship between voltage, current and resistance.

⚡ Q4. Explain the heating effect of electric current. (5 marks)

1. When electric current flows through a conductor, heat is produced.
2. Electrical energy is converted into heat energy.
3. Heat produced depends on current, resistance and time.
4. This relationship is given by Joule’s law of heating (H = I²Rt).
5. This effect is used in electric irons and heaters.

⚡ Q5. Explain the working of an electric motor. (5 marks)

1. An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
2. It works on the principle that a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a
force.
3. The direction of force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
4. The split ring acts as a commutator and reverses current direction.
5. Electric motors are used in fans, mixers and pumps.

🔬 Q6. Explain the human heart and double circulation. (5 marks)

1. The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood to all body parts.
2. The human heart has four chambers.
3. Double circulation means blood passes through the heart twice in one cycle.
4. It separates oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
5. Double circulation increases efficiency of oxygen supply.

🔬 Q7. Explain aerobic and anaerobic respiration. (5 marks)

1. Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen.
2. It releases a large amount of energy.
3. Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
4. It releases less energy and produces alcohol or lactic acid.
5. Anaerobic respiration occurs in yeast and muscles.

🔬 Q8. Explain Mendel’s monohybrid cross. (5 marks)

1. A monohybrid cross studies inheritance of one trait.
2. Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants.
3. All plants in F₁ generation were tall.
4. Tallness is a dominant trait.
 5. The F₂ generation showed a 3:1 ratio.

🌱 Q9. Explain biological magnification. (5 marks)

1. Biological magnification is the increase in concentration of toxic substances in a food chain.
2. These substances are non-biodegradable.
3. Concentration increases at each higher trophic level.
4. Top consumers are most affected.
5. It causes serious health and environmental problems.

🌱 Q10. Explain the 10% law of energy transfer. (5 marks)

1. The 10% law states that only 10% of energy is transferred to the next trophic level.
2. The remaining energy is lost as heat.
3. This law was proposed by Lindeman.
4. It explains why food chains are short.
5. Energy flow in an ecosystem is unidirectional.