1. Drug Therapy vs. Electroconvulsive Therapy vs.
Psychosurgery
Drug Therapy:
Drug therapy involves the use of medications to alter brain chemistry and reduce symptoms of
psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. These drugs can manage
symptoms effectively but often require long-term use and may cause side effects.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT):
ECT involves passing controlled electrical currents through the brain to intentionally trigger a
brief seizure, most often used for severe depression that has not responded to medication. It is
effective for some patients but may cause temporary memory loss and confusion.
Psychosurgery:
Psychosurgery is a surgical intervention that destroys or alters brain tissue to relieve severe
psychiatric symptoms. It is rarely used today due to ethical concerns and the availability of less
invasive treatments.
2. Nature vs. Nurture: Three Conditions and Current View
Intelligence: Studies show that intelligence is influenced by both genetics and environment,
such as education and upbringing. The prevailing theory is that intelligence results from an
interaction between inherited ability and life experiences.
Schizophrenia: Research indicates a strong genetic component, but environmental stressors
can trigger the disorder. The current view supports a diathesis-stress model, combining nature
and nurture.
Aggression: Aggressive behavior has been linked to genetic factors as well as environmental
influences like parenting and social learning. Most psychologists agree aggression develops
through both biological predispositions and learned behavior.
3. Types of Conditioning with Examples
Classical Conditioning: Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus. Example: Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell
associated with food.
Operant Conditioning: Learning is based on consequences such as rewards or punishments.
Example: A student studies more because they receive good grades.
Observational (Social) Learning: Learning occurs by watching others. Example: A child learns to
share by observing siblings or parents.
4. Research Methods and Evaluation
Experiment: Researchers manipulate variables to determine cause and effect. A study is
standardized if procedures are consistent, reliable if results are repeatable, and valid if it
measures what it claims to measure.
Survey: Surveys collect self-reported data through questionnaires or interviews. Reliability is
shown through consistent responses, and validity depends on whether questions accurately
reflect the topic.
Case Study: An in-depth study of an individual or group. Validity depends on accurate
observation, but reliability is limited because results may not generalize.
5. Major Theories and Research
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:
Erikson proposed eight stages of development focused on social conflict across the lifespan.
Successful resolution of each stage leads to healthy personality development.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory:
Freud believed personality develops through five stages based on pleasure-seeking impulses.
Fixation at any stage can lead to personality issues in adulthood.
Thomas and Chess’s Temperament Theory:
They identified three basic temperament types: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.
Temperament influences how children respond to their environment.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory:
Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning develops through three levels and six stages. Moral
decisions are based on reasoning rather than behavior.
Harlow and Zimmerman:
Their research showed that infant monkeys preferred comfort over food when forming
attachments. This demonstrated the importance of emotional bonding.
Bandura’s (likely “Braddeley’s”) Social Learning Theory:
Bandura emphasized learning through observation and imitation. His Bobo doll experiment
showed that children model aggressive behavior.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory:
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development that describe how thinking changes with
age. Children actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment.
6. Neuron Structures and Functions
● Dendrites: Receive incoming signals from other neurons
● Cell Body (Soma): Maintains the neuron and processes information
● Axon: Transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body
● Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon to speed up signal transmission
● Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters into the synapse
● Synapse: The gap between neurons where communication occurs
7. Schizophrenia: Development, Diagnosis, Symptoms,
Treatment
Schizophrenia typically develops in late adolescence or early adulthood and is believed to result
from a combination of genetic vulnerability and environmental stress. Diagnosis is based on
symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and impaired functioning.
Treatment usually includes antipsychotic medication to manage symptoms, along with
psychotherapy and social support. While there is no cure, many individuals can lead functional
lives with consistent treatment.
8. How a Neurotransmitter Works
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers produced in the neuron’s cell body and stored in
vesicles at the axon terminals. When an electrical impulse reaches the terminal,
neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the next neuron, either
exciting or inhibiting it.