PRASHANT KIRAD Nutrition in Plants

LIFE PROCESSES
The basic functions performed by living organisms to
maintain their life on this earth Absorption of Conversion of light energy Reduction of
light energy by to chemical energy and carbon dioxide
Nutrition Photosynthesis is the process of capturing light splitting of water molecules to
chlorophyll
energy and transforming it into chemical energy into hydrogen and oxygen. carbohydrates
(glucose). (Desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an
Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition intermediate which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the
Organisms that prepare their own Organisms that are dependent on other chlorophyll during the day)
Pore like structure
food. e.g., Green plants, Algae, etc. organisms for food. E.g., Animals, fungi, etc.
Gaseous exchange photosynthesis
(stems, roots & leaves)
opening and closening of stomata
guard cells swell -> when water flows into them -> causing the
stomatal pore to open (endosmosis)
Holozoic nutrition: involves organisms Saprophytic nutrition: Parasitic nutrition:
pore closes -> the guard cells shrink (exosmosis)
ingesting whole food material, which Organisms feed on dead Organisms derive nutrition
is then digested and absorbed inside and decaying matter. from plants or animals
their bodies. Examples include: Food is digested externally without killing them. They Nutrition in Humans Ingestion – Food intake through the
Animals - [Herbivores: Cow, goat], and then nutrients are obtain nutrition by living on mouth.
[Carnivores: Lion, tiger], [Omnivores: absorbed. e.g. Bread mold, or inside the host. e.g. Teeth – Chewing and grinding of food.
Human beings], Unicellular organisms: Mushroom, Yeast. Tapeworm, Lice. Salivary Glands – Secretes saliva,
Amoeba, Paramecium wets food, contains salivary amylase
(starch → maltose).
Swallowing & Peristalsis – Moves food
from mouth to stomach.
Stomach – J-shaped organ, expands
Nutrition with food, muscular walls mix food
with digestive juices.
in
Gastric Juice – Pepsin (breaks
Amoeba proteins), HCl (acidic medium), Mucus
(protects stomach lining).
Small Intestine – Receives:
Bile (Liver) – Emulsifies fat.
Pancreatic Juice (Pancreas) – Trypsin
(proteins), Lipase (fats), Pancreatic
amylase (carbs).

Absorption – 5-7m long, secretes intestinal enzymes, villi absorb nutrients. Respiration in Humans
Large Intestine – Absorbs excess water, unabsorbed food moves ahead.
Egestion – Waste elimination. Nostrils: Air enters the body.
Nasal Cavity: Filters, warms, and
Alimentary canal: A long hollow tube which contains organs through moistens air; removes dirt.
which the food actually passes (Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, Pharynx: Common passage for food
and air.
large intestine, etc.)
Larynx: Contains vocal cords;
Respiration is the process by which food is burnt produces sound.
Respiration in the cells (mitochondria) of the body with the Trachea: Windpipe carrying air to
help of oxygen to release energy. Energy is lungs.
Bronchus: Trachea splits into two
stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules. bronchi, leading to lungs.
Bronchioles: Smaller branches of
Breathing Respiration bronchi inside lungs.
Alveolus: Air sacs for gas exchange;
● Physical process
● Biochemical process oxygen enters blood, CO₂ exits.
● No enzymes involved
● Large number of enzymes are involved Blood: Transports oxygen to cells and
● Confined to certain organs
● Occurs in all the cells of the body removes CO₂.
● No energy is released; rather,
energy is used ● Energy is released in the form of ATP
Diaphragm and ribs: These structures facilitate breathing by changing the size
● Extracellular process ● Intracellular process
of the chest cavity. When we breathe in, the ribs lift, and the diaphragm
● Intake of fresh air and removal of ● Oxidation of food to form carbon
flattens, expanding the chest cavity and allowing air to be sucked into the lungs.
foul air dioxide, water, and energy

Transportation
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1. Blood: Fluid connective tissue that transports nutrients, waste, and gases.
Occurs in the presence of oxygen. Occurs in the absence of oxygen. Blood Cells:
Takes place in the mitochondria. Takes place in the cytoplasm. Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Contain hemoglobin, transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Complete breakdown of glucose. Incomplete breakdown of glucose. White Blood Cells (WBCs): Provide immunity by producing antibodies.
Produces CO₂, H₂O, and energy Produces less energy (2 ATP). Plasma: Fluid medium carrying nutrients, waste, and other substances.
(ATP). By-products: Platelets: Help in blood clotting and maintaining pressure.
Yields more energy (~36 ATP). In yeast: Alcohol and CO₂. 2. Blood Vessels:
In muscles: Lactic acid (causes muscle Arteries:
cramps). Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
Thick, elastic walls.
High pressure.
Veins:
Carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart.
Thin walls, contain valves.
Low pressure.
Capillaries:
Link arteries and veins.
Extremely thin walls for exchange of gases and nutrients.
3. Heart

Lymphatic System: Lymph: Colorless fluid carrying digested fats and excess
tissue fluid.
Function: Drains into lymphatic capillaries and then into veins.
Helps in fat absorption and returns excess tissue fluid to blood.
 Plants absorb raw materials like
Transportation in Plants nitrogen, phosphorus, and
minerals from the soil through
roots.

Xylem Phloem

1. Conducts water and minerals from 1. Conducts food from leaves to all
roots to leaves. parts of the plant.

2. Transport is unidirectional. 2. Transport is bidirectional.

3. Composed of mainly dead 3. Composed of mainly living

Double Circulation
elements. elements.

4. Has four types of cells: Tracheids, 4. Has four types of cells: Phloem
Vessels, Xylem parenchyma, and fibers, Companion cells, Sieve tubes,
Xylem fibers. and Phloem parenchyma.

Transportation in Humans

Heart - Muscular organ, Located in chest cavity, as big as

fist. It is a blood pumping organ that pumps oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood to and from the lungs and the rest
of the body.

Chambers in heart - To prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated

blood. More oxygen will be supplied to body organs in better way. Highly
efficient supply of oxygen to the body. More respiration leading to more
energy production.

Excretion in Human Beings

Kidneys : Location: Abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.

Function: Filter waste from blood to form urine. Nephrons act as
filtration units, selectively reabsorbing useful substances like
glucose, amino acids, salts, and water.

Urine Formation: After filtration and reabsorption, the remaining fluid

Ureters: Location: Tubes connecting
is urine, containing waste products and extra water.
the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Transport: Urine travels from the kidneys through the ureters to the
Function: Transport urine from urinary bladder.
kidneys to the urinary bladder. Storage: Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until it becomes full.
Urinary Bladder: Location: Pelvic Excretion: When the bladder is full, the nervous system triggers the
region. Function: Stores urine until urge to urinate, and urine is released from the bladder through the
urethra and out of the body.
expelled. Muscular and under nervous
control for voluntary urination. Excretion in Plants
Urethra: Location: Tube leading from
Plants remove waste through various methods. Oxygen is
the urinary bladder to the outside of
released via transpiration, while stomata regulate gas
the [Link]: Allows urine to be
exchange. Excess water is removed through transpiration.
excreted from the body
Waste is stored in vacuoles, old xylem as resins and
Structural & functional unit of kidney/excretion system. gums, or in leaves that eventually fall off. Some waste is
Responsible for filtration of blood. There are millions of nephron also excreted into the soil.
in each kidney.
Glomerular Filtration: Blood enters the Chapter ka KAZAANA:
kidneys, and in the nephrons, nitrogenous
wastes, glucose, water, amino acids, and
Human Heart (Diagram)
excess salts are filtered out. This initial Excretion (Specially Nephron)
filtrate enters the Bowman’s capsule of each Respiration (Aerobic, Anaerobic)
nephron.
Nutrition (Diagram)
↓
Selective Reabsorption: As the filtrate moves
through the nephron, useful substances such
as glucose, amino acids, salts, and a
significant amount of water are reabsorbed
back into the blood by the capillaries
surrounding the nephron.
↓
Tubular Secretion: Urea, additional water,
and excess salts are secreted into the tubule,
which then opens into the collecting duct. The
urine then flows from the collecting ducts into
the ureters.
Control & Coordination PRASHANT KIRAD Synapse
Gap between the nerve ending of one neuron and dendrite of the
Coordination: working together of the various organs of an
other neuron.
organism to adjust various activities of life.
Electrical signal to Chemical signals
Stimuli: change in the environment that can cause a physical or
behavioral change in a living organism. Neuromuscular junction (NMJ):
a synaptic connection between the
Response: the reaction of an organism to an internal or external
terminal end of a motor nerve and a muscle.
stimulus.
Receptors: Cells or groups Photo Dendrites Cell body Axon Nerve ending Synapse
of cells in sense organs
that detect stimuli and Thermo Olfactory
Types of Neuron:
convert them into impulses.
Sensory Neurons Transmit impulses from sense organs to brain
Effectors: Parts of the body that
Motor Neurons Transmit impulses from Brain and spinal cord to body
respond to impulses sent by the nervous
Relay Neurons Allow sensory and motor neuron to communicate
system, converting them into actions. e.g. Phono Gustatory
muscles and glands. Aspect Voluntary Actions Involuntary Reflex Actions
COORDINATION IN ANIMALS: Actions
Nervous system Definition Actions under Actions occurring
Sudden, automatic
conscious control without conscious
Endocrine system responses to
control
Central Hormones stimuli
Brain Spinal cord Peripheral Controlled by
Involves the brain’s Controlled by
Fore - Brain Cranial nerves
Spinal nerve Control thinking and decision- the autonomic
Mid - Brain the spinal cord
Arise from the brain Arise from making nervous system
Hind- Brain via reflex arc
spinal cord or lower brain
Cell body centers
NEURONS: Acquired information Heartbeat, Pulling hand away
Examples Walking, writing,
travels as an electrical impulse digestion, from a hot
speaking
breathing object, blinking
Axon
Longest fibre on the cell body. It Reflex action: spontaneous automatic and involuntary response.
transmits electrical impulse from
Monitored through the spinal cord.
cell body to dendrite of next neuron.
Dendrites the pathway taken by nerve impulses in a reflex action is called
Acquires information Nerve ending reflex arc.

Protection of nervous system

Brain
Spinal cord
Brain in cranium (bone
box, part of skull). Spinal cord wrapped
Covered by 3 membrane in meninges.
layers (meninges). Protected by
Fluid protects brain from vertebral column
injuries. (backbone).
Vertebral column
Spinal cord: cylindrical made of 33 bones
Human brain: Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. extension of brain, starts (vertebrae).
from medulla.
Most complex or specialized part of brain (largest also).
Surrounded by meninges.
Consists of cerebrum, Thalamus, Hypothalamus.
31 pairs of nerves arise.
Functions: Thinking part of the brain Control the voluntary
Handles spinal reflexes.
actions. Store information. Receives sensory impulse
Conducts nerve impulses
Centre associated with hunger. more about Spinal cord
to/from brain.

Controls involuntary actions CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN PLANTS :

such as:
Changing pupil size.
NASTIC TROPIC
reflex movement of head,
neck and trunk
Phototropism: Growth towards
Thigmonasty or away from light.
Control involuntary actions, Non-directional Hydrotropism: Growth in
regulation of respiration movement in response to response to water.
touch (e.g., Mimosa
controls posture and balance. pudica). Chemotrpism: Growth towards or
controls voluntary Precision of voluntary act. away from chemicals.
Photonasty
act. Eg: blood Non-directional Geotropism: Growth in
pressure, movement in response response to gravity.
salivation, vomiting. to light (e.g., dandelion, Thigmotropism : Growth in
moonflower) response to touch.
 CHEMICAL COORDINATION IN ANIMALS:
structure made of cells or tissue
Nastic Movement Tropic Movement GLANDS that secretes specific
substances in the body.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Non-directional response to stimuli. Directional response to stimuli. Secrete substances directly into the bloodstream (ductless).
Substances are hormones.
Secretion occurs throughout the body via blood.
Fast movement. Slow movement. Examples: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands.
Part of the endocrine system.
EXOCRINE GLANDS
Involves flat organs (leaves, petals). Involves all plant parts.
Secrete substances through ducts onto body surfaces.
Substances include enzymes, sweat, saliva, etc.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS: Secretion occurs on external body surfaces or into body cavities.
HORMONES (PHYTOHORMONES) Examples: Sweat glands, salivary glands, digestive glands.
Not part of the endocrine system.
Growth of a plant can be divided into three stages:
[Link] division
[Link] enlargement
[Link] differentiation (or cell specialization
Auxin → Promotes cell elongation, helps in phototropism (bending
towards light), and root development.
Gibberellins → Stimulates stem elongation, seed germination, and
flowering.
Cytokinins → Promotes cell division, delays aging of leaves, and
helps in fruit and seed development.
Abscisic Acid (ABA) → Inhibits growth, induces dormancy in
seeds, and helps in closing stomata during water stress.
Ethylene → Promotes fruit ripening and helps in leaf and flower
shedding. HORMONES: Chemical messengers in the bloodstream that
regulate and control the activity of organs and tissues.

Feedback Mechanism: A process that maintains hormonal

balance by adjusting hormone secretion in response to
changes in hormone levels.

Endocrine Glands, Their Hormones, and Functions

Hypothalamus (Brain) → Hormone: Releasing & Inhibitory →
Function: Regulates pituitary gland hormones
Pituitary Gland (Below the brain) → Hormone: Growth
Hormone → Function: Controls body growth (bones, muscles) -
master gland → Condition: Dwarfism, Gigantism
Thyroid Gland (Attached to windpipe) → Hormone: Thyroxine
→ Function: Regulates metabolism of carbs, fats, and proteins
→ Condition: Goitre (iodine deficiency)
Parathyroid Gland (Embedded in thyroid gland) → Hormone:
Parathormone → Function: Regulates calcium and phosphate
levels in blood
Thymus Gland (Lower neck/upper chest) → Hormone: Thymus
Hormone → Function: Develops immune system; large in
children, shrinks after puberty
Pancreas (Below the stomach) → Hormones: Insulin &
Glucagon → Function: Regulates blood sugar levels; insulin helps
glucose uptake → Condition: Diabetes
Adrenal Glands (On top of kidneys) → Hormone: Adrenaline
→ Function: Prepares body for 'fight or flight' response Chapter ka KAZAANA:
(increases heart rate, breathing, energy mobilization) Neuron (Function + Diagram)
Testes (Male reproductive organs) → Hormone: Testosterone Reflex arc (Diagram)
→ Function: Controls male puberty (voice, hair growth) Hormone Topic is very important
Ovaries (Female reproductive organs) → Hormones: Estrogen Function of Brain (MCQ)
& Progesterone → Function: Controls female puberty (voice,
skin, breasts); progesterone supports menstrual cycle and
pregnancy
 How Do Organisms Reproduce PRASHANT KIRAD Fragmentation : The organism breaks up into small pieces upon
Reproduction: is a biological process by which living organisms maturation, each piece develops into new individual. E.g spirogyra.
produces new individuals similar to themselves. It ensures continuity Regeneration: If organism is somehow cut or broken into many
of life on earth and helps in evolution of species. pieces each piece growns into a complete organism. Example -
Planaria, Hydra.
DNA: (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) is thread-like structure that carries
all information about our traits and is passed from one generation to Budding: A bud is formed which develops into tiny individual. It
the next. detaches from parent body upon maturation and develops into
Errors in Copying Variations in DNA new individual. Example - Hydra
DNA Copying (Biochemical
Process
➔ ➔ (DNA is not identical Spore formation : Spores are small bulb like structures which
reactions are not to the original) are covered by thick walls. Under favourable conditions, they
fully reliable) germinate and produce new organism.
Mild/Moderate Variation ➔
Extreme Variation ➔ vegetative propagation: In many plants, new plants develops
No severe consequences
New cell can't function from vegetative parts.
(Cell continues to function
➔ Cell dies Benefits of Vegetative Propagation
normally
Importance of Variation: Quick and cheap method to produce many plants.
(i) Variation helps organisms adapt to changing environments. Disease-free plants can be produced.
(ii) It provides stability to a species and supports evolution. Desired traits can be introduced.
(iii) DNA variation leads to different forms of a species and the Genetically identical plants are produced.
creation of new species. Almost 100% survival rate of new plants.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TYPES OF REPRODUCTION Tissue Culture
Tissue culture: Growing new plants from small plant pieces.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Cells from growing tip placed in artificial medium form a callus.
A single individual give rise to Two individuals, i.e one male and Callus is moved to a hormone-rich medium for growth and
new individual. one female need development.
Gametes are not formed Gametes are formed. Plantlets are transferred to soil to mature.
New Individual is identical to New Individual is genetically Many disease-free plants are grown from one parent.
parents similar but not identical to parent Commonly used for ornamental plants.
It is extremely useful as a means It is useful to generate more Sexual reproduction:
of rapid multiplication. variations in species. When reproduction takes
Example - Microorganisms Example - plants and humans place as a result of the
fusion of male and female
MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
gametes is called Sexual
Fission : The parent cell divides into daughter cells.
reproduction.

Reproduction in Plants It does not lead to genetic diversity.

Cross pollination
Parts Function It is the transfer of pollen to stigma of another flower of the
same plant or another plant of same kind.
Sepals Usually green and provide protection to flower during
It takes place both in unisexual and bisexual f!owners
bud stage
It leads to genetic diversity.
Petals Brighly coloured and have strong fragrance to attract
pollinators
Anther Produces pollen grain which consists male gametes
Filament It forms the stalk that bears anther
Reproduction in human beings
Stigma Recievea pollen grain during pollination
Puberty The period of life when production of germ cells, i.e
Style Elongated structure, connects stigma and ovary, pollen ova (female) and sperm (male) start in the body.
tube travel through the style to reach the ovule.
IN GIRLS
Ovary Basal swallen part of pistil, converts into fruit after Breast size begin to increase.
fertilization. Girls begin to menstruate.
Ovule Present inside ovary, consists of female gamete, site of Thick hair growth in armpits and genital
fertilization. area. These changes signs
Reproduction in plants Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples. that sexual maturity is
IN BOYS taking place.
Stamen/Male Pistil/Carpel/Female
reproductive organ reproductive organ Thick hair growth on face.
BISEXUAL: Both stamen UNISEXUAL: either stamen or pistil is Voice begin to crack.
and pistil are present in a present. E.g., Papaya, Watermelon, Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.
same flower. E.g., Rose, lily Skin becomes oily may result in pimples.
PARTS OF SEED Primary sex organs
COTYLEDON Males Females
SEED COAT Sperm cell Egg cell
EMPRYO
Male sex hormon Female Sex hormone
PLUMULE
RADICLE Human female reproductive system
Reproduction in plants
Ovaries: A pair located on both sides of the abdomen.
Pollination The process of transferring of pollen grain from anther Function: Produce female germ cells (eggs).
of a flower to the stigma.
At birth, thousands of immature eggs are present.
Self pollination It is transfer of pollen to stigma of the same f!ower. At puberty, some eggs start maturing.
It is occurs only in bisxual flower One egg is released monthly from one ovary.
 Receives the egg Seminal vesicles: and prostate gland add their secretion to the
produced by the ovary sperms. This fluid provide nourishment to sperms and make their
and transfer it to the transport easy.
uterus. Testis: Location: In the scrotum, outside the abdomen.
Fertilisation i.e, fusion Function: Produce sperms and release testosterone.
of gametes takes place (i) Regulates sperm production.
here. (ii) Causes puberty changes like voice deepening and body hair
It is a bag like Vas defernce It passes sperms from testis upto urethra
structure where
development of the
Reproduction in human beings
offspring takes place.
Ring of muscles that is After copulation, millions of sperms are
nearby the lower end released during ejaculation.
Gathers sperm
of the uterus. deposited by the penis,
Sperms swim towards female gamete, with the
male gamete, with the act as birth channel
help of tail.
tail. for a child.
Human male reproductive system
Only one sperm will fertilizes the egg . The
Stores urine
fertilized egg will move towards the uterus.

Deposits sperm inside the vagina; Zygote develops into an embryo, and after about 8
furthermore disposes of urine weeks of development, the embryo becomes a fetus.
Implantation
Attachment of growing embryo to endometrium.
It is a common passage for both Placenta
sperms and urine The embryo grows inside the mother's
womb and gets nourishment from mother's
blood through tissue called placenta.
Testes are in the scrotum Villi on placenta provide a large surface area
outside the abdomen as of glucose and oxygen to develop embryo.
sperm formation needs
lower temperature than
body temperature

Reproduction in human beings Menarche Syphillis Is caused by bacterium, which affects the mucous
[11-12] membrane of genital, rectal area.
Female ovary
Viral
Produces egg ova once a month AIDS Is caused by HIV virus. It is fast spreading incurable
disease, which weakens the body's immune system.
uterus wall become thick Wards A small bump on the genitas caused by a common st infection.
Menopause
Some common contraceptive devices
[45+]
Methods and techniques to prevent pregnancy
Fertilized by sperm Not
fertilized Mechanical method
Pregnancy
Menstruation
Condom
Menstrual cycle Cervical cap
The uterus prepare itself every month to receive fertilized Chemical methods
egg. PILLS
The lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy, required
IUCD
to support the embryo.
When fertilization had not taken place, this lining is not Loop
needed any longer. Copper T
The lining breaks and comes out through vagina as blood and Surgical method
mucus. This cycle takes around 28 days every month called Vasectomy
menstruation. Tubectomy
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Reproductive health is a condition of overall physical, mental and
Chapter ka KAZAANA:
social prosperity, and not just the nonattendance of reproductive
Asexual Reproduction
disease or ailment
Budding (Diagram)
Sexually Transmitted disease (STDs) Vegetative Propagation
Diseases transmitted to healthy person because of matting Fertilization in plants (Diagram + Functions)
with contaminated person Reproduction (diagram) - Male & female
STDs (MCQs)
Bacterial
Inflammation of the mucous membrane of urogenital
Gonorrhoea
tract, rectum, victims feels burning and pain during
urination.
 PRASHANT KIRAD Non living organisms
OUR ENVIROMENT Aboitic Components
Environment: everything that is around us, which includes both
living and nonliving things such as soil, water, animals and plants,
which adapt themselves to their surroundings. Physical factors Chemical factors
Ecosystem: a community of living organisms and their physical
Air Protein,
environment that interact together in a specific area Organic
Water fats
Natural ecosystem The ecosystem which exist in nature on its own.
Example: forest, lake, ocean. Minerals
Inorganic Hydrogen
Soil ,Oxygen
Aquatic Territorial
Fundamental energy driving our climate system Sunlight

Environment Ecosystem
Marine Fresh water Forest Desert Grassland
The physical and biological A system where living (biotic) and
surroundings where organisms live. non-living (abiotic) components
Artificial ecosystem interact.
Man-made ecosystem. (Aquarium, Garden, Crop field etc ) Includes all the external conditions Includes interactions like food
Components of Ecosystem affecting an organism's life. chains, food webs, and nutrient
Living Organism cycles.
Biotic components Environment changes as an Ecosystems remain stable
organism moves from one place to regardless of an organism's
another. movement.
Autotrophs Heterotrophs

Producers Consumers Decomposers How Ecosystem Works?

1. Sunlight – Primary energy source.
All green plants and
blue green algae can Include all animals Include organisms which 2. Producers – Plants make food via photosynthesis.
produce their own food which depend on decompose the dead plants 3. Herbivores – Eat plants (Primary consumers).
using abiotic factors. producers directly or and animals. Example:
indirectly for their food bacteria, fungi, earthworms 4. Carnivores – Eat animals (Secondary/Tertiary consumers).
5. Decomposers – Break down dead organisms.
(i) Herbivores: Plant Eaters e.g., goat, deer, etc.
6. Nutrient Recycling – Nutrients return to soil for reuse.
(ii) Carnivores: Flesh Eaters e.g., tiger, crocodile, etc. Food Chain: A series of organisms feeding on one another.
(iii) Omnivores: Eat both plants and animals e.g., human.

Food web: is a network of interconnected food chains showing

complex feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
It demonstrates how each organism can be consumed by multiple
organisms and vice versa.
Trophic level
It is the position an organism occupies in a food Food Chain Food Web
chain, based on its role in the flow of energy
First Level: Autotrophs/Producers (e.g., green plants) A linear sequence of A complex network of
Fix solar energy and convert it into chemical energy. organisms where each is interconnected food chains in an
Second Level: Herbivores/Primary Consumers eaten by the next organism. ecosystem.
Third Level: Small carnivores/Secondary Consumers
Fourth Level: Larger carnivores/Tertiary Consumers Simple and straightforward,
Complex and branched, showing
showing one pathway of
multiple pathways of energy flow.
energy flow.

Each organism is linked to Each organism is connected to

The 10% law of energy transfer, proposed by Raymond Lindeman, only one other organism at multiple organisms at different
states that only 10% of the energy from one trophic level is passed the next trophic level. trophic levels.
on to the next level in a food chain. The remaining 90% is lost as
heat, during movement, growth, and other life processes. Less stable; affected if one More stable; removal of one
Green plants capture 1% of solar energy falling on their leaves. organism is removed from organism has less impact due to
the chain. multiple connections.
At each trophic level: Heat loss: A large part of energy is lost
as heat to the environment. 10% Rule: Only 10% of the
consumed energy is converted into biomass and made available Energy flows in a single Energy flows through multiple
to the next level. direction (unidirectional). interconnected pathways.
Due to energy loss, food chains are usually limited to 3-4 levels.
Producers are the most numerous, with numbers decreasing Example: Grass is eaten by
progressively at higher trophic levels. Example: Grass →
grasshoppers, rabbits, or deer,
Grasshopper → Frog →
which are eaten by frogs, hawks,
Bio magnification: Progressive accumulation of harmful chemicals Snake → Hawk
or lions.
(e.g., pesticides) in organisms at higher trophic levels.
OZONE: Molecule made of three oxygen atoms. Protects Earth Some Methods of Waste Disposal
from harmful UV radiation, which can cause skin cancer in Biogas Plant – Converts biodegradable waste into biogas and
humans. Ozone is formed when UV rays split oxygen molecules manure.
(O₂), and free oxygen atoms combine with O₂ to form ozone Sewage Treatment – Cleans drain water before releasing it into
(O₃): O₂ → O + O (by UV rays) O + O₂ → O₃ (ozone formation) rivers.
Stratosphere Landfilling – Buries and compacts waste in low-lying areas.
Depletion of Ozone Layer:
Composting – Converts organic waste into manure.
Recycling – Processes non-biodegradable waste into new
products.
Reuse – Uses old items again, like making envelopes from
newspapers.
Incineration – Burns waste at high temperatures to form ash.
Improvements in lifestyle have resulted in Challenges: Improper disposal of plastics and e-waste harms the
Garbage disposal :
accumulation of large amounts of waste environment. Recycling may also have environmental impacts.
material.
Types of waste
Biodegradable Waste materials that can be broken down into
simpler substances by natural processes such as
the action of microorganisms (bacteria and fungi).
Examples: Food waste, paper, cotton,.
Non biodegradable Waste materials that cannot be broken down
by natural processes and remain in the
environment for a long time.
Examples: Plastic, glass, and metals.
Harmful effects of waste
Ozone depletion
Air, soil and water pollution
Bioaccumulation
Bio magnification

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
10% Law (Numerical)
Ozone (formation)
Biomagnification
 PRASHANT KIRAD Genes: a segment of DNA that is the basic unit of heredity and
Heredity is passed from parent to child, is a molecule that contains
Heredity the process of passing down traits and characteristics genetic information for the development and functioning of an
from parents to their offspring through genes organism.

Variation The difference between individuals in a species or

Acquired Traits Inherited Traits
group of organisms
Environment variation
Genetic Variation a) Do not change germ cells Bring changes in germ cells
Importance of Variation
Variation helps organisms adapt to changing environments. b) Cannot be passed on to Can be passed on to their
It drives the evolution of new, better-adapted species. future generations progeny
Accumulation of Variation During Reproduction
c) Do not lead to evolution May lead to evolution
Asexually Variation are fewer.
Occurs due to small inaccuracies in DNA
Sexually Variation are large. Example: Losing limbs due to Example: Deformed limbs at
Occurs due to crossing over, separations of an accident birth due to a genetic defect
chromosomes.
The biological science, which deals with the mechanism Alleles: a pair of genes that occupy a specific location on a
of heredity and causes variation called genetics. particular chromosome and control the same trait
"genetics" was coined by English biologist William
Haploid cells contain a single set of chromosomes (n) and are
Bateson
Father of Genetics (Gregor Johann Mendel) formed through meiosis. They are primarily involved in sexual
reproduction, with examples including sperm and egg cells.
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that contains
Diploid cells, on the other hand, have two sets of chromosomes
genetic information for the development and functioning
(2n) and divide through mitosis. These cells make up most of
of an organism.
the body’s tissues, such as nerve and muscle cells.
Chromatin: refers to a mixture of DNA and proteins that Rules of inheritance
form the chromosomes found in the cells of humans and
other higher organisms

Chromosomes: is a DNA molecule that consists of a part

or all of the genetic material of an organism

Dominant allele Why only pea Large no. of offsprings Annual Plant
The dominant allele is the stronger of the two alleles. plant? Short Life Cycle 7 pairs of allelic
Represented by a capital letter, it determines the dominant
characteristics
traits. Monohybrid Cross Cross between two pea plants with
Dominant traits manifest in both homozygous and one pair of contrasting characters
heterozygous conditions.
Recessive allele
The recessive allele is the weaker of the two alleles.
Represented by a lowercase letter, it remains suppressed in
the presence of a dominant allele.
Recessive traits are expressed only in the homozygous
condition.
-Genotype: The unique DNA sequence or allele combination
inherited from parents.
- Phenotype: Observable traits like appearance and behavior,
influenced by genotype and environment.
Characters/traits like T are called dominant trait ( because it
Homozygous Condition: Heterozygous Condition: express itself ) and t are recessive traits.
Inherits identical alleles of a Inherits different alleles of
gene from both parents Dihybrid Cross A cross between two plants having two pairs
a gene from each parent of contrasting characters.
Phenotypic Ratio
Gregor Mendel's experiment
Round, yellow :9
Plant selected by Mendel: Pisum sativum( garden pea) .
Round, green : 3 Parents-> Round green × wrinkled yellow
used a number of contrasting characters for garden pea Wrinkled , yellow: 3
Mendel's rules for the inheritance of traits. Wrinkled, green :1

Law of Dominance: In heterozygous pairs, the dominant Self-pollination of F1 plants resulted in parental
allele masks the recessive one. phenotypes and two new mixtures.
Law of Segregation: Traits have two alleles that separate Round and yellow seeds are dominant traits.
during gamete formation; one from each parent combines New phenotype combinations indicate that genes for
during fertilization. round and yellow seeds are inherited independently.
Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes
assort independently into gametes
 Sex Determination the process through which the sex of a
newborn individual is established.

Factors affecting the sex determination

Environmental In certain animals, like turtles, the temperature

at which fertilized eggs are kept determines the
gender.

Genetic In humans and other animals, gender is determined

by a pair of sex chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs
of chromosomes

Chapter ka KAZAANA:
Definition of 3 Laws of Mendel
Monohybrid Cross (Numerical on F2 generation)
Difference in Acquired and Inherited traits