NOTEKOKKA

General Science Notes (English)

This document provides comprehensive notes for the General Science syllabus, suitable for
students preparing for the Sri Lankan G.C.E. Ordinary Level (O/L) examination. The content is
structured according to the syllabus derived from the National Institute of Education (NIE) and the
Educational Publications Department of Sri Lanka.

Biology

1.0 Explores life and life processes in order to improve productivity of biological
systems
1.1 Investigates the importance of chemical basis of life

Living organisms are complex systems, and their existence and functions are fundamentally
dependent on a variety of chemical substances. These substances, often referred to as
biomolecules, are essential for all life processes, from energy production to genetic inheritance.
The major biomolecules include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These are
primarily composed of a few key elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with others
like phosphorus and sulfur also playing crucial roles.

Carbohydrates: These are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They
are the primary source of energy for living organisms. Examples include glucose (a simple sugar),
starch (a complex carbohydrate found in plants), and glycogen (a complex carbohydrate found in
animals). Carbohydrates are broken down during respiration to release energy.

Proteins: Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of smaller units called amino acids. They
contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur. Proteins have diverse
functions in the body, acting as enzymes (biological catalysts), structural components (e.g.,
collagen in skin, keratin in hair), transport molecules (e.g., hemoglobin in blood), and hormones.
Enzymes are particularly vital as they speed up biochemical reactions necessary for life.
 NOTEKOKKA

Lipids: Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water. They include
fats, oils, and waxes. Lipids are composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve
as a concentrated source of energy, form structural components of cell membranes, and act as
insulation and protective layers in organisms. For example, fats store energy, and phospholipids
are crucial components of cell membranes.

Nucleic Acids: These are complex biomolecules essential for storing and transmitting genetic
information. The two main types are Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
They are made up of repeating units called nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base. DNA carries the genetic instructions for the development,
functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. RNA is involved
in protein synthesis and gene expression.

Minerals: Minerals are inorganic elements required by living organisms for various physiological
functions. They are obtained from the diet. Examples include calcium (for bones and teeth), iron
(for hemoglobin), potassium (for nerve function), and sodium (for fluid balance). Deficiencies in
minerals can lead to various health problems. For instance, iron deficiency can cause anemia, and
calcium deficiency can lead to osteoporosis.

Vitamins: Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential in small quantities for normal
metabolism and good health. They are generally not synthesized by the body and must be obtained
from the diet. Vitamins are categorized as fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) or water-soluble (B vitamins,
C). Each vitamin has specific roles; for example, Vitamin C is crucial for immune function and
collagen synthesis, while Vitamin D is important for calcium absorption and bone health.
Deficiencies can lead to specific diseases, such as scurvy (Vitamin C deficiency) or rickets
(Vitamin D deficiency).

Water: Water (H2O) is the most abundant molecule in living organisms and is absolutely essential
for life. It acts as a universal solvent, allowing many biochemical reactions to occur. Water is
involved in transport (e.g., blood plasma), temperature regulation (due to its high specific heat
capacity), and as a medium for metabolic reactions. It is also a reactant in many biochemical
 NOTEKOKKA

processes, such as hydrolysis. The unique properties of water, including its polarity and hydrogen
bonding, make it indispensable for life on Earth.

• Importance of Water in Biological Systems:

– Respiratory Medium: In aquatic organisms, oxygen dissolved in water is used for
respiration.
– Solvent: Many substances dissolve in water, facilitating transport of nutrients and
waste products.
– Thermal Regulation: Water’s high specific heat capacity helps maintain stable body
temperatures.
– Transport Medium: Blood (mostly water) transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
and waste.
– Living Medium: Provides a habitat for aquatic life.

1.2 Discovers the structure of plant and animal cells on the basis of microscopic observation

The cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. All
organisms are made up of one or more cells, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell
division. Microscopic observation reveals the intricate structures within cells, known as organelles,
each performing specialized functions.

Concept of a Typical Cell: While cells vary greatly in size and shape, they share common
features. A typical cell is enclosed by a cell membrane, contains cytoplasm (a jelly-like substance),
and houses genetic material (DNA).

Cell Structure: Plant vs. Animal Cells

Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Wall Present (rigid, made of cellulose) Absent

Cell Membrane Present (inside cell wall) Present (outer boundary)

Nucleus Present (usually at periphery due to Present (usually central)

large vacuole)
 NOTEKOKKA

Vacuoles Large, single, central vacuole (stores Small, temporary, numerous

water, nutrients, waste) vacuoles (if present)

Chloroplasts Present (for photosynthesis) Absent

Mitochondria Present (for respiration) Present (for respiration)

Cytoplasm Present Present

Golgi Body Present Present

Endoplasmic Present Present

Reticulum

Ribosomes Present Present

Centrioles Absent (in higher plants) Present (involved in cell

division)

Organelles and their Functional Relationship:

• Plasma Membrane: A selectively permeable barrier that controls the movement of

substances into and out of the cell.
• Nucleus: Contains the cell’s genetic material (DNA) and controls cell activities. It is often
called the

‘control center’ of the cell. * Cell Wall (in plant cells): A rigid outer layer that provides structural
support and protection to the plant cell. * Mitochondria: Often called the ‘powerhouses’ of the
cell, they are responsible for cellular respiration, producing energy (ATP) for the cell. *
Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles. Many
metabolic reactions occur here. * Vacuoles: Membrane-bound sacs that store water, nutrients, and
waste products. In plant cells, a large central vacuole maintains turgor pressure. * Golgi Body (or
Golgi Apparatus): Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to
other organelles. * Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A network of membranes involved in protein
and lipid synthesis and transport. Rough ER has ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis,
while smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification. * Ribosomes: Small organelles
responsible for protein synthesis.
 NOTEKOKKA

Cell Growth and Cell Division:

Cells grow by increasing in size and then divide to produce new cells. Cell division is essential for
growth, repair, and reproduction. There are two main types of cell division:

• Mitosis: This type of cell division results in two daughter cells each having the same number
and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth. It is crucial
for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
• Meiosis: This type of cell division results in four daughter cells each with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes (sex cells) and plant spores.
It is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic variation.

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Purpose Growth, repair, asexual Sexual reproduction, genetic

reproduction variation

Number of Divisions One Two

Number of Daughter Two Four

Cells

Chromosome Number Diploid (2n) - same as parent Haploid (n) - half of parent cell
cell

Genetic Content Identical to parent cell Genetically different from parent

cell

1.3 Uses characteristic’s of living matter to differentiate the living from non-living matter.

Living organisms exhibit a set of characteristics that distinguish them from non-living matter.
While some non-living things may display one or two of these characteristics, only living
organisms possess all of them collectively. These characteristics include cellular organization,
nutrition, respiration, sensitivity, excretion, movement, reproduction, and growth and
development.

Characteristics of Living Things:

 NOTEKOKKA

1. Cellular Organization: All living organisms are made up of one or more cells. The cell is
the basic unit of life.
2. Nutrition: Living organisms obtain and use energy and nutrients from their environment to
sustain life. This can be through photosynthesis (plants) or consuming other organisms
(animals).
3. Respiration: The process by which organisms release energy from food. This can be aerobic
(with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen).
4. Sensitivity (Irritability): The ability of living organisms to detect and respond to changes in
their internal or external environment.
5. Excretion: The process of removing metabolic waste products from the body.
6. Movement: All living organisms exhibit some form of movement, whether it’s internal (e.g.,
cytoplasmic streaming) or external (e.g., walking, swimming).
7. Reproduction: The ability of living organisms to produce offspring, ensuring the continuity
of their species. This can be asexual or sexual.
8. Growth and Development: Living organisms increase in size (growth) and undergo changes
in form and complexity (development) over their lifespan.

Evaluating Evidences: When classifying something as living or non-living, it’s important to look
for the presence of all these characteristics. For example, a crystal can grow, but it doesn’t respire,
reproduce, or excrete. A fire can move and grow, but it lacks cellular organization and doesn’t
reproduce in the biological sense.

It is important to respect all living matter as life forms, recognizing their unique properties and
interconnectedness within ecosystems. However, it’s also acknowledged that some forms, like
viruses, present challenges in strict classification as they exhibit some characteristics of life only
when inside a host cell.

1.4 Classifies organisms using suitable methods

Classification is the process of arranging organisms into groups based on their similarities and
differences. This systematic arrangement helps scientists to study and understand the vast diversity
 NOTEKOKKA

of life on Earth, identify relationships between different organisms, and communicate about them
effectively. There are two main methods of classification: natural and artificial.

Natural Classification: This method groups organisms based on their evolutionary relationships
and shared ancestry. It considers a wide range of characteristics, including anatomical,
physiological, genetic, and biochemical features. This results in a more accurate and stable
classification system.

Artificial Classification: This method groups organisms based on superficial or arbitrary

characteristics, such as habitat or usefulness to humans. While sometimes practical, it does not
reflect evolutionary relationships and can be misleading.

Domains and Kingdoms: The broadest categories in biological classification are domains,
followed by kingdoms. Currently, life is classified into three domains:

• Archaea: Single-celled prokaryotes (organisms without a nucleus) that often live in extreme
environments.
• Bacteria: Single-celled prokaryotes found in diverse environments.
• Eukarya: Organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
This domain includes four kingdoms:
– Protista: A diverse group of mostly single-celled eukaryotes (e.g., amoeba,
paramecium, algae).
– Fungi: Heterotrophic eukaryotes that obtain nutrients by absorption (e.g.,
mushrooms, yeasts, molds).
– Plantae: Multicellular autotrophic eukaryotes that produce their own food through
photosynthesis (e.g., trees, flowers, ferns).
– Animalia: Multicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes that obtain nutrients by ingestion
(e.g., insects, fish, mammals).

Classification within Plantae:

• Non-flowering plants: Reproduce by spores or seeds not enclosed in fruits.

 NOTEKOKKA

– Non-seed bearing plants: Reproduce by spores (e.g., ferns, mosses).

– Seed bearing plants: Reproduce by seeds (e.g., conifers).
• Flowering plants (Angiosperms): Reproduce by seeds enclosed within fruits. They are
further divided into:
– Monocotyledonous (Monocots): Have one cotyledon (seed leaf), parallel venation
in leaves, fibrous root system, and flower parts in multiples of three (e.g., grasses,
lilies, corn).
– Dicotyledonous (Dicots): Have two cotyledons, net-like venation in leaves, taproot
system, and flower parts in multiples of four or five (e.g., beans, roses, sunflowers).

Classification within Animalia:

Animals are broadly divided into invertebrates (without a backbone) and vertebrates (with a
backbone).

• Invertebrates:
– Coelenterata (Cnidaria): Simple aquatic animals with stinging cells (e.g., jellyfish,
corals).
– Annelida: Segmented worms (e.g., earthworms, leeches).
– Mollusca: Soft-bodied animals, often with a shell (e.g., snails, clams, octopuses).
– Arthropoda: Animals with jointed legs and an exoskeleton (e.g., insects, spiders,
crabs).
– Echinodermata: Marine animals with spiny skin and radial symmetry (e.g., starfish,
sea urchins).
• Vertebrates:
– Pisces (Fish): Aquatic vertebrates with gills and fins (e.g., sharks, bony fish).
– Amphibia: Vertebrates that live both in water and on land, typically with moist skin
(e.g., frogs, salamanders).
– Reptilia: Cold-blooded vertebrates with scales and lay eggs on land (e.g., snakes,
lizards, crocodiles).
 NOTEKOKKA

– Aves (Birds): Warm-blooded vertebrates with feathers, wings, and lay eggs (e.g.,
sparrows, eagles).
– Mammalia: Warm-blooded vertebrates with fur or hair, mammary glands, and give
birth to live young (e.g., humans, dogs, whales).

Nomenclature (Binomial Nomenclature):

To ensure a universal and unambiguous naming system, organisms are given a two-part scientific
name (binomial nomenclature), consisting of the genus and species. For example, Homo sapiens
for humans. The genus name is capitalized, and the species name is lowercase, both are italicized.

1.5 Investigates the contribution of reproduction in maintaining the continuity of organisms

Reproduction is a fundamental biological process by which new individual organisms are

produced from their parents. It is essential for the continuity of life and the perpetuation of species.
There are two main types of reproduction: sexual and asexual.

Sexual Reproduction: Involves the fusion of two gametes (sex cells), usually from two different
parents, to form a zygote. This process leads to genetic variation in the offspring, which is crucial
for adaptation and evolution. Examples include reproduction in most animals and flowering plants.

Asexual Reproduction: Involves a single parent producing genetically identical offspring without
the fusion of gametes. This method is common in many single-celled organisms and some plants
and animals. Examples include binary fission in bacteria, budding in yeast, and vegetative
propagation in plants.

Plant Reproduction:

• Vegetative Propagation: A form of asexual reproduction in plants where new plants grow
from vegetative parts like stems, roots, or leaves. This can occur naturally (e.g., runners in
strawberries, tubers in potatoes) or artificially (e.g., cuttings, grafting, layering).
– Traditional methods: Cuttings, layering, grafting.
 NOTEKOKKA

– Tissue culture: A modern technique where plant cells, tissues, or organs are grown
in a sterile nutrient medium under controlled conditions to produce new plants. This
allows for rapid propagation of desirable plant varieties.
• Sexual Reproduction in Plants: Involves flowers, which are the reproductive organs.
Pollination (transfer of pollen) is followed by fertilization (fusion of male and female
gametes), leading to seed formation.
– Seed formation: After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary
develops into a fruit.
– Dispersal of fruits and seeds: Seeds are dispersed by various methods (wind, water,
animals) to ensure wider distribution and reduce competition. Adaptations for
dispersal include wings, hooks, buoyancy, and fleshy fruits.

Human Reproduction:

Human reproduction is sexual and involves complex physiological processes regulated by

hormones.

• Process: Involves the male and female reproductive systems. Sperm (male gamete) fertilizes
an egg (female gamete) in the fallopian tube, forming a zygote. The zygote then implants in
the uterus and develops into an embryo and then a fetus.
• Hormonal control: Hormones like estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, FSH, and LH play
crucial roles in regulating the menstrual cycle in females, sperm production in males, and the
entire reproductive process.
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): Infections transmitted through sexual contact.
Examples include HIV/AIDS, gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia. Prevention methods
include safe sexual practices and education.

It is important to act as a responsible citizen with regard to sexual behavior, promoting safe
practices and respecting others.
 NOTEKOKKA

1.6 Investigates the patterns of inheritance of traits in organisms

Heredity is the passing of traits from parents to their offspring. The study of heredity is called
genetics. Living organisms exhibit hereditary variations, which are the differences in traits among
individuals of the same species. These variations are the raw material for evolution.

The Work of Gregor Mendel: Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, is considered the

‘father of genetics’ due to his pioneering work with pea plants in the mid-19th century. He
discovered the fundamental principles of heredity:

• Law of Segregation: During the formation of gametes, the two alleles for a heritable
character separate (segregate) from each other and end up in different gametes.
• Law of Independent Assortment: Each pair of alleles segregates independently of each
other pair of alleles during gamete formation.

Applying Mendel’s Patterns (Bead Experiment): A simple bead experiment can be used to
demonstrate Mendel’s laws. For example, using two different colored beads to represent alleles,
students can simulate the segregation and independent assortment of alleles during gamete
formation and fertilization.

Key Concepts in Genetics:

• Chromosomes: Thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells.
Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
They carry genetic information in the form of genes.
• Sex Chromosomes: Chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual (e.g., X and Y
chromosomes in humans).
• Autosomes: Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.
• Gene: A basic unit of heredity; a segment of DNA that codes for a specific trait or protein.
• Gene Expression: The process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of
a functional gene product, such as a protein.
 NOTEKOKKA

• Gene Linkage: The tendency of genes that are located close together on the same
chromosome to be inherited together during meiosis.

Human Heredity and Genetic Disorders:

Human heredity follows similar patterns to those observed by Mendel. However, human genetics
is more complex due to a larger number of genes, environmental influences, and complex
interactions. Genetic disorders are conditions caused by abnormalities in an individual’s DNA.
Examples include:

• Hemophilia: A genetic disorder that impairs the body’s ability to make blood clots, a process
needed to stop bleeding.
• Color blindness: A condition in which a person cannot distinguish between certain colors.
• Thalassemia: A blood disorder that reduces the production of hemoglobin, the protein in red
blood cells that carries oxygen to tissues throughout the body.
• Albinism: A group of inherited disorders characterized by little or no melanin production.

Genetic Engineering:

Genetic engineering involves the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes using biotechnology.
It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of
genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms.

• Applications of Genetic Engineering:

– Food and Agriculture: Developing crops with increased yield, pest resistance,
herbicide tolerance, and improved nutritional value (e.g., Golden Rice).
– Medicine: Producing insulin for diabetics, growth hormones, vaccines, and gene
therapy for treating genetic diseases.
– Industries: Creating microorganisms that produce enzymes, biofuels, and other
industrial chemicals.

Importance of Avoiding Marriages Among Blood Relatives: Marriages between close relatives
(consanguineous marriages) increase the risk of offspring inheriting two copies of a recessive gene
 NOTEKOKKA

for a genetic disorder, leading to a higher incidence of genetic diseases. This is because close
relatives are more likely to share common ancestors and thus carry the same recessive genes.

Chemistry

2.0 Investigates matter, properties of matter and their interaction to enhance the
quality of life
2.1 Investigates scientific findings about structure of matter

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Understanding its structure at the atomic and
subatomic levels is crucial for comprehending its properties and interactions. The journey of
understanding atomic structure has evolved over centuries, leading to the modern planetary model
of the atom and the periodic table.

Planetary Model of an Atom: This model, proposed by Ernest Rutherford and later refined by
Niels Bohr, depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus orbited by negatively charged
electrons, much like planets orbiting the sun. While a simplified model, it helps in visualizing
electron arrangement.

Electronic Configuration: Electrons occupy specific energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
Each energy level can hold a maximum number of electrons. Electronic configuration describes
the arrangement of electrons in these energy levels. For the first 20 elements, electrons fill shells
in a predictable manner (e.g., 2, 8, 8, 2).

Example: Electronic Configuration of First 20 Elements

Element Atomic Number Electronic Configuration

Hydrogen 1 1

Helium 2 2

Lithium 3 2, 1

Beryllium 4 2, 2
 NOTEKOKKA

Boron 5 2, 3

Carbon 6 2, 4

Nitrogen 7 2, 5

Oxygen 8 2, 6

Fluorine 9 2, 7

Neon 10 2, 8

Sodium 11 2, 8, 1

Magnesium 12 2, 8, 2

Aluminum 13 2, 8, 3

Silicon 14 2, 8, 4

Phosphorus 15 2, 8, 5

Sulfur 16 2, 8, 6

Chlorine 17 2, 8, 7

Argon 18 2, 8, 8

Potassium 19 2, 8, 8, 1

Calcium 20 2, 8, 8, 2

Modern Periodic Table: The periodic table organizes elements based on their atomic number,
electronic configuration, and recurring chemical properties. It consists of periods (horizontal rows)
and groups (vertical columns).

• Periods: Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.
• Groups: Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons (electrons
in the outermost shell) and thus exhibit similar chemical properties.

Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different mass numbers. For example, Carbon-12 and
Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon.
 NOTEKOKKA

Patterns in the Periodic Table:

• Across a Period (left to right): Atomic radius generally decreases, ionization energy
generally increases, and electronegativity generally increases. Metallic character decreases,
and non-metallic character increases.
• Down a Group (top to bottom): Atomic radius generally increases, ionization energy
generally decreases, and electronegativity generally decreases. Metallic character increases,
and non-metallic character decreases.

First Ionization Energy: The minimum energy required to remove one electron from the
outermost shell of a neutral gaseous atom in its ground state.

Electronegativity: A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons.

Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids:

• Metals: Generally shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, and ductile.
They tend to lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). Examples: Sodium (Na),
Magnesium (Mg).
• Non-metals: Generally dull, poor conductors of heat and electricity, brittle. They tend to gain
electrons to form negative ions (anions) or share electrons. Examples: Carbon (C), Sulfur (S),
Nitrogen (N).
• Metalloids: Elements that have properties intermediate between metals and non-metals.
Examples: Silicon (Si), Boron (B).

Acidic, Basic, and Amphoteric Nature of Oxides (Third Period Elements):

Element Oxide Formula Nature Example Reaction

Sodium Na2O Basic Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH

Magnesium MgO Basic MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2

Aluminum Al2O3 Amphoteric Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O (acidic)

Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O (basic)

 NOTEKOKKA

Silicon SiO2 Acidic SiO2 + 2NaOH → Na2SiO3 + H2O

Phosphorus P4O10 Acidic P4O10 + 6H2O → 4H3PO4

Sulfur SO3 Acidic SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

Chlorine Cl2O7 Acidic Cl2O7 + H2O → 2HClO4

Valency: The combining power of an element, determined by the number of electrons an atom
can lose, gain, or share to form chemical bonds. It can be deduced from the element’s position in
the periodic table.

Chemical Formulae: Represent the composition of a compound using chemical symbols and
subscripts to indicate the number of atoms of each element. Valency helps in formulating these
(e.g., H2O, NaCl, CO2).

2.2 Uses mole to quantify elements and compounds

In chemistry, it is often necessary to work with very large numbers of atoms or molecules. The
concept of the mole provides a convenient way to quantify these microscopic particles and relate
them to macroscopic masses.

Atomic Mass Unit (amu): A unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular weights. It is
defined as 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): The ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element to 1/12th of
the mass of a carbon-12 atom. It has no units.

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): The sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule.
It also has no units.

Example Calculation of Relative Molecular Mass:

For water (H2O): Ar of H = 1 Ar of O = 16 Mr of H2O = (2 × Ar of H) + (1 × Ar of O) = (2 × 1)

+ (1 × 16) = 2 + 16 = 18

Avogadro Constant (NA): The number of constituent particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) per
mole of a substance. Its value is approximately 6.022 × 10^23 mol^-1.
 NOTEKOKKA

Mole (mol): The SI unit of amount of substance. One mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s
number of particles. It is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many elementary
entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12.

Molar Mass (M): The mass of one mole of a substance. Its unit is grams per mole (g/mol).
Numerically, the molar mass in grams per mole is equal to the relative atomic mass or relative
molecular mass.

Calculations involving Mass, Amount of Substance, and Molar Mass:

• Number of moles = Mass (g) / Molar Mass (g/mol)

• Mass (g) = Number of moles × Molar Mass (g/mol)
• Number of particles = Number of moles × Avogadro Constant

Example Calculations:

9. How many moles are in 36 g of water (H2O)? Molar mass of H2O = 18 g/mol Number of
moles = 36 g / 18 g/mol = 2 mol

10. What is the mass of 0.5 moles of NaCl? Ar of Na = 23, Ar of Cl = 35.5 Molar mass of NaCl
= 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 g/mol Mass = 0.5 mol × 58.5 g/mol = 29.25 g

2.3 Relates properties of compounds with the existing bonds

Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atoms together in molecules and compounds. The type of
bonding significantly influences the physical and chemical properties of a substance. The two main
types of chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds.

Chemical Bonding: Atoms form chemical bonds to achieve a more stable electron configuration,
typically by having a full outermost electron shell (octet rule).

Ionic Bonds: Formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons from a metal atom to a
non-metal atom. This transfer results in the formation of positively charged ions (cations) and
negatively charged ions (anions), which are then attracted to each other by strong electrostatic
forces.
 NOTEKOKKA

• Formation of Ions:
– Metal atoms tend to lose electrons to form cations (e.g., Na → Na+ + e-).
– Non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons to form anions (e.g., Cl + e- → Cl-).
• Illustration (e.g., NaCl): Sodium (Na) loses one electron to become Na+, and Chlorine (Cl)
gains one electron to become Cl-. The electrostatic attraction between Na+ and Cl- forms the
ionic bond.
• Properties of Ionic Compounds:
– High melting and boiling points (due to strong electrostatic forces).
– Solid at room temperature.
– Often soluble in water.
– Conduct electricity only when molten or dissolved in water (ions are mobile).
– Typically hard and brittle.

Covalent Bonds: Formed by the sharing of electron pairs between two non-metal atoms. This
sharing allows both atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration.

• Lewis Structures: Diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the
lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule (e.g., H-H for H2, O=C=O for CO2).
• Properties of Covalent Compounds:
– Generally lower melting and boiling points (weaker intermolecular forces).
– Can be solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature.
– Often insoluble in water.
– Generally do not conduct electricity (no free ions or electrons).

Polarity of Bonds: When electrons are shared unequally between two atoms in a covalent bond
due to differences in electronegativity, the bond becomes polar. The atom with higher
electronegativity will have a partial negative charge (δ-), and the other atom will have a partial
positive charge (δ+).

• Example: Water (H2O): Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, so the O-H bonds
are polar. This results in the water molecule having a partial negative charge on the oxygen
 NOTEKOKKA

and partial positive charges on the hydrogens, leading to intermolecular forces called
hydrogen bonds.

2.4 Uses chemical changes suitably to fulfill necessities in life

Chemical changes, or chemical reactions, are fundamental to life and various industrial processes.
Understanding and utilizing these changes allows us to create new substances, generate energy,
and solve practical problems.

• Everyday Examples of Chemical Changes:

– Digestion of food: Complex food molecules are broken down into simpler ones by
enzymes.
– Burning of fuels: Combustion reactions release energy (e.g., burning wood, gas).
– Rusting of iron: Iron reacts with oxygen and water to form iron oxide.
– Photosynthesis: Plants convert light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose
and oxygen.
– Respiration: Organisms break down glucose to release energy.
• Applications in Life:
– Medicine: Synthesis of drugs, development of diagnostic tests.
– Agriculture: Production of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.
– Industry: Manufacturing of plastics, textiles, detergents, and various chemicals.
– Environmental Protection: Treatment of wastewater, removal of pollutants from air.

2.5 Takes necessary measures to control the rate of reaction as required in day-to-day life

The rate of a chemical reaction refers to how fast reactants are converted into products. Controlling
reaction rates is crucial in many industrial processes, biological systems, and everyday activities.
Several factors can influence the rate of reaction.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction:

11. Surface Area/Physical Nature: Increasing the surface area of reactants increases the rate of
reaction. For example, powdered sugar dissolves faster than sugar cubes.
 NOTEKOKKA

12. Temperature: Increasing temperature generally increases the rate of reaction because
particles have more kinetic energy, leading to more frequent and energetic collisions. For
example, food spoils faster at room temperature than in a refrigerator.
13. Concentration/Pressure (for gaseous system): Increasing the concentration of reactants (or
pressure for gases) increases the rate of reaction because there are more particles per unit
volume, leading to more frequent collisions. For example, a higher concentration of bleach
cleans faster.
14. Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed
in the process. Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation
energy. Enzymes are biological catalysts. For example, catalytic converters in cars speed up
the conversion of harmful gases into less harmful ones.

Examples of Controlling Reaction Rates in Daily Life:

• Cooking: Increasing temperature speeds up cooking reactions.

• Food Preservation: Lowering temperature (refrigeration, freezing) slows down spoilage
reactions.
• Industrial Processes: Using catalysts to speed up production of chemicals (e.g., Haber
process for ammonia synthesis).
• Medicine: Designing drugs that inhibit or activate specific enzyme reactions in the body.

Physics

3.0 Utilizes various forms of energy, their interaction with matter and energy
transformations by maintaining efficiency and effectiveness at an optimum level
3.1 Investigates the quantities related to rectilinear motion and the use of graphs of motion to
analyze the rectilinear motion

Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the motion of objects and the forces that cause
them to move. Rectilinear motion refers to motion along a straight line. To describe and analyze
motion, several physical quantities are used.
 NOTEKOKKA

Physical Quantities Related to Motion:

• Distance: The total path length covered by an object, regardless of direction. It is a scalar
quantity (only magnitude).
• Displacement: The shortest distance from the initial to the final position of an object, along
with its direction. It is a vector quantity (magnitude and direction).
• Speed: The rate at which an object covers distance. It is a scalar quantity. Average speed =
Total distance / Total time.
• Velocity: The rate at which an object changes its displacement. It is a vector quantity.
Average velocity = Total displacement / Total time.
• Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity. Acceleration = Change
in velocity / Time taken.
• Acceleration due to gravity (g): The acceleration experienced by an object due to the Earth’s
gravitational pull, approximately 9.8 m/s² near the Earth’s surface.

Graphs of Motion: Graphs are powerful tools for visualizing and analyzing motion.

• Displacement-Time (s-t) Graphs:

– Slope: Represents velocity.
– Horizontal line: Object at rest (zero velocity).
– Straight line with positive slope: Constant positive velocity.
– Straight line with negative slope: Constant negative velocity.
– Curved line: Changing velocity (acceleration).
• Velocity-Time (v-t) Graphs:
– Slope: Represents acceleration.
– Area under the graph: Represents displacement.
– Horizontal line: Constant velocity (zero acceleration).
– Straight line with positive slope: Constant positive acceleration.
– Straight line with negative slope: Constant negative acceleration (deceleration).
 NOTEKOKKA

Example Problem: A car accelerates from rest to 20 m/s in 5 seconds. Calculate its acceleration
and the distance covered.

• Acceleration: a = (20 - 0) / 5 = 4 m/s²

• Distance (from v-t graph, area of triangle): d = (1/2) × base × height = (1/2) × 5 s × 20 m/s
= 50 m

3.2 Uses Newton’s laws of motion to describe the effects of a force

Sir Isaac Newton formulated three fundamental laws that describe the relationship between the
motion of an object and the forces acting on it. These laws form the basis of classical mechanics.

Force: A push or a pull that can change the state of motion of an object (i.e., change its speed or
direction) or deform it. The SI unit of force is the Newton (N).

Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia): An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in
motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced external force.

• Example: A book resting on a table will remain at rest unless you push or pull it. A ball
rolling on a frictionless surface would continue to roll indefinitely if no external forces (like
friction or air resistance) act on it.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net
force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. The direction of the acceleration is in the
direction of the net force.

• Formula: F = ma (Force = mass × acceleration)

• Example: If you push a lighter trolley with the same force as a heavier trolley, the lighter
trolley will accelerate more.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 NOTEKOKKA

• Example: When you jump, your feet push down on the ground (action), and the ground
pushes up on your feet with an equal and opposite force (reaction), propelling you upwards.
A rocket moves forward by expelling gases backward.

Momentum: A measure of the mass and velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity. Momentum
(p) = mass (m) × velocity (v). The SI unit of momentum is kg m/s.

Conservation of Momentum: In a closed system (where no external forces act), the total
momentum before a collision or interaction is equal to the total momentum after the collision or
interaction.

• Example: When a gun is fired, the forward momentum of the bullet is equal in magnitude to
the backward momentum (recoil) of the gun.

3.3 Investigates the nature and uses of friction

Friction is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact. It arises from the
irregularities and intermolecular forces between the surfaces. Friction can be both advantageous
and disadvantageous.

Types of Friction:

• Static Friction: The force that opposes the start of motion between two surfaces in contact.
• Kinetic Friction (Sliding Friction): The force that opposes the motion of two surfaces
sliding over each other.
• Rolling Friction: The force that opposes the motion of a rolling object.
• Fluid Friction (Drag): The resistance force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on an object
moving through it.

Advantages of Friction:

• Allows us to walk and run without slipping.

• Enables vehicles to move and stop (tires grip the road).
• Allows us to hold objects.
 NOTEKOKKA

• Helps in braking systems.

Disadvantages of Friction:

• Causes wear and tear in machinery.

• Generates heat, leading to energy loss.
• Reduces efficiency of machines.
• Requires more force to move objects.

Methods of Reducing Friction:

• Lubrication: Applying oil, grease, or other lubricants between surfaces.

• Smoothing Surfaces: Polishing surfaces to reduce irregularities.
• Using Ball Bearings/Rollers: Converting sliding friction into rolling friction.
• Streamlining: Designing shapes to reduce fluid friction (e.g., aerodynamic cars, boats).

3.4 Makes jobs easy using resultant of forces

When multiple forces act on an object, their combined effect can be represented by a single force
called the resultant force. Understanding how to combine and resolve forces helps in simplifying
complex force systems and designing efficient structures and machines.

Resultant Force: The single force that produces the same effect as all the individual forces acting
on an object. If the resultant force is zero, the object is in equilibrium.

Resolution of Forces: The process of breaking down a single force into two or more component
forces, usually at right angles to each other. This is useful for analyzing forces acting at angles.

Equilibrium of Forces: An object is in equilibrium when the net force acting on it is zero, meaning
it is either at rest or moving with constant velocity. For an object to be in equilibrium, the sum of
all forces in any direction must be zero.

• Example: When a tug-of-war is balanced, the forces exerted by both teams are equal and
opposite, resulting in a zero resultant force.
 NOTEKOKKA

3.5 Estimates and measures the turning effect of a force

Forces can not only cause linear motion but also rotational motion. The turning effect of a force is
called its moment or torque. Understanding moments is crucial in designing levers, wheels, and
other rotating systems.

Moment of a Force (Torque): The turning effect of a force about a pivot point. It is calculated as
the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the
force.

• Formula: Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance

• SI Unit: Newton-meter (Nm)

Principle of Moments: For an object to be in rotational equilibrium (not turning), the sum of the
clockwise moments about any pivot must be equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about
the same pivot.

• Example: A seesaw is balanced when the clockwise moment produced by a person on one
side equals the anticlockwise moment produced by a person on the other side.

Centre of Gravity (CG): The point where the entire weight of an object appears to act. For a
symmetrical object with uniform density, the CG is at its geometric center. For irregular objects,
it can be found experimentally.

Stability: The ability of an object to return to its original position after being slightly displaced.
Stability is related to the position of the center of gravity and the size of the base of support.

• Types of Stability:
– Stable Equilibrium: Object returns to its original position (e.g., a brick lying flat).
– Unstable Equilibrium: Object moves away from its original position (e.g., a pencil
balanced on its tip).
– Neutral Equilibrium: Object remains in its new position (e.g., a ball on a flat
surface).
 NOTEKOKKA

3.6 Investigates the conditions of equilibrium

An object is in equilibrium when it is either at rest (static equilibrium) or moving with a constant
velocity (dynamic equilibrium). For an object to be in equilibrium, two conditions must be met:

15. Translational Equilibrium: The net force acting on the object must be zero. This means the
sum of all forces in any direction (e.g., horizontal and vertical) must be zero.
16. Rotational Equilibrium: The net moment (torque) acting on the object about any pivot point
must be zero. This means the sum of all clockwise moments must equal the sum of all
anticlockwise moments.
• Example: A bridge is designed to be in equilibrium, with the forces and moments acting on
it balancing out to ensure stability.

3.7 Uses the principles and laws of hydrostatics to realize activities related to sinking, floating
and pressure transmission

Hydrostatics is the study of fluids at rest. Understanding the principles of hydrostatics is essential
for various applications, from designing ships to hydraulic systems.

Pressure in Fluids: Pressure is defined as force per unit area. In fluids, pressure acts equally in
all directions. Pressure increases with depth and density of the fluid.

• Formula: Pressure (P) = Force (F) / Area (A)

• SI Unit: Pascal (Pa) or N/m²

Archimedes’ Principle: States that when an object is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

• Applications: Explains why objects float or sink. Ships float because the buoyant force acting
on them (equal to the weight of the water they displace) is equal to their own weight.

Principle of Flotation: An object floats if its density is less than or equal to the density of the
fluid it is in. If its density is greater, it sinks.
 NOTEKOKKA

Pascal’s Principle: States that a pressure change at any point in a confined incompressible fluid
is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same change occurs everywhere.

• Applications: Hydraulic systems (e.g., hydraulic brakes, hydraulic lifts) use Pascal’s
principle to multiply force. A small force applied to a small piston can generate a large force
on a larger piston.

3.8 Quantifies the mechanical energy and power in mechanical processes

Energy is the ability to do work. Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energy.
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.

Work (W): Done when a force causes displacement of an object in the direction of the force.
Work = Force × Distance. SI unit is Joule (J).

Energy:

• Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy possessed by an object due to its motion. KE = 1/2 mv² (where
m = mass, v = velocity).
• Potential Energy (PE): Stored energy due to an object’s position or state. Gravitational PE
= mgh (where m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity, h = height).

Conservation of Energy: States that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be
transformed from one form to another. In a closed system, the total energy remains constant.

• Example: A falling object converts gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy.

Power (P): The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. Power = Work / Time or
Power = Energy / Time. SI unit is Watt (W).

• Example: A powerful engine can do the same amount of work in less time than a less
powerful engine.
 NOTEKOKKA

3.9 Uses fundamental principles and laws of current electricity to understand and control the
action of simple circuits

Electricity is a fundamental force that powers our modern world. Understanding its basic principles
is essential for comprehending how electrical devices work and for designing electrical circuits.

Electric Current (I): The flow of electric charge. SI unit is Ampere (A).

Voltage (V) / Potential Difference: The energy per unit charge required to move a charge between
two points in an electric field. It is the ‘push’ that drives the current. SI unit is Volt (V).

Resistance (R): The opposition to the flow of electric current. SI unit is Ohm (Ω).

Ohm’s Law: States that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points, and inversely proportional to the resistance
between them. V = IR (Voltage = Current × Resistance).

Electric Circuits:

• Series Circuit: Components are connected end-to-end, forming a single path for current. The
current is the same through each component, and the total resistance is the sum of individual
resistances.
• Parallel Circuit: Components are connected across the same two points, providing multiple
paths for current. The voltage across each component is the same, and the reciprocal of the
total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of individual resistances.

Electrical Power and Energy:

• Electrical Power (P): The rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms of
energy (e.g., heat, light). P = VI = I²R = V²/R. SI unit is Watt (W).
• Electrical Energy (E): The total amount of energy consumed. E = Pt. SI unit is Joule (J),
but kilowatt-hour (kWh) is commonly used for billing.

Magnetism and Electromagnetism:

• Magnetism: A force that attracts or repels certain metallic objects (e.g., iron, nickel, cobalt).
 NOTEKOKKA

• Electromagnetism: The interaction between electricity and magnetism. A current-carrying

conductor produces a magnetic field around it. This principle is used in electromagnets.

Electric Motors and Generators:

• Electric Motor: A device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It works on
the principle that a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
• Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. It works on the
principle of electromagnetic induction (Faraday’s law), where a changing magnetic field
induces an electric current.

3.10 Investigates the properties of light and sound waves

Waves are disturbances that transfer energy without transferring matter. Light and sound are two
common types of waves with distinct properties and behaviors.

Properties of Waves:

• Amplitude: The maximum displacement or distance moved by a point on a vibrating body

or wave measured from its equilibrium position.
• Wavelength (λ): The distance between successive crests or troughs of a wave.
• Frequency (f): The number of complete wave cycles that pass a point per unit time. Measured
in Hertz (Hz).
• Speed (v): The distance traveled by a wave per unit time. v = fλ.

Sound Waves: Mechanical waves that require a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to travel. They are
produced by vibrations.

• Production: Vibrating objects (e.g., vocal cords, guitar strings, drumheads).

• Propagation: Travels as compressions and rarefactions through a medium.
• Characteristics:
– Loudness: Related to amplitude.
– Pitch: Related to frequency.
– Quality (Timbre): Related to the waveform.
 NOTEKOKKA

Light Waves: Electromagnetic waves that do not require a medium to travel and can travel through
a vacuum. They are part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• Reflection: The bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface (e.g., mirror).
• Refraction: The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another (e.g., light passing
through water, lenses).
• Dispersion: The splitting of white light into its constituent colors when it passes through a
prism or water droplets (e.g., rainbow).
• Lenses: Optical devices that refract light to form images. Convex lenses converge light, and
concave lenses diverge light.
• Mirrors: Optical devices that reflect light to form images. Plane mirrors form virtual, upright,
and laterally inverted images. Concave mirrors can form real or virtual images, and convex
mirrors always form virtual images.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: The range of all types of electromagnetic radiation, including radio
waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. They all travel at
the speed of light in a vacuum but differ in wavelength and frequency. Each region has specific
applications (e.g., radio waves for communication, X-rays for medical imaging).

3.11 Explores the basics of modern physics

Modern physics deals with phenomena at atomic and subatomic levels, and at very high speeds.
Key concepts include radioactivity and nuclear energy.

Radioactivity: The spontaneous emission of radiation from the nucleus of unstable atoms. This
process leads to the transformation of one element into another.

• Types of Decay:
– Alpha (α) decay: Emission of an alpha particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons, identical
to a helium nucleus).
– Beta (β) decay: Emission of a beta particle (an electron or positron).
– Gamma (γ) decay: Emission of gamma rays (high-energy electromagnetic radiation).
 NOTEKOKKA

Half-life: The time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. It is a characteristic
property of each radioactive isotope.

Nuclear Fission and Fusion:

• Nuclear Fission: The process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two or more smaller
nuclei, releasing a large amount of energy. This is the principle behind nuclear power plants
and atomic bombs.
• Nuclear Fusion: The process in which two or more light atomic nuclei combine to form a
heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy. This is the process that powers
the sun and other stars.

Applications of Nuclear Energy:

• Electricity Generation: Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to generate electricity.
• Medical Applications: Radioisotopes are used in medical imaging (e.g., PET scans), cancer
therapy, and sterilization of medical equipment.
• Industrial Applications: Tracers for leak detection, gauging thickness, and sterilization of
food and products.
• Dating: Carbon-14 dating is used to determine the age of archaeological artifacts.

Impact of Modern Physics: Modern physics has revolutionized our understanding of the universe
and led to numerous technological advancements, from nuclear power to medical imaging and
electronics.