SOLUTIONS

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more components. Binary solution

1S Onewhich contains only two components. The component that is present in smaller
quantity is solute and the one present in larger quaitity is solvent.
Pypes of solutions :
Types of solutions Solute Solvent Example
Gas Gas Oxygen mixed with nitrogen
Gaseous solutions Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen.
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen.
Gas Liquid Oxygen in water.
Liquid solutions Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water.
Solid Liquid Glucose in water.
Gas Solid Hydrogen in palladium
Solid solutions Liquid Solid Mercury in Zinc
Solid Solid Copper in Gold
Concentrations of solutions:
Mass Percentage (w/w):
It is the mass of solute (g) per hundred grams of solution.
Mass percent = Mass of solute x 100
Mass of solution
20%(w/w) of glucose solution means 20 g of glucose is dissolved in 100 g of
solution (or 80 g of water)
Volume percentage (v/v):
It is the volume of solute (mL) dissolved in 100mL of the solution.
Volume %ofacomponent = Volume of solute x100
Volume of solution
10% ethanol (v/v) solution in water means that 10mL of ethanol is dissolved in 90
mL of water such that the total volume of the solution is 100 mL.
35% (v/v) solution of ethylene glycol, an antifreeze, is used in cars for cooling the
engine.
Mass by volume percentage(w/v):
It is the mass of solute (g) dissolved in 100mL of the solution. This unit is used in
medicine and pharmacy.
Mass by volume %of a component = Mass ofthe solute x 100
Volume of solution
Parts Per Million (ppm):
It is the mass of solute (g) per million grams of solution.
ppm = Mass of solute (g)x 10°
Mass of solution (g)
20ppm of Chlorine solution means 20 gof chlorine dissolved in 10° gof solution.
(10 gof water)
Mole Fraction:
It is the ratioof number of moles of solute to the total number of moles of the
solution.
 2
mole fraction of B(XB) = nB Wa/Mp
n, and npare number of moles of A and B WAMA t WB/Mg
WA and MAare mass and molar mass ofA respectively.
&wR and MB are mass and molar mass of B.
Molarity (M):
It is defined as the number of moles of
is mol L solute in 1 litre of solution. Unit of molarity
Molarity = No of moles of solute M =
Volume of solution in litres
M = Mass of solute (g) x
1000 M = WB X l000
Molar mass of solute x volume of
solution (ml) Mp x V (ml)
If mass
Molarity
percentage (%) and density (d) of solution are
= 10 x Mass given, then
percentage
Molar mass of
x density M=
10 %d
solute
Molarity solution changes with change in
of a MB
changes with change in temperature because volume of solution
Law of dilution: temperature.
V, and Mare volumeV,M =V,M,
and molarity before
V and M, are
volume and molarity after dilution.
dilution.
Molality (m):
It is defined as the
number of moles of solute in
Unit of molality is mol Kg. 1Kg of solvent.
Molality = No of moles of solute
Mass of solvent in Kg
m= Mass of solute (g) x 1000
Molar mass of solute x mass of solvent (g) WB X 1000
Molality of a solution does not change Mg XWA(g)
solvent does not change with change in with change in
temperature. temperature because mass of
Molality is a more reliable term than molarity as it does not change with the
in temperature.
Normality (N):
change
It is defined as the
number of
Normality = No of gram equivalentsgramof solute
equivalents of the solute in 1 litre of solution.
Volume of solution in litres
N= Mass of solute (g) x 1000
Equivalent mass of solutex volunme of solution (ml)
Solubility:
Solubility is the maximunm amount of substance
dissolved in a given
solvent at a particular temperature. lf solubility is expressed inmol L it isamount of
kn0wn as
molar solubility (S)
Factors affecting solubility ofsolids in liquids:
(i)Nature of substances (solute and solvent) and (i)
If dissolution of a solid is endothermic (AsoiH >0), temperature,
with rise in temperature. Because increase in then its solubility will increase
right according to Le chatelier's principle.
temperature will shift the equilibrium to the
 3
If dissolution of asolid is
with rise in temperature. Because exothermicAAoiH <0), then its solubility will
increase in temperature willshift-the decrease
left according to Le equilibrium ko Lhe
chatelier'
Solubility of solids is s principle.
are highlyincompressible. not afected by change of pressure because solids and liquids
SOlubility of gases in liquids depends on the (i)nature of substances (gas
(ii) temperature and (ii) pressure and solvent).
atd
Solubility of gases (i) decreases with increase in temperaure but
(ii) inoreases withinorease of pressure..
Henry's Law:
The mole fraction of a gas in solution is dircctly proportional to the partialpressure
of the gasabove the solution.

Kyis Henry's law constant.

Lower thevalue of Ky at a given pressure, ligher is the solubility of the gas in Iiquid.
0nereasein temperature inereases the Kvalue and decreasesthe solubilityof gases.

Partial pressure(p) B
Slope = KH

Mole fraction of gas in solution(%)

The slope corresponds to KH.
gas A.
Gas B has lower KH (smaller slope) hence it is more soluble than
the temperature is raised?
Q. Why do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as ve
Solution AH=E
Gas tLiquid Chatelier's principle,
Dissolution of gases in liquids isexothemie. According to Le
direction. Hence, solubility
inerease in temperatute shiftsthe equilibriumin the backward energy of gas
of gases decreases with increase of temperature. Moreover, the kineticfrom solution.
molecules increases with inorcase in temperature and thus they escapewarm waters.
rather than in
Q. Aquatic species are more comfortable in cold waters
Why?
At lower temperature the
Solubility of gases increases with decrease in temperature. are imore comfortable in
amount of dissolved oxygenis higher. Hence aquatic species
cold waters.
Applications of Henry's law:
i) Scuba divers carry cylinder containing O, mixed with less soluble
helium to avoid
bends.
(ii) Soft drinks and soda water bottles are sealedunder high pressure in order to increase
the solubility of CO,
(iii) In respiration: In lungs, the partial pressure of O, is high hence it dissolves in blood
haemoglobin to form oxohaemoglobin. Where as in tissues partial pressure of O,is low
hence O, is realeased by oxohaemoglobin for utilization in cellular functions.
 4

(iv) Anoxia:
Since thepartial pressure of oxygen in high altitudes is less, the concentration of
oxygen in the blood ofpeople living at higher altitude or climbers is reduced. This
conditionis known asanoxia which causes weakness and inability to think.
Q. Deep sea divers (scuba divers) carry cylinder containing O; mixed with less soluble
helium. Why?
To minimize the painful effect due to tdecompression sickness or 'bends of deep sea
divers oxygen diluted with less soluble helium is used as breathing gas. N, is highly
soluble at high pressures hence it causes bends where as He is less soluble in blood hence
it does not cause bends.
Q. Soft drinks and soda water bottles are sealed under high pressure. Why?
Since solubility inereases with inerease in pressure,amountof dissolved CO, is very
highat high presure.
Solution of two voatile liquids:
Raoult's law for solution of two volatile liquids:
For a solution of two volatile liquids, the partial pressure of each component is
directiy proportional te its mole fraction at a given temperature.
Thevapour pressureof the solution will be the sumof the partial pressures of the
components.
Consider a solution having two components Ar and B. Let pa andpBare the partial
vapour pressures,A and XBare the mole fractions of the two components and spA° and
pB are the vapour pressures of pure componentsA andB.
According to Raoult's law
PA A and PBB
PA PA AB and prpy B
The pressure of the solution is total vapour
pressure, PiotalPA
On substituting the values of pa and pB in Protal pB
Ptotal PA XAtpB° XB
=PA (1-XB)+ PB° XB
=pApA XB PB XB
ProtalPA°+ (PB°PA XB
In the above equation total vapour pressure is related to the mole fraction of
one
Component.
Mole fractions in vapour phase yA and yB:
If ya-and yBare the mole fractions of thetwo components in
according to Dalton's law
vapour phase, then
PA YBPB
P P,
Ideal solutions:
Solutions which obey Raoult's law Over entire range of concentrations and
temperatures are idealsolutions. The sizes andpolarities of solute andsolvent particles
are similar, The solvent=solute interactions are of the same magnilude as the solvent
solvent and solute-solute interactions.
Properties of ideal solutions:
()) PA= PA° A Pg PB° X8
 i) Since there is no change in the
magnitude of the attractive forces, the enthalpy of
mixing is zero ; AHmix =0.
(iii) Since there is no change in the nmagnitude of the
change on mixing. The volume of mixing is zero AVmiy attractive forces, there is no volume
= 0.
(iv) They do not form azeotropes.
Eg. for ideal solutions: Solution of benzene &
toluene,
chlorobenzene & bromobenzene, ethvl bromide & ethyln-heptane
& n-hexane,
iodide etc are ideal.
PA
Vapour
pressure

PA PB

XA=0 Mole fraction >XA=1

XB=1
Q. What do you mean by ideal solution at molecular level?
are of the sarme
ldeal solution at molecularlevel means the solvent-solute interactions
magnitude as the solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions.
Non-Ideal solutions:
concentrations and
Solutions which do not obey Roult's law overentire range of
temperature. The sizes and polarities of solute and solvent particles are different. The
solvent-solvent
magnitude of solvent-solute interaction is different from solute-solute and
interactions.
Properties of non-ideal solutions:
(i) pA PA° XA and pB pB° XB
(i1) The enthalpy of imixing is not equal to zero AHmix 0.
(iii) The volume of mixing is not equal to zero AVmix # 0.
molecular level?
Q. What do you mean by non-ideal solution at interaction is
Non-ideal solutions at molecular level means the force of solvent-solute
different from solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions.
Positive Deviation:
If the observed vapour pressure of solution is higher than that predicted by Raoult's law,
then the solution exhibits positive deviation. The solvent-solute interaction is weaker than
solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions.
Properties of solutions showing positive deviation:
) Since the solvent-solute interactions are weaker, the vapour pressure of solution is
higher than that predicted by Raoult's law PA> PA° XA and ps > PB° XB:
(i) Due to decrease in attractive forces, the dissolution process is endothermic.
AHmiy>0 or AHmix is positive
(iii) Due todecrease in attractive forces, the molecules will be loosely held. Hence there
willbe increase in volume on mixing. AVmix >0 or AVmiy is positive
 6

& benzeno
minimum boiling [Link] && acetone, acetone
(iv) They form ethanol & acetone, carbon exhibitpositive deviation.
E.g. Mixtureof chloroform & ethanol etc
ethanol& water,
PT
A

pressure
Vapour

PA,

XA=0 Mole fraction

XB=1
behaviour. Why ?
and acetone shows positive deviation from ideal
Q. Mixture of ethanol acetone
molecules are a_sociated by hydrogen bond. On mixing
In pureethanol, the hydrogen
in between ethanol breakingthe pressure.
with ethanol, acetone molecules getinteraction and increases the vapour
bonds. This reduces solvent-solute
Mixture of carbòn disulphide and acetone shows pôsitive deviation from ideal
Q.
behaviour. Why ? acetoneare weaker than
disulphide and
The dipole-dipole attractions between carbon similar molecules. This reduces solvent
the respective dipole-dipole attraction between
causing positive deviation.
solute interaction and increases the vapour pressure
Negative Deviation:

Vapour
pressure

XA 0 Mole fraction >

XB=1 XB=0

If the observed vapour pressure of solution is lower than that predicted by Raoult's lavw,
then the solution exhibits negative deviation. The solvent-solute interactions are stronger
than the solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions.
 7

Properties of solutions showing negative deviation :

(i) Since the
lower than thatsolvent-solute
predicted
interactions are stronger, the vapour
by Raoult's law pa < pa°XA and po pressure of solution 15
(ii) Due to increase in attractive < Pr X8
forces, the dissolution process is exothermiC.
AHmix <0or AHmix iS negative
(1i1) Due to increase in attractive forces, the molecules will be held
there will be decrease in volume on mixing,. AVmix more tightly. Hence
(iv) They form maximum boiling <0 or AVmix 1S negative.
azeotrope.
E.g. Mixture of chloroform and acetone, phenol and aniline. HCI & water, HNO; & water
etc exhibit negative deviation.
2Amixture of chloroform and acetoneshows negative deviation from ideal behaviour.
Why? CH; CI
CC==0 ----5H -CI
CH, C

When chloroform and acetone are mixed, both form hydrogen bonds hence the
solvent-solute attractive forces becomes stronger. This decreases the vapour pressure.
Why?
[Link] of phenol and aniline shows negative deviation from ideal behaviour.
The intermolecular hydrogen bonding between phenol and aniline are stronger than
solvent-solute
the respective hydrogen bonding between similar molecules hence the
attractive forces becomes stronger.
Azeotropic mixture or Azeotrope: constant temperature
Azeotrope is defined as the mixture of liquids which boil at
like a pure liquid without change in composition.
Types of azeotropes:
(i) Minimum boiling azeotropes:
which show positive deviation from
These azeotropes are formed by mixture of liquids the components.
ideal belhaviour. These have boiling point lower than either of minimum boiling
volume is
Eg. A mixture of95% of ethanol and5% of water b÷
azeotrope. B.P. 351 K.
(iü) Maximum boiling azeotropes:
show negative deviation
These azeotropes are formed by mixture of liquids which components.
from ideal behaviour. These have boiling point higher than either of the
boiling azeotrope.
Eg. A mixture of 68% HNO; and 32% water by mass is maximum
B.p. 393.5 K.
Q. Show that Raoult's law is a special case of Henry's law.
According to Raoult's law, the vapour pressure of one of the components (PA) 0s
directly proportional to its mole fraction (X) in solution.
PA XA and pA =PA XA
According to Henry's law,The mole fraction of a gas in the solution (xa) isdirectly
proportionalto the pressure of the gas (PA) above the solution.
PA a XA and pa = KHXA
If we compare the two equations, they differ only in the proportionality constants Ky&
PA0- Thus Raoult's law is a special case of Henry's law.
 ColligativeProperties: on the nature are called
depend on the number of particles but not
Properties which
vapour
colligative properties.
types of colligative properties:(i) Relative lowering of and
There are four of freezing point
point, (iii) Depression
pressure, (i) Elevation of boiling
(iv)Osmotic prssure.
of solvent decreases on the addition of non-yolatile
Q. Why does the vapour pressure
by liquid molecules. When a non
solute?
liquid the entire surface is occupied
In a pure molecules Occupy certain surface area. As
volatile solute is added to the liquid, the solute solvent molecules gets reduced. Since
a result the fraction of the surface covered by the
evaporation is surface phenonenon, the number of solvent molecules escaping from the
reduced.
surface is reduced. Thus the vapour pressure is also
Q. What is relative lowering of vapour pressure?
pressure of pursolvent.
It is the ratio between lowering of vapour pressure and vapour
[Link] lowering of vapour pressure;
Raoult's law for a solution containing non-volatile solute.
For asolution containing non-volatile solute. the vapour pressure of the solution (pA)
is directly proportional to the mole fraction of solvent at a given temperature.
PA XA
PA=PA° A
Q. Show that relative lowering of vapour pressure is a colligative property:
Considera solution containing non-volatile solute.
Accordind to Raoult's law,
PA =PA° XA
PA -pA° (1- XB)
=PA°PA XB
PA PA XB
PA° (A-solvent; B - solute)
PA-E
- PA is relative lowering of vapourpressure.
PA°
Raoult's law for a solution containing non-volatile solute:
The relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing non-volatile solute
is equal to the mole fraction of solute.
Determination of molar mass:
PA-PAF B
pA
= I13/(nA + ng)
=ng/nA n > ng (ng can be neglected)
PA- PA= Wp xMA
PA MB WA
2. Elevation of boiling point:
Q. Addition of non-volatile solute increases the boiling point of
The boiling pointof a liquid is the temperature at which the solvent. Explain.
vapour pressure of liquid
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent,
the solutemolecules occupy certain surface area. As a result the
fraction of the surface
 9

oered bythe solvent molecules gets reduced. Thus the vapour pressure of the solution
is less than that of the pure solvent. In order to make this solution boil, it must be heated
to the temperature above the boiling point of pure solvent.
Elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to molality of solution.
AT, a m
AT,=Kh xm
K, is Ebullioscopie constant (or) molal boiling point clevation constant.
Ky is defined as the elevation in boiling point of 1molal solution.
AT,= Kh Xm

WA (kg)
AT,-K, x WB x 1000
MB WA (g)
Using AT, molar mass of non-volatile solute (Me) can be calculated

1Atm
Vapour
pressure
Tb- Boiling point of solvent
Solvent Tb- Boiling point of solution
ATb- Elevation of boiling point
Solution iATb; ATb -TbTHO
THO Tb

Temperature
3. Depression of freezing point:
Q. Addition of non-volatile solute decreasesthe freezing point of solvent. Explain.
Freezing point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of liquid is equal to the vapour pressure of corresponding solid.
When a non-volatile soluteis added to asolvent, its vapour pressure decreases. In order
tomake this solution freez, its vapour pressure must be decreased by lowering the
temperature below the freezing point of pure solvent.

Vapour
pressure
Liquid solvent

Solid Solution
solvent
Tf
Temperature
TF'- Freezing point of solvent
|Tf- Freezing point of solution
 =T'-Tf
Depression of freezingpoint proportionalto molality ofsolution.
| ATf- is directly
Depressionof freezing point
AT;a m
AT,= K;X IM
freezing point depression constant.
constant (or) molal solution.
Kris Cryoscopic depression in freezing point oflmolal
Krisdefined as the
AT=KrX m
= Krx NB
WA (kg)
AT=Krx WB X1000
M WA (g) calculated.
molar mass of non-volatile solute (M) can beEbullioscopic constant K, for a
Using AT, depend on the nature of
solvent.
and Kf the relation
Conslant (3374T/uj)
values of Kb
The
calculated from enthalpy of vapourisation using
solvent can be
K =Rx MA x Tb
-0 2 Re Gas
1000 x AyapH enthalpy of fusion
constant K for a solvent can be calculated from
Similarly, cryoscopic
using the relation
K =Rx MA X T'
1000 x AfusH
Osmosis :
particles move from a solution of
Osmosis is the process in which solventconcentration through semi-permeable
lower solute concentration to a higher solute
membrane.
4. Osmotic pressure:
be applied to the concentrated
Osmotic pressure is the exXcess pressure that must
solution side to prevent osmosis.
Osmotic pressure II=CRT
ng RT
V
(L)
IT= WB x 1000 RT
MB V(mL)
bar K mol
R values: 0.0821 L atm K mol' (or) 0.0831L Piston
Reverse Osmosis:

Pressure > II

Fresh water Salt water

SPM
osmotic pressure
If the pressure applied on concentrated solution side is more than
concentration to lower
then the solvent particles move from a solution of higher solute
osmosis is used for the
solute concentration, It is known as reverse osmosis. Reverse
purification (or) desalination of seawater.
 11
0. What are
semipermeable
The membranes which membranes (SPM) ? Give example.
not allowthe passage of allow the passage of solvent
solute molecules through them but do
molecules are called semipermeable
Examples: Animal
0. Differentiate bladder, cellophane. membranes.
Diffusionand Osmosis.
Diffusion
1. No Osmosis
semipermeable membrane is used. Solvent moves through semipermeable
2. All particles (solvent and membrane.
3. It is for all fluids solute) move. Only solvent particles move.
4. It is
(liquids & gases). Only for liquids.
irreversible Can be reversed.
[Link] pressure method is more advantageous in determining molar mass non
volatile solutes over other colligative properties. Why?
(1) Unl1ke other colligative properties, osmotic presure can be measured at room
temperature.
(ii) Molarity of the solution is used instead of molality.
(i11) Other colligative properties are too small to be measured where as osmotic pressure
is appreciable and very accurate.
Q. Osmotic pressure method is more suitable in determining molar mass of proteins and
polymers. Why?
Biomolecules are unstable at higher temperatures and polymers have very low solubility.
Osmotic presure is measured at room temperature using molarity of the solution instead
of [Link] colligative properties are too small where as the magnitude of osmotic
pressure isvery large hence it is highly accurate.
). What are isotonic solutions ? Give example.
These are solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature. 0.9 o (w/v)
solution of NaCl (normal saline) is isotonic with human blood. Hence it is used in
intravenous injection.
Q. What are hypertonjc solutions? Give example solution of
These are solutions having greater osmotic pressure than blood. E.g. NaCl
concentration more than 0.9%(w/v) is hypertonic.
Q. What are hypotonic solutions? Give example
These are solutions having lesser osmotic pressure than blood. E.g. NaCl solution of
concentration less than 0.9 %(W/v) is hypotonic.
Q. When do solutions exhibit ideal behaviour ?
Solutions show ideal behaviour, when () the solution is very dilute, (ii) the solute
does not dissociate or associate.
Non-Ideal solution and abnormal colligative properties:
). When do solutions exhibit non-ideal behaviour ?
The non-ideal behaviour are due to the following reasons:
(i) When the solution is concentrated, (ii) Particles begin to interact with each other.
(iii) Association of solute particles and (iv) Dissociation of solute particles.
Abnormal Molar mass:
The experimental molar mass determined by colligative properties when there is
dissociation or association of solute particles is known as abnormal molar mass.
Dissociation of solute:
 increase a
If there is disociation of solute, the number of particles would
colligative proprties will be higher than expected. Since the colligative properties ar
inversely proportional to nmolar mass, the experimental molar mass will be lower than the
correct value.
For example:
NaCl undergoes dissociation to give two ions. When one mole of NaCl is dissolved
the number of particles would be two moles in solution. Hence the colligative proprties
will be higher than expccted and the experimental molar mass of NaCl will be lower than
the correct value.
Association of solute:
If there is association of solute, the number of particles would decrease and the
colligative proprties will be lower than expected. Since the colligative properties are
inversely proportional to molar mass,the experimental molar mass will be higher than the
correct value.
For example, acetic acid forms dimer in benzene due to hydrogen bonding. The
number of particles are reduced in solution hencethe experimental molar mass willbe
higher than the correct value.
Van tHoff Factor (i):
It is defined as the ratioof experimental value ofacolligative property to the
theoretical value of colligative property.
= Observed (or) experimental value of colligative property
Calculated (or) theoretical value of colligative property
(or)
i = Normal molar mass
Observed or abnormal molar mass
(or)
i Number of particles after association/dissociation
Number of particles before association/dissociation
If the solute dissociates i> 1
If the solute associates i <1
For non- electrolyte (ideal solution) i 1
For strong electrolytes:
(i) For dissociation:
Van t Hoff Factor (i) is equal to the number of ions produced by
molecule of the electrolyte. dissociation of 1
Eg. NaCl Na + CI ifor NaCl =2
CaCl, ’Ca* + 2CI i for CaCl, =3
(ii) For association:
No of particles associating to form product.
For dimerisation i=1/2 .trimerisation i = 1/3 and tetramerisation ii= 1/4
For example acetic acid acetic acid associate to formn dimer in benzene. hence i= 1/2
Ha

2CH;COOH ’ CH;-C C-CH;

O-H---.
 13

For weak electrolytes:

For dissociation:

m-1
a - is degree of dissociation.
m - [Link] ionsor particles produced from one molecule.
Eg. CH;CO0H ’ CH;CO0 + H m =2

Degree of dissociation is the ratio of number of molecules dissociated to the total

number of molecules.
For association:

(1/m)-1
a - is degree of association.
dimer. trimer, tetramer etc.
m - is no. of particles that associate to form
For dimerisation m =2
Colligative properties for non-ideal solutions:
(i) Relative lowering of vapour pressure:
PA- PA = 0ZB

PAPA = i Wp x MA
MB WA
(i) Elevation of boiling point: AT;=i. Kh. m
AT,=iKh x WB x1000
MBBWA (g)
point:
(iii)Depression of freezing AT,=i. K,. m
AT=iKx WBx 1000
MB WA (g)
(iv) Osmoticpressure:
Il=iCRT
I1=i w: RT
Mg V(L)
Q. What is edema?
tissue cells and
People taking a lot of salty food experience water retention in
intercellular spaces because of osmosis. This swelling is called edema.
). Which out of 1molar or l molal aqueous solution is more concentrated? why ?
A molar solution contains 1 mol of solute in 1000 mL of solution but 1molal solution
contains Imol of solute in 1000g i.e. 1000 mL of water assuming density to be one. Thus
in 1molar solution one mol of solute is present in less than 1000 mL of water hence 1M
aqueous solution is more concentrated than l maqueous solution.
But if density of solution is greater than one, then l m aqueous solution willbe more
concentrated.
 14

added to the aqueous solutionof potassium iodide. the

Q. When mercuric iodide is raised. Why?
freezing point of thc solution isPotassium lodide to form a complex, K2[Hgl4], hence
Mercuric lodide reacts with which depends
reduced. Depreession in freeZIng point lesser the
number of ions in the solution gets point is
number of ions also gets reduced. When depression in freezing
on
freezing point of solution will be higher.

(C,H,0) in a solution containing

1. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol
H=1&O=16 u.
20% ofC,H0, by mass. RAM of C= 12.
in 450mL solution.
2. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5g of NaOH
Na-23
benzene.
3. Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid (CH;COOH) in 75 g of
tetrachloride (CCl4) if
4. Calculatethe mass percentage of benzene (C Ho) and carbon
22 g of benzene is dissolved in 122 g of carbon tetrachloride.
5. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene (C&H,) in solution containing 30% by mass in
carbon tetrachloride. RAM: C =12u &CI=35:5 u
6. Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions: (a) 30gof Co(NO3)2.6H;0
in 4.3L of solution (b) 30 mL of 0.5 MH,SO, diluted to 500. mL. Co= 59, N=14,
S=32.
7 Calculate the mass of urea (NH,CONH)required in making 2.5 kg of 0.25 molal
aqueous solution.
8 Calculate the amount of benzoic acid (CoH;COOH) required for preparing 250 mL
of 0.15 Msolution in methanol.
9.
Calculate the mass percentage of aspirin (C,H,O4) in acetonitrile (CH,CN) when
6.5 g of CoH_O, is dissolved in 450 gofCH;CN.
10. A2.5 molal solution of KI has a density of 1.304 g/ml. Calculate the molarity of the
solution. K=39u, I= 127u
11. Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density of 20%
(mass/mass) aqueous KI is 1.202 g mL.K=39u, I= 127 u.
12. Concentrated nitric acid used in lab is 68% nitric acid by mass in aqueous
solution.
What is the molarity of the acid if the density of the solution is 1.504 g mL?
13. A solution of glucose in water is labelled as 10% w/w, what would be the molality
and mole fraction of each component in the solution? If the density of solution is
1.2g mL,then what shall be the molarity of the solution?
14. The density of 2 M NaCl is 1.21 g/ml. Calculate the molality of the solution.
Na = 23u & Cl =35.5 u
15. Calculate the molarity of 2m CaCl, solution if its density is 1.26 g/ml. Ca = 40u
16. If the density of some lake water is 1.25 g mL and contains 92 g of Na ions per
Kg of water, calculate the molality and molarity of Na ions in the lake.
17. A solution is obtained by mixing 300 g of 25% solution and 400 g of 40% solution
by mass. Calculate the mass percentage of the resulting solution.
18. A solution is prepared from 222.6g of ethylene glycol (C,H,O) and 200 g of water.
Calculate the molality of the solution. If the density of the solution is 1.072 g/mL,
then what shall be the molarity of the solution?
 15

19./ Asample of drinking water was found to be contaminated with chloroform(CHCI;).

The level of contamination was I5 ppm (by mass): Cl =35.5 u.
() express this in percent by mass
(ii) determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
20. How many mL of 0.1 M HClare required toreact completely with 1gmixture of
Na,CO; and NaHCO, containing equimolar amounts of both?
21. Nalorpene (C1sH21 NO,),similar to morphine, is usedto combat withdrawel
symptoms in narcotic users. Dose of nalorpene generally given is I.5mg. Calcuat
the mass of 1.5 x 10° maqueous solution required for the above dose.
22. Calculate the number of millimoles of N, that would dissolve in 1 litre of water if IIS
partial pressure is 0.987 bar. KH=76.48 kbar.
Henry's law constant.
23. If the solubility of H,S in water at STPis 0.195 m. calculate Calculate the
Paat 298 K.
24. Henry's law constant for CO, in water is L.67x10
packed under 2.5 at1m CO2 pressure
quantity of CO, in 500mL of soda water when
at 298K. 10
solubilityof methane in benzene at 298 K is 4.27 X
23. Henry's law constant for the mm Hg.
Hg. Calculate the solubility of nethane in benzene at 298 K under 760 ethane is 1
mm 6.56 x10 g of
pressure of ethane over a solution containing
26. The partial ethane. then what shall be the partial
bar. If the solution contains 5.0 x 10g of
pressure of the gas? and
gases. The major components are oxygen
27. The air isa mixture of anumber of volume at 298 K. The
of 20% isto 79% by
nitrogen with approximate, proportion pressure of 10 atm. At 298 Kif the
Henry's lavw
water is in equilibrium with air at a 298 K are 3.30 x 10'mm and 6.51 x 10' mm
constants for oxygen and nitrogen at
gases in water.
respectively, calculate the composition of these dichloromethane (CH,CI,) at 298 K are
pressure of chloroform (CHCI;) and
28. Vapour respectively. (i) Calculate the vapour pressureand of the
200 mm Hgand 415 mm Hg CHCl; and 40 g of CH,CI, at 298 K (ii)
solution prepared by mixing 25.5g ofvapour phase.
mole fractions of each component in mm Hg respectively,
pure liquids A and Bare 450 and 700
29. The vapour pressure ofcomposition is
at 350 K. Find out the of the liquid mixture if total vapour pressure
the vapour phase.
600 mm Hg. Also find thecomposition of At 373 K, the vapour pressures of the
solution.
30. Heptane and octane form an ideal
two liquid components are 105.2 kPa and 46.8 kPa respectively. What will be the
heptane and 35 g of octane?
vapour pressure ofa mixture of 26.0g of dissolved in 1000 g of liquid B
31. 100 g of liquid A(molar mass 140 g mol) was pure liquidB was found to be
(molar mass 180 g mol"). The vapour pressure of pressure
500torr. Calculate the vapour pressure of pure liquid A and its vapour
solution is 475 Torr.
in the solution if the total vapour pressure of the
pressure of
32. Two liquids X and Y on mixing form ideal solution. At 30°Cthe vapour
solution containing 3 moles of X and 1 mole of Y is 550 mm of Hg, But when 4
moles ofX and 1mole of Y are mixed, the vapour pressure of the solution thus
formed is 560mm of Hg. What would be the VPof pure X and Y at this
temperature?
 temperatureis 0.850 bar. Anon-
benzene at a certain 39.0 g of benzen
of pure added to
vapour pressure 0.5 g when
33. The non-electrolyte solid weighing of the solution, then, is 0.845 bar. What is
volatile, mol'). Vapour pressure
(molar mass 78 g substance? 1.004 bar at the
of the solid a pressure of
the molar mass
of 2% non-volatile solute exerts mass ofthe solute?
solution molar
34. An aqueous point ofthe solvent. What is the Calculate vapour pressure
of
normal boiling kPa at 300 K.
pressure of water is 12.3
35. The vapour of a non-volatile solute in it. mol) which should be
1molal solution solute (molar mass 40g
of a non-volatile
36. Calculate the mass octane to reduce its vapour pressureto 80%. a
dissolved in 114 g non-volatile solute exactly in 90 g of water has
30g of added to the
37. A solution containing kPa at 298 [Link], 18 g of water is then
vapour pressure of 2.8 becomes 2.9 kPa at 298 K. Calculate: (i) molar
pressure
solution and the new vapour pressure of water at 298 K.
mass of the solute (ii) vapour glucose (CoH20%) are dissolved in 810g
(C12H2O11) and 36g of
38. 34.2g of cane sugarthe vapour pressure of this solution at 302K when the vapour
of water. Calculate
pressure of water is 30.2 mm ofHg. When
39. The vapour pressure of benzene is
640 1mm of Hg at a certain temperature.
to 39g of benzene, the vapour
2.17g of a non-electrolyte, non-volatile solute is added molar mass of solute.
pressure of solution becomes 600 mm of Hg calculate the
glucose is 750mm of Hg at 373
40. The vapour pressure of a dilute aqueous solution of
K. Calculate the mole fraction of the solute and molality of the solution.
41. 18g of glucose, CoHi2Oo, is dissolved in 1kg of water. At what temperature will
water boil at 1.013 bar? Kb for water is 0.52 K kg mol'.
42. Asolution containing 2 g of non-volatile solute in 20 g of water boils at 373.52 K.
Calculate themolar mass of the solute. Kb for water is 0.52 KKg /mol.
43. Theboiling point of benzene is 353,23 K. When 1.80 g of a non-volatile solute was
dissolved in 90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to 354.11 K. Calculate the
molar mass of the solute. Kb for benzene is 2.53 Kkg mol'.
44. 45 g of ethylene glycol (C,H,02) is mixed with 600 g of water. Calculate (a) the
freezing point depression and (b) the freezing point of the solution. K=1.86 Kkg
mol-!
45. 1.00gof a non-electrolyte solute dissolved in 50 g of benzene loweredthe freezing
point of benzene by 0.40 K. The freezing point depression constant of benzene is
5.12 K kg mol. Find the molar mass of the solute.
46. The freezing point of nitrobenzene is 278.82 K. A0.25 molal solution of a non
electrolyte causes depression in freezingpoint by 2". Calculate Kf of nitrobenzene.
47. Deternine the freezing point of asolution containing 34.2g of sucrose (CipH2Ou)
dissolved in 1kg of water. Kf forwater is 1.86 K Kg/mole.
48. 2g of adiprotic acid (dibasic acid)dissolved in 200gof water loweredthe freezing
point of water by 0.6 K. kf for water isl.86 Kkg mor". Find the molar mass of the
solute assuming complete dissociation.
49. Two elements Aand B form compounds having formula AB, and AB4. When
dissolved in 20 g of benzene (CaHa), lgof AB, lowers the freezing point by 2.3 K
whereas 1.0g of AB, lowers it by 1.3 K. The molar depression constant for benzene
is 5.1 K kg mol'.Calculate atomic masses of A and B.
 50. The molal
ie known tofreezing point
benzene, the exist as a [Link]
polymer constant3.26ofg benzene is 4.9 K
17

Deduce the observed

freezing ofpoint is 0.1 12 "C of selenium is dissolved
S1. Calculate themolecular formula Kg/molein. 226g
Seleniofum
boiling
CS. Boiling point point of a selenium lower than for pure
and Kb for CS)solution (Atomic mass of Se =78.8benzene.
association
52. What is the of acid. is
46.2°Caand
cont inin2.3g 0.72 gof benzoic acidg/mole. )
in 10 gof
dimerises tofreezing
the point of 0.4 molal
heat of fusion is extent 85%.
of solution of
KKg/mole. Assume 80%
Freezing acetic
of benzeneacid in
53. 200 cm' of 10.042
an aqueous KJ/mol. point is benzene
278.4
in
Kand its which it
OSmotic pressure of solution of a protein molar
54.
the molar mass of such a
solution at 300 K contains
the protein.
1.26 g
is found to be of the protein. The
2.57 x 10 bar.
Calculate the osmotic pressure in Calculate
dissolving 1.0 g of polymer of pascals exerted by a
55. Calculate the molar mass 185,000 in 450 solution prepared by
osmotic pressure of a mL
solution at 400 K.R =0.0821 L solution containing 3.42g of sucrose in37°C. of water at
56. Determine the osmotic atmk' mol. 1 litre of
KzSO4 in 2 litre ofpressure of asolution
prepared by
K-39u, S-32u & O water dissolving 25 mg of
at 25° C,
-16. assuming that it is completely
57. 2g of benzoic acid dissociated. RAM
(CGH;COOH),
in freezing point equal to dissolved in 25g of
1.62 K. Kf for benzene is 4.9 benzene shows a
percentage association of the acid if it forms dmer in K Kg/mol. Whatdepression
is the
58.0.6 mL of acetic acid solution.
(CH,COOH),
litre of water. The depression having density 1.06 g mL,is dissolved in 1
in freezing point
observed for this strength of acid was
0.0205°C Calculate the van't Hoff factor and the
(Kf-1.86) dissociation constant of acid.
59.| Vapour pressureof pure water at
is dissolved in 850 g of water. 298K is 23.8 mm Hg. 50 g of urea (NH,CONH,)
solution and its relative Calculate the vapour pressure of water for this
60. Boiling point of water atlowering.
750mm Hg is 99.63°C. How much
to 500g of water such that it boils at 100°C. sucrose is to be added
61. Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid Kb=0.52 K Kg/mol
acetic acid to lower its melting point(Vitamin
C, CçH;0%) to be dissolved in 75 g of
by
62. Calculate the amount of KCl that must be1.5°C. Kf-3.9 K Kg mol'.
added to lkg of water so that the freezing
point is depressed by 2" K, Kr=1.86 Kg K/ mol
63. 1.2% solution of NaCl is isotonic with 7.2% [K39u, CI=35.5u].
solution of glucose. Calculate the van' t
Hoff factor for NaCl and its degree of dissociation.
64. A 0.1 M K4[Fe(CN%] is 50%
65. 5g of a monoprotic acid of molar [Link] osmotic pressure at 298 K.
mass 60 g /mol isdissolved in 100g of water. The
depression in freezing point is 2 [Link] the degree and % of dissociation.
Kf= 1.86Kg K/mol.
66. If the elevation in boling point of a given aqueous solution is 0.26 [Link]
would be
the depression in freezing point. Kb =0.5 & Kf1.86 in Kg k/mol
67. A10% of Ca(NO:)> is 70% [Link] the vapour pressure of
solution at 373 K. (RAM Ca=40, N=14 &0=16)
aqueous
 1

the degree of
molal HPO, in water is observed to freeze at -0.24 " C. Find
68. A 0.1
dissociation of H;POA. Kf=1.86 K Kg /mol. The
19.5g of fluoroacetic acid (CH,FCOOH) is dissolved in 500 g of water:. van't
69. observed is 1.00 "C. Calculate the
depression in the freezing point of water fluoroacetic acid. Kf=1.86 K Kg /mol.
Hoff factor and dissociation constant of
point of water when 10g of
70. Calculate the depression in the freezing 10,K= 1.86 K kg
CH;CH,CHCICOOH is added to 250g of water. Ka =1.4 x
mol',
solution formed by mixing equal
71.|Calculate the osmotic pressure at 27" Cof a glucose in 250ml solution and
volumes of two solutions, one containing 0.5 moles of
the other containing 3.42 g of CipH201 in 250ml of solution a given
72. The KHvalues of two gases A and B are 46.38 and 54.96 respectively at
temperature. Which gas has greater solubility?
73. Suppose a solid solution is formed between two substances, one whose particles
are very large and the other whose particles are very small. What kind of solid
solution is this likely to be?
74. What role does the mnolecular interaction play in a solution of alcohol and water?
75. Suggest the most important type of intermolecular attractive interaction in
the following pairs. ALondon don-dipele
(i) n-hexane and n-0ctane (ii) I, and CC14 (ii) NaCi0, and water
iv) methanol and acetone (v) acetonitrile (CH,CN) and acetone (C;H,0), ’ D\pes
76. Based on solute-solvent interactions, arrange the following in order of increasing
pol
solubility in n-octane and explain.
Cyclohexane, KCI, CH,OH, CH,CN. KI,CHz0R,CHNCyclehexane
77. Amongst the following compounds, identify which are /nsoluble, partially
asoluble andhighly soluble in water?
rt(i) phenol (Gi) toluene (iii) formjc acid (iv) ethylene glycol(v) chlproform (vi)
Portiay pentanol.
78. The depression in freezing point ofwater observed for the same amount of
acetic acid. trichloroacetic acid and trifluoroacetic acid increases in the order
given above. Explain briefly.
79. Arrange the following solutionsin the increasing order of their boiling points:
(i) 1 MK4|Fe(CN)6l (ii) 1 MBaCl; (ii) 1 M NaCl (iv) 1M Sucrose
80. Mixing of two liquids resulted in decrease of temperature;
i) What type of deviation is shown by the solution? Why ?
(ii) Give any two chaacteristics of the solution.
(ii) Give an example for such type of solution.
(iv) What type of azeotrope is formed by the mixture.