Lesson 1: Understanding Random Variables Standard Deviation (σ)

Standard deviation measures how spread out data values

A random variable is a numerical quantity that is are from the mean:
assigned to the outcome of an experiment. We use  Low σ → values are close to the mean
capital letters to represent a random variable.  High σ → values are widely spread
Example:
A random variable may be classified as discrete or Both sets have the same mean:
continuous  15, 15, 15, 14, 16
discrete random variable is one that can  2, 7, 14, 22, 30
assume only a countable number of values. A The second set has a higher standard deviation
continuous random variable can assume because it is more spread out.
infinite number of values in one or more intervals.
Properties of a Normal Probability Distribution
Probability Distribution of a Discrete Random
Variable 1. The normal probability distribution is bell-shaped.
2. The curve is symmetric about its mean.
Steps in Constructing a Probability Distribution 3. σ The spread of the curve depends on the standard
Step 1: List the sample space deviation of the distribution.
Write all possible outcomes of the experiment. 4. The tails of the curve flatten out indefinitely along the
Step 2: Assign values to the random variable horizontal axis; always approaching the axis but never
Count what the random variable represents for each touching it. That is the curve is asymptotic to the base
outcome. line.
Step 3: Make a frequency distribution 5. The area under the curve is 1. Thus, it represents the
Count how many times each value of the random probability or proportion or the percentage associated
variable occurs. with specific sets of measurements values.
Step 4: Compute the probabilities

The equation that describes a normal curve is:

( )
2
−1 X −u
2 σ
ⅇ
Y=
σ √2 π
Lesson 2: Mean and Variance of a Discrete Where:
Probability Distribution \Y = height of the curve particular values of X
µ= mean of the population
Mean X = any score in the distribution
 Formula: ΣX·P(X) Π = 3.1416
 Interpretation: average outcome σ = standard deviation of the population
Variance e = 2.7183
 Formula: ΣX²·P(X) − μ²
 Interpretation: spread of values
Standard Deviation
 Formula: √variance
 Interpretation: how far values are from the mean

Lesson 3: Understanding Normal Curve Distribution

A normal distribution, also called a normal curve, is a

bell-shaped and symmetrical distribution commonly
seen in real-life data. Most values are found near the Finding Areas Under the Normal Curve (Using z-
center, while very high and very low values occur less Table)
often.
To find the area (probability) corresponding to a given
In these situations, there are few extreme values and
z-value, use the z-table to determine the area between z
many values in between.
= 0 and the given z-value.
Mean and Standard Deviation Four-Step Process
A normal curve is defined by:
1. Write the z-value in three-digit form (e.g., 1.00,
 Mean (µ): center of the distribution
1.36).
 Standard Deviation (σ): spread of the data
There is not just one normal curve; a family of normal [Link] the row using the first two digits (whole
curves exists with different means and standard number and tenths)
deviations. [Link] the column using the hundredths digit.

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 4. Read the area at the intersection of the row and 90th percentile → z ≈ 1.28
column. 95th percentile → z ≈ 1.65

Lesson 4: Enhancing Knowledge of

Probabilities Under the Normal Curve

A sample is the specific group that you will collect data

from. The size of the sample is always less than the total
size of the population. Lesson 5: Identifying the Different Random
Sampling Techniques
To determine z, use the computing formula

x−u Random Sampling

z= (z score for population data)
σ Random sampling is a method where every
member of the population has an equal
x−x
z= (z score for sample data) chance of being selected.
s -Produces more accurate and unbiased data
-Considered a probability sampling
where technique
X = given measurement
µ = population mean Types of Random Sampling
σ = population standard deviation
x = sample mean 1. Simple Random Sampling
s = sample standard deviation -Each element has an equal probability of
being selected.
Probability Notations -Often done using the lottery method or
P(a< z< b): probability between z-values random numbers.
P(z >a): probability greater than a Example:
(z <a): probability less than a Writing names on pieces of paper, mixing
them, and drawing samples.
Finding Areas Under the Normal Curve 2. Systematic Random Sampling
1. Sketch the normal curve and locate -Selection is done at regular intervals
the mean (kth).
(z = 0) -Formula for interval:
2. Draw vertical line(s) at given z-
k =nN
value(s)
3. Shade the required region Examples
4. Use the z-table to find the area(s) Selecting every 7th student from a list
5. Add or subtract areas to get the final
probability
3. Stratified Random Sampling
Area from z = 0 to z = 1 is 0.3413
Total area on one side of the mean is -Population is divided into strata
0.5000 (subgroups)
-Samples are randomly selected
proportionally from each stratum.
Percentiles Under the Normal Curve
Example:
A percentile indicates the percentage of Separating boys and girls, then randomly
scores at or below a given value. selecting samples from each group.
Example:
4. Cluster Sampling
 90th percentile → score is higher
than 90% of the data -Population is divided into clusters.
 Notation: P90= X -Entire clusters are randomly selected.
-All members of selected clusters become
samples.
Steps to Locate a Percentile
Example:
1. Convert percentile to decimal Randomly selecting 3 classes out of 7 and
2. Subtract 0.5000 to get area from surveying all students in those classes.
mean
3. Find closest area in the z-table
4. Read the corresponding z-value Non-Probability Sampling
5. Interpret or sketch the result Does NOT use random selection

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 -Convenience Sampling – selecting Lesson 6: Finding the Mean and
easily accessible respondents Variance of the Sampling
-Purposive Sampling – selecting
Distribution of the Sample Mean
respondents based on a specific purpose
A sampling distribution of the sample
mean is the probability distribution of all
Parameter – describes the population
possible sample means x taken from the
Statistic – describes the sample same population with a fixed sample size n .

Populat Samp It shows how sample means vary around the

Measure
ion le population mean.

Mean μ x́ The mean of the sampling distribution is

equal to the population mean:
2 2
Variance σ s
μ x =μ
Standard
σ s The variance of the sampling
Deviation
distribution is smaller than the population
variance:
Population Measures (Parameters)
Population Mean

∑X The standard deviation of the sampling

μ= Population Variance distribution (standard error):
N
2
σ =∑ ¿ ¿Population Standard Deviation

σ =√ σ 2
Steps in Finding the Sampling
Sample Measures (Statistics)
Distribution (Finite Population)
Sample Mean
1. Find the population mean μ
∑x 2. Find the population variance σ
x́=
n 3. Determine the number of possible
samples of size n
Sample Variance 4. List all samples and compute each
2
s =∑ ¿ ¿ sample mean
5. Construct the sampling distribution
Sample Standard Deviation table
6. Compute the mean of the sampling
s= √ ∑ ¿ ¿ ¿ distribution
Sampling Distribution of the Sample 7. Compute the variance of the
Mean sampling distribution

A sampling distribution of the sample

mean is a probability distribution of all Sampling Distribution for Normal
possible sample means from a population for Population
a fixed sample size n . Case 1: Population Variance is Known
-Population is normal
-Helps estimate population parameters
-Standard error:
-Foundation of statistical inference

Steps in Constructing a Sampling

Distribution
Use the z-distribution
Step 1: Determine the number of
possible samples

N N!
❑ C n= Step 2: List all possible
n !(N −n)!
Case 2:Population Variance is Unknown
samples and compute their means
Use sample standard deviation s
Step 3: Construct Frequency & Standard error:
Probability Distribution

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Use the t-distribution Student’s t-Distribution
Developed by William Sealy Gosset
(1908)
Published under the pen name “Student”
Used for small sample sizes (usually (n<30 Designed for problems involving small
)) samples t-Statistic Formula

x́−μ
t=
s Where:
√n
x́ = sample mean
μ= population mean
s= sample standard deviation
n = sample size
Degrees of Freedom

df =n−1
Shape of the t-Distribution

Lesson 7: The Central Limit Theorem -Bell-shaped and symmetric about 0

-Heavier tails than the normal distribution
-Lower peak than the normal curve
The Central Limit Theorem is a fundamental
-As df increases, it becomes closer to the
principle in statistics which states that:
normal distribution
Regardless of the population distribution, the
sampling distribution of the sample Properties of the t-Distribution
mean becomes approximately normal as
-Symmetric about zero
the sample size n increases.
-Mean = Median = Mode = 0
For normally distributed populations, the -Variance:
sample mean is normally distributed
regardless of sample size.
For non-normal populations, the sample
mean can be considered approximately Variance and standard deviation are greater
normal if n ≥ 30. than 1
Total area under the curve = 1 (100%)
Solving Problems Involving Sample
Identifying Percentiles Using the t-Table
Means
-The area under the curve = probabilityt
Steps: -tables usually show right-tail
1. Write given information ( μ , σ , n , x́ or probabilities
X ). -The t-value depends on degrees of
2. Identify what is asked (probability freedom
of x́ or X ). Example 1: Finding the 95th Percentile
3. Determine the formula:
X−μ Find the 95th percentile of a t-
Individual data: z= distribution with 6 degrees of freedom.
σ
x−u -Left-tail area = 0.95
z= -Right-tail area = 1−0.95=0.05
Sample mean: σ
-Look for df = 6, right-tail area = 0.05
√n
4. Compute z-score. t=1.943
5. Use z-table to find probability. 95% of the values lie to the left of 1.943.
6. Interpret probability.

Lesson 8: Illustrating the t-Distribution and

Identifying the Percentiles using the t-value
When Do We Use the t-Distribution?
Use the Student’s t-distribution when:
-Sample size is small (n<30 )
-Population standard deviation (σ ) is
unknown
-Population is normally distributed

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