Biodiversity

Biodiversity or biological diversity refers to the variability among the living organisms (plants, animals
and microbes) from all sources including terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of
which they are part.
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)
is an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in
specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

Types of biodiversity: Biodiversity is of 3 types.

1. Ecosystem diversity: It refers to the broad differences between ecosystem types, the diversity of
habitats and ecological processes occuring within each ecosystem type. Distinctive ecosystems include
terrestrial ecosystem like forests, grasslands, deserts as well as aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes,
ponds and oceans.
2. Species diversity: It refers to the variation of species of plants and animals that are present in a region.
3. Genetic diversity: It refers to the variation of genes between distinct species and within a single
species.

Value of biodiversity

a. Consumptive Use Value: Consumptive use values relate to the value of goods produced by the
ecosystems that can be consumed and used by people.
These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly.
For example: fuel, food, drugs, fibre etc.

b. Productive Use Values: products that are harvested and sold in markets.
Forest: wood products, fruits, gum, medicinal plants etc.
New medicines: AIDS drugs, cancer drugs.

c. social Values: These are values associated with the social life, customs, religion, and psycho-spiritual
aspects of the people.
For example: Tulsi, Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Cow, Snake etc.

Threat to Biodiversity

The loss of biodiversity is mainly due to habitat destruction, over-exploitation of natural resources,
pollution and introduction of exotic plants and animals. There are many other reasons also for significant
depletion of biodiversity. Prominent among them are the expansions of agriculture, industries,
urbanization, road construction, and large scale developmental projects.
The factors responsible for the loss of biodiversity may be natural or artificial. The natural causes include
drought, landslides, flood, storm, earthquakes etc. The artificial causes include overgrazing,
industrialization, urbanization, scientific and educational research, road and dam construction, all leading
to destruction and over-exploitation of plants and animals for commercial purposes.
At global level, the impacts of environmental pollution, particularly the thining of ozone layer, acid rains
and global warming etc. adversely affect the biodiversity. Rapid destruction of forest vegetation is the
main reason for loss of biodiversity on land.

Causes of loss of biodiversity can be depicted in the following chart:

Increasing Population and Change of

Consumption Pattern

Increasing demand for food, fibre, Developmental Activities

timber, medicines etc. (Construction of roads, dams and mining)

Over-exploitation of Biological Degradation of Ecosystem

Resources

Endangerment of Species

Extinction

Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known
as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural
processes such as mineral weathering or by the gradual withdrawal of an ocean. It can also come
about through artificial processes such as irrigation.

Consequences of salinity: The consequences of salinity are

 detrimental effects on plant growth and yield

 damage to infrastructure (roads, bricks, corrosion of pipes and cables)
 reduction of water quality for users, sedimentation problems
 soil erosion ultimately, when crops are too strongly affected by the amounts of salts.

Salinity is an important land degradation problem. Soil salinity can be reduced

by leaching soluble salts out of soil with excess irrigation water. Soil salinity control involves
water table control and flushing in combination with tile drainage or another form of subsurface
drainage. A comprehensive treatment of soil salinity is available from the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization.

Description of Biodiversity at National and Global Level

1. Biodiversity at National Level
Every country is characterized by its own biodiversity depending mainly on its climate. India has a rich
biological diversity of flora and fauna. About six percent of global species are found in India.
It is estimated that Indian ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world, 11th in terms of number
of endemic species of higher vertebrates and 6th among the centres of diversity and origin of agricultural
crops.
The total number of living species identified in our country is 15000. Out of a total of 25 biodiversity hot
spots in the world, India has two, one in the North-East region and one in the Western Ghats.
India is also one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the countries in the world. The Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India (2000) records 47000 species of plants and 81000 species
of animals which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of global flora and fauna.

2. Biodiversity at Global Level

It is estimated the 5-50 million species of living forms, exist on the earth. However, out of them 1.6
million species have been identified. These include 393450 species of green plants, fungi, bacteria and
viruses and 1168623 species of invertebrates and 49022 species of vertebrates.

Hot Spots of Biodiversity

The concept of hot spots of biodiversity was proposed by Norman Mayers in 1988. According to Mayer’s
et al. 2000, an area is designated as a hot spot when it contains at least 0.5% of the plant species as
endemic (i.e. those species found only in India).
Biodiversity hot spots are areas rich in plant and animals species, particularly many endemic species.
These areas are particularly rich in floral wealth and endemism, not only in flowering plants but also in
reptiles, amphibians and some mammals.

[Link] Himalaya
Phyto-geographically, the Eastern Himalaya forms a distinct floral region and comprises of
Nepal, Bhutan, states of East and North-East India, and a contiguous sector of Yunnan province
in South-Western China.
In the whole of Eastern Himalaya, there are an estimated 9,000 plant species, out of which 3,500
(i.e. 39 per cent) are endemic.
In the Indian portion, there occurs some 5,800 plant species, roughly 2,000 (i.e. 36 per cent) of
which are endemic. At least 55 flowering plants endemic to this area are recognized as rare, for
example, the Pitcher Plant (Nepenthes khasiana). The area has long been recognized as a rich
centre of primitive flowering plants and is popularly known as the ‘Çradle of Speciation’.
Species of several families of monocotyledons, Orchidaceae, Zingiberaceae and Arecaceae are
found in the area. Gymnorperms and Pteridophytes (ferns) are also well represented here.
The area is also rich in wild relatives of plants of economic significance e.g. rice, banana, citrus,
ginger, chilli, jute and sugarcane. It is also regarded as the centre of origin and diversification of
five palms of commercial importance, namely coconut, arecanut, palmyra palm, sugar palm and
wild date palm.
Tea (Thea sinensis) has been cultivated in this region for the last 4,000 years. Many wild and
allied species of tea, the leaves of which are used as a substitute for tea, are found in the North
East, in their natural habitats. The Taxol plant (Taxus wallichiana) is sparsely distributed in the
region and is listed under the red data category due to its overexploitation for extraction of a drug
effectively used against cancer. As regards faunal diversity, 63 per cent of the genera of land
mammals in India are found in this region. During the last four decades, two new mammals have
been discovered from the region – Golden Langur from Assam-Bhutan region, and Namdapha
Flying Squirrel from Arunachal Pradesh, indicating the species richness of the region. The region
is also a rich centre of avian diversity – more than 60 per cent of the bird species found in India
have been recorded in the North East.
The region also hosts two endemic genera of lizards, and 35 endemic reptilian species, including
two turtles. Of the 240 Indian amphibian species, at least 68 species are known to occur in the
North East, 20 of which are endemic.
From Namdapha National Park itself, a new genus of mammal, a new subspecies of a bird, six
new amphibians’ species, four new species of fish, at least 15 new species of beetles and six new
species of flies have been discovered.

[Link] Ghats
The Western Ghats region, which is spread into 6 states of India, is considered to be one of the
most important bio-geographic zones of India, as it is one of the richest centres of endemism.
Due to varied topography and microclimatic regimes, some areas within the region are
considered to be active zones of speciation.
The region has 490 arborescent taxa, of which as many as 308 are endemic. About 1,500
endemic species of dicotyledonous plants are reported from the Western Ghats. 245 species of
orchids belonging to 75 genera are found here, of which 112 species in ten genera are endemic to
the region. As regards the fauna, as many as 315 species of vertebrates belonging to 22 genera
are endemic, including 12 species of mammals, 13 species of birds, 89 species of reptiles, 87
species of amphibians and 104 species of fish.
The extent of endemism is high amongst amphibian and reptile species. There occur 117 species
of amphibians in the region, of which 89 species (76 per cent) are endemic. Of the 165 species of
reptiles found in Western Ghats, 88 species are endemic. Many of the endemic and other species
are listed as threatened.
Nearly 235 species of endemic flowering plants are considered endangered. Rare fauna of the
region include – Lion Tailed Macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Nilgiri Tahr, Flying Squirrel, and
Malabar Gray Hornbill.
[Link]

Conservation of Biodiversity: Man has been directly or indirectly dependent on biodiversity for their
own needs. Loss of biodiversity is increasing day by day. The immediate task before the country is not
only to manage and conserve the existing natural resources and ecosystems but also the restoration of
degraded ecosystems through cooperation and support of people. Biodiversity is to be preserved to
achieve sustainable development.
A network of 668 Protected Areas (PAs) has been established, extending over 1,61,221.57 sq.
kms. (4.90% of total geographic area), comprising 102 National Parks, 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries,
47 Conservation Reserves and 4 Community Reserves.

Types of Conservation of Biodiversity: These are of two types.

1. In-situ conservation (within habitat)
2. Ex-situ conservation (outside habitat)

1. In-situ conservation
In-situ conservation refers to conserving animals and plants in their natural habitat. This type of
conservation is applicable only for wild fauna and flora and not to domestic animals.
This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in nature itself. For example: Biosphere
reserves, National Park and wildlife sanctuaries etc.
At present we have about 17 biosphere reserves, 88 national park, 490 wildlife sanctuaries and 120
botanical gardens in our country covering 4% of geographical area.

Biosphere Reserves: The concept of biosphere reserve was started in 1975 under the ‘Man and
Biosphere’ programme of UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and cultural
organization is a specialized agency of United Nations). In this type, the multiple land use is permitted
and the biosphere is not restricted to any one, two or more species but to the whole ecosystem.
The biosphere reserves conserve some representatative ecosystems as a whole for long-term insitu
conservation. Within biosphere reserves we may have one or more national park.

Some Important Biosphere Reserves in India

[Link]. Name of Biosphere Reserves Location
1 Nilgiri Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala
2 Nanda Devi Uttaranchal
3 Sunderbans West Bengal
4 Manas Assam
5 Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu
6 Great Nicobars Southern most islands of Andaman & Nicobar
7 Similpal Orissa

National Park: It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. It is
also meant for enjoyment tourism but without impairing the environment. Grazing of domestic
animals, all private rights and forestry activities are prohibited with national park. Each national park
usually aims at conservation specifically of some particular species of wildlife along with others.

Some Important National Park in India

[Link]. Name of National Park State Important wildlife
1 Corbett Uttarakhand Tiger
2 Dudwa Uttar Pradesh Tiger
3 Gir Gujarat Indian Lion
 4 Bandipur Karnataka Elephant
5 Periyar Kerala Elephant, Tiger
6 Ranthambore Rajasthan Tiger

Wildlife sanctuaries: These are also protected areas where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of
wildlife is prohibited except under the control of highest authority.
However, private ownership rights are permissible and forestry operations are also permitted to an
extent that do not affect the wildlife adversely.

Some Important Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

[Link]. Name of Wildlife sanctuaries State Important wildlife
1 Ghana Bird Sanctuaries Rajasthan 300 species of birds including migratory
2 Hazaribagh Sanctuaries Jharkhand Tiger, Leopard
3 Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuaries Gujarat Water Birds
4 Mudamalai Wildlife sanctuaries Tamil Nadu Elephant, Tiger, Leopard
5 Sultanpur Bird Sanctuaries Haryana Migratory Birds
6 Abohar Wildlife sanctuaries Punjab Black buck

2. Ex-situ conservation
Conservation of species away from their natural habitat is called ex-situ conservation. This is done by
establishment of gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, cultural collections etc.
Sometimes the population of species may decline or may become extinct due to genetic or
environmental factors such as genetic drift, demographic and environmental variations, habitat loss,
and competition with exotic (foreign) species, diseases and over-exploitation.
In such cases In-situ conservation may not proves to be effective and a species can be protected from
becoming extict only through maintaining individuals in artificial conditions under Ex-situ or off-situ
conservation. Such measures are included under Ex-situ conservation.

In India we have following important gene bank/seed bank facilities:

a. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR): It is located in New Delhi. Here
agricultural and Horticultural crops and their wild relatives are preserved by cryo-preservation of
seeds, pollen etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a temperature as low as -1600C. Varieties of rice, pearl
millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco, poppy etc. have been preserved
successfully in liquid nitrogen for several years without losing seed viability.

b. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR): It is located at Karnal, Haryana. It

preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

c. National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR): for the development of a
facility conservation of varieties of crop plant/trees by tissue culture. This facility has been created
within the NBPGR.

d. Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells separate from the organism. This is typically
facilitated via use of a liquid, semi-solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar.
 Tissue culture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, with the more
specific term plant tissue culture being used for plants. The term "tissue culture" was coined
by American pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows, M.D.

Few another Important topics:

The Emergence of Environmentalism: Anthropocentric and Ecocentric
Perspectives

Environmentalism emerged as a global movement in the 20th century in response to increasing

industrialization, pollution, deforestation, and resource depletion. It focuses on protecting
and conserving the natural environment through awareness, policy, and ethical change.

The modern environmental movement began in the 1960s, inspired by works like Rachel
Carson’s Silent Spring (1962), which exposed the dangers of pesticides. Events such as the
1972 Stockholm Conference, the 1987 Brundtland Report, and the 1992 Rio Earth Summit
further strengthened global environmental concern and policy formation.

Two Major Perspectives in Environmental Thought

1. Anthropocentric Perspective (Human-Centered)

This view places humans at the center of the environment. Nature is seen mainly as a resource
for human use and survival. Conservation is important to ensure resources remain available for
future generations.

 Key Thinkers:
o Francis Bacon – Advocated scientific control of nature.
o René Descartes – Viewed nature as mechanical and utilitarian.
o John Locke – Promoted human right to use natural resources.
o Brundtland Commission (1987) – Introduced sustainable development
balancing human needs and environmental care.

2. Ecocentric Perspective (Nature-Centered)

This view holds that nature has intrinsic value, independent of human use. Humans are part of
the ecosystem, not superior to it. It emphasizes preservation, biodiversity, and harmony with
nature.

 Key Thinkers:
o Aldo Leopold – Land Ethic: Humans are members of a biotic community.
o Arne Naess – Deep Ecology: All life forms have equal moral worth.
o James Lovelock – Gaia Hypothesis: Earth is a living, self-regulating system.
o John Muir and Thoreau – Advocated wilderness preservation and simple living.
Club of Rome – Limits to Growth

The Club of Rome is a global think tank founded in 1968 by Aurelio Peccei and Alexander
King to study complex global problems such as population growth, resource depletion, and
environmental degradation.

In 1972, it published a landmark report titled “The Limits to Growth”, prepared by Donella
Meadows, Dennis Meadows, Jørgen Randers, and others at MIT. The study used computer
modeling (World3 model) to simulate the interaction between population, industrialization,
pollution, food production, and resource consumption.

Significance:

 First scientific study to highlight the concept of finite resources on Earth.

 Initiated global discussion on sustainability, influencing later works like the Brundtland
Report (1987).
 Marked a shift from growth-oriented development to ecological awareness.