23MCE4S1 - Robotics

Unit:1
Introduction: Introduction, brief history, components of robotics, classification, workspace,
work-envelop, motion of robotic arm, end-effectors and its types, service robot and its
application, Artificial Intelligence in Robotics.

Unit:2
Actuators and sensors: Types of actuators, stepper-DC-servo-and brushless motors- model of a
DC servo motor-types of transmissions-purpose of sensor-internal and external sensor-common
sensors-encoders tachometers-strain gauge based force torque sensor-proximity and distance
measuring sensors.
Kinematics of robots: Representation of joints and frames, frames transformation, homogeneous
matrix, D-H matrix, Forward and inverse kinematics: two link planar (RR) and spherical robot
(RRP). Mobile robot Kinematics: Differential wheel mobile robot.

Unit:3
Localization: Self-localizations and mapping - Challenges in localizations – IR based localizations
– vision based localizations – Ultrasonic based localizations - GPS localization systems.

Unit:4
Path Planning: Introduction, path planning-overview-road map path planning-cell
decomposition path planning potential field path planning-obstacle avoidance-case studies
Vision system: Robotic vision systems-image representation-object recognition-and
categorization depth measurement- image data compression-visual inspection-software
considerations

Unit:5
Application: Ariel robots-collision avoidance robots for agriculture-mining-exploration-
underwater – civilian - and military applications-nuclear applications-space Applications-
Industrial robots-artificial intelligence in robots-application of robots in material handling-
continuous arc welding-spot welding-spray painting-assembly operation-cleaning-etc.
UNIT 1:
Introduction
Robotics is a branch of engineering and science that includes electronics engineering,
mechanical engineering and computer science and so on. This branch deals with the design,
construction, use to control robots, sensory feedback and information processing. These are
some technologies which will replace humans and human activities in coming years. These
robots are designed to be used for any purpose but these are using in sensitive environments
like bomb detection, deactivation of various bombs etc. Robots can take any form but many of
them have given the human appearance. The robots which have taken the form of human
appearance may likely to have the walk like humans, speech, cognition and most importantly
all the things a human can do. Most of the robots of today are inspired by nature and are known
as bio-inspired robots. Robotics is that branch of engineering that deals with conception, design,
operation, and manufacturing of robots. There was an author named Issac Asimov, he said that
he was the first person to give robotics name in a short story composed in 1940's. In that story,
Issac suggested three principles about how to guide these types of robotic machines. Later on,
these three principles were given the name of Issac's three laws of Robotics. These three laws
state that:
 Robots will never harm human beings.
 Robots will follow instructions given by humans with breaking law one.
 Robots will protect themselves without breaking other rules.

History of Robotics
 Robotics was first introduced into our vocabulary by Czech playwright Karel Capek in his
1920’s play Rossum’s Universal Robots.
 1954 – George Devol replaced the slave manipulator in a tele operator with the
programmability of the CNC controller, thus creating the first “industrial robot”, called
the “Programmable Article Transfer Device”.
 1956 - Joseph Engleberger, a Columbia physics student buys the rights to Devol’s robot
and founds the Unimation Company.
 1956 -George Devol applied for a patent for the first programmable robot, later named
'Unimate'.
  1966 – 1968 'Shakey‘, a mobile robot is developed by SRI (Stanford Research Institute).
'Shakey' was capable of planning, route-finding and moving objects.
 1977 – 1992 Development of mobile robot Hilaire at Laboratoise d’Automatique et
d’Analyse des Systemes (LAAS) in Toulouse, France. This mobile robot had three wheels
and it is still in use.
 1978- Puma (Programmable Universal Machine for Assembly), by Unimation.
 1979 - SCARA (Selective Compliant Articulated Robot for Assembly) introduced in Japan
and the US (by Adept Technologies).
 1980’s – Legged and hopping robots (BIPER – Shimoyama) and Raibert 1986.
 1984 -1991 –Hogg, Martin and Resnick at MIT create mobile robots using LEGO blocks
(precursor to LEGO Mindstorms). Rodney Brooks at MIT creates first insect robots at MIT
AI Lab – birth of behavioral robotics.
 1986 - Honda starts work on its first humanoid, robot named 'E0' (later to become
ASIMO).
 1988 - SCAMP designed as the first robot pet with emotions.
 1991 - First HelpMate mobile autonomous robot used in hospitals
 1999 - Sony introduces AIBO, an autonomous robotic dog capable of seeing, walking and
interacting with its environment.
 2002 - iRobot introduces Roomba, a personal robotic vacuum cleaner.
 2003 - Osaka University unveils their first 'Actroid', the term given for a humanoid robot
with strong visual human characteristics.
 2010 - NASA and General Motors join forces to develop Robonaut-2, the new version of
NASA's humanoid robot astronaut.

Characteristics
There are some characteristics of robots given below:
 Appearance: Robots have a physical body. They are held by the structure of their body and
are moved by their mechanical parts. Without appearance, robots will be just a software
program.
 Brain: Another name of brain in robots is On-board control unit. Using this robot receive
information and sends commands as output. With this control unit robot knows what to do
else it'll be just a remote-controlled machine.
 Sensors: The use of these sensors in robots is to gather info from the outside world and send
it to Brain. Basically, these sensors have circuits in them that produces the voltage in them.
 Actuators: The robots move and the parts with the help of these robots move is called
Actuators. Some examples of actuators are motors, pumps, and compressor etc. The brain
tells these actuators when and how to respond or move.
 Program: Robots only works or responds to the instructions which are provided to them in
the form of a program. These programs only tell the brain when to perform which operation
like when to move, produce sounds etc. These programs only tell the robot how to use sensors
data to make decisions.
 Behaviour: Robots behavior is decided by the program which has been built for it. Once the
robot starts making the movement, one can easily tell which kind of program is being
installed inside the robot.

Types of Robots
These are the some types of robots given below:
 Articulated: The feature of this robot is its rotary joints and range of these are from 2 to 10
or more joints. The arm is connected to the rotary joint and each joint is known as the axis
which provides a range of movements.
 Cartesian: These are also known as gantry robots. These have three joints which use the
Cartesian coordinate system i.e x, y, z. These robots are provided with attached wrists to
provide rotatory motion.
 Cylindrical: These types of robots have at least one rotatory joints and one prismatic joint
which are used to connect the links. The use of rotatory joints is to rotate along the axis and
prismatic joint used to provide linear motion.
 Polar: These are also known as spherical robots. The arm is connected to base with a twisting
joint and have a combination of 2 rotatory joint and one linear joint.
 Scara: These robots are mainly used in assembly applications. Its arm is in cylindrical in
design. It has two parallel joints which are used to provide compliance in one selected plane.
 Delta: The structure of these robots are like spider-shaped. They are built by joint
parallelograms that are connected to the common base. The parallelogram moves in a dome-
shaped work area. These are mainly used in food and electrical industries.
Scope and limitations of robots: The advance version of machines are robots which are used
to do advanced tasks and are programmed to make decisions on their own. When a robot is
designed the most important thing to be kept in mind is that What the function is to be
performed and what are the limitations of the robot. Each robot has a basic level of complexity
and each of the levels has the scope which limits the functions that are to be performed. For
general basic robots, their complexity is decided by the number of limbs, actuators and the
sensors that are used while for advanced robots the complexity is decided by the number of
microprocessors and microcontroller used. As increasing any component in the robot, it is
increasing the scope of the robot and with every joint added, the degree of the robot is enhanced.
Advantages: The advantages of using robots are given below:
 They can get information that a human can't get.
 They can perform tasks without any mistakes and very efficiently and fast.
 Maximum robots are automatic, so they can perform different tasks without needing human
interaction.
 Robots are used in different factories to produce items like plane, car parts etc.
 They can be used for mining purposes and can be sent to earth's madrid.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages of using robots are given below:
 They need the power supply to keep going. People working in factories may lose their jobs as
robots can replace them.
 They need high maintenance to keep them working all day long. And the cost of maintaining
the robots can be expensive.
 They can store huge amount of data but they are not as efficient as our human brains.
 As we know that robots work on the program that has been installed in them. So other than
the program installed, robots can't do anything different.
 The most important disadvantage is that if the program of robots comes in wrong hands they
can cause the huge amount of destruction.

Applications: Different types of robots can performs different types of tasks. For example, many
of the robots are made for assembly work which means that they are not relevant for any other
work and these types of robots are called Assembly Robots. Similarly, for seam welding many
suppliers provide robots with their welding materials and these types of robots are known as
Welding Robots. While on the other hand many robots are designed for heavy-duty work and
are known as Heavy Duty Robots. There are some applications given below:
 Caterpillar plans which is aiming to develop remote-controlled machines and are expecting
to develop heavy robots by 2021.
 A robot can also do Herding task.
 Robots are increasingly been used more than humans in manufacturing while in auto-
industry there are more than half of the labors are "Robots".
 Many of the robots are used as Military Robots.
 Robots have been used in cleaning up of areas like toxic waste or industrial wastes etc.
 Agricultural robots.
 Household robots.
 Domestic robots.
 Nano robots.
 Swarm robots.
Advantages:
1. Increased Efficiency: Robots can work 24/7 without getting tired, leading to increased
productivity and efficiency.
2. Improved Accuracy: Robots are capable of performing tasks with high precision and
accuracy, reducing errors and improving quality.
3. Increased Safety: Robots can perform tasks that are dangerous for humans, improving
overall safety in the workplace.
4. Reduced Labor Costs: The use of robots can lead to reduced labor costs, as robots can
perform tasks more cheaply than human workers.
Disadvantages:
1. Initial Cost: Implementing and maintaining a robotics system can be expensive, especially
for small and medium-sized businesses.
2. Job Losses: The increased use of robots may result in job losses for human workers,
particularly in industries where manual labor is prevalent.
3. Limited Capabilities: Robots are still limited in their capabilities compared to human workers
and may not be able to perform tasks requiring dexterity or creativity.
4. Maintenance Costs: Robots require regular maintenance and repair, which can be time-
consuming and expensive.
Service robots its application
Service robots assist humans with useful, often repetitive, dull, or dangerous tasks in non-
industrial settings, spanning professional (hospitals, logistics, cleaning) and personal
(home cleaning, mobility) uses, with applications in logistics, healthcare (surgery, patient
aid), hospitality (guiding, serving), and domestic chores, enhancing efficiency and freeing
human staff for higher-value work.
Key Applications

 Healthcare: Assisting with surgery, patient care (lifting, monitoring), delivering supplies,
and rehabilitation.
 Logistics: Autonomous mobile robots (AMRs) for transporting goods in warehouses,
hospitals, and offices.
 Cleaning: Autonomous vacuums for homes and commercial spaces, large outdoor
cleaning robots.
 Hospitality & Retail: Greeting guests, guiding customers in malls, explaining products,
and supporting events.
 Agriculture: Automated feeding and milking in barns, crop monitoring.
 Domestic: Robotic vacuums, lawnmowers, and personal assistants.
 Security & Inspection: Remote monitoring, inspection in dangerous or inaccessible
areas.

Core Functions & Benefits

 Automation: Handling tedious, dirty, dangerous (the "4 Ds") tasks.

 Efficiency: Working autonomously or semi-autonomously to optimize operations.
 Enhancing Human Work: Freeing up human workers for more complex, empathetic, or
creative tasks.
 Interaction: Providing information, entertainment, or assistance in public and private
spaces.

Types of Service Robots

 Professional: Used in commercial settings (e.g., hospital logistics, retail).

 Personal: Used by non-professionals for everyday tasks (e.g., robotic vacuums).
 Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs): Navigate and transport items.
  Telepresence Robots: Allow remote interaction.
 Power Assist Suits: Help with heavy lifting.

Artificial Intelligence in Robotics

Artificial Intelligence (AI) in robotics represents one of the most transformative
technological revolutions of the modern age. By combining the mechanical precision of robots
with the cognitive power of AI, we are witnessing machines that can perceive, learn, decide
and act autonomously. Unlike traditional programmed robots that follow fixed instructions,
AI-powered robots can adapt to new situations, analyze data in real-time and make intelligent
decisions. This integration is driving massive progress across industries like manufacturing,
healthcare, logistics and domestic services.
 Adaptive Learning: Robots learn from data and experiences, improving performance over
time.
 Decision-Making: AI enables robots to evaluate options and make autonomous decisions.
 Human-Robot Collaboration: Machines now interact naturally with humans using speech
and gesture recognition.
 Cross-Industry Impact: AI-powered robotics is transforming sectors from agriculture to
aerospace.
Fields of AI in Robotics
Artificial Intelligence is a collection of interrelated technologies that together make robots
intelligent, perceptive and self-learning. Each AI subfield contributes specific abilities that
enhance robotic performance and autonomy.
1. Machine Learning (ML)
Machine Learning enables robots to learn from data and experiences rather than relying solely
on hard-coded instructions. It allows robots to identify patterns, make predictions and
continuously refine their behavior.
 Working: ML algorithms process large datasets from sensors and cameras to detect trends
and make data-driven decisions. Robots use reinforcement learning to improve their
movements and tasks through trial and error and supervised or unsupervised learning to
recognize objects and optimize actions.
 Applications: Autonomous navigation, robotic arms learning optimized movement paths,
predictive maintenance in industrial systems and warehouse automation robots improving
efficiency over time.
2. Computer Vision
Computer Vision gives robots the ability to see, interpret and understand their environment
using cameras and sensors. It serves as a robot’s “eyes,” enabling perception and spatial
awareness.
 Working: Computer Vision algorithms analyze images and videos to detect shapes, edges,
colors and depth. Robots use this visual input to recognize objects, avoid obstacles and
perform visual inspections or assembly tasks.
 Applications: Self-driving cars detecting pedestrians and traffic signals, drones used for
aerial mapping and factory robots performing defect detection and product quality checks.
3. Natural Language Processing (NLP)
NLP allows robots to understand, interpret and generate human language, making human-
robot interaction natural and intuitive. It bridges the communication gap between humans
and machines.
 Working: NLP models convert speech or text into structured data using techniques like
tokenization, sentiment analysis and intent recognition. Robots interpret this information
to respond, execute commands or hold conversations.
 Applications: Service robots in hotels or airports, personal assistants like Alexa or Siri and
medical robots that understand voice instructions from healthcare professionals.
4. Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM)
SLAM enables robots to build a map of an unfamiliar environment while keeping track of their
position within it — a crucial function for autonomous movement and exploration.
 Working: SLAM combines data from cameras, radar, sonar and LIDAR sensors to
continuously update a map and calculate the robot’s coordinates. This helps in navigation,
path optimization and collision avoidance.
 Applications: Autonomous delivery robots, self-driving vehicles, robotic vacuum cleaners
and drones conducting terrain mapping or exploration missions.
5. Expert Systems and Knowledge Representation
Expert systems simulate human reasoning using structured knowledge and logical rules,
enabling robots to solve problems intelligently. Knowledge representation organizes
information so robots can reason, plan and make decisions.
 Working: These systems use predefined rules, logic-based frameworks or neural models to
analyze inputs and provide reasoned conclusions. They help robots make informed choices
in complex or uncertain environments.
 Applications: Medical diagnostic robots, industrial monitoring systems for fault detection
and decision-support robots in technical or operational environments.
6. Deep Learning and Neural Networks
Deep Learning uses multi-layered neural networks to mimic human brain functionality,
allowing robots to process complex data such as images, audio and motion patterns with
exceptional accuracy.
 Working: Neural networks are trained on large datasets to automatically extract features
and identify patterns. Robots use deep learning for perception, gesture detection, emotion
recognition and predictive behavior modeling.
 Applications: Facial recognition systems, gesture-based robotic control, predictive
maintenance in factories and decision-making in autonomous systems.
Role of AI in Robotics
Artificial Intelligence plays a transformative role in robotics by infusing cognitive intelligence
into mechanical systems. It allows robots to act intelligently, adapt to changes and collaborate
efficiently with humans.
 Autonomy: AI enables robots to perform tasks independently, from navigation to problem-
solving.
 Perception: AI helps robots interpret sensory data, such as visual or auditory inputs, to
understand their surroundings.
 Adaptation: Machine learning allows robots to learn from past outcomes and adjust
behavior dynamically.
 Reasoning: Robots can make informed decisions based on logic, data analysis and
situational awareness.
 Interaction: NLP and emotion recognition enable robots to engage naturally with humans,
improving collaboration and accessibility.

Robots and AI Working Together

AI serves as the “brain” of robotics, while robotics provides the “body” that acts upon AI’s
intelligence. Together, they form systems capable of learning, perceiving and responding like
humans.
Working:
 Sensing: Robots collect data using sensors, cameras and microphones.
 Perception: AI algorithms interpret this data to identify objects, speech or surroundings.
 Decision-Making: The AI system evaluates possible actions and selects the most effective
one.
 Execution: The robot performs the chosen task using motors and actuators.
 Learning: Through machine learning feedback loops, the robot improves over time.
Applications: Self-driving cars combining AI vision and control systems, humanoid robots
learning gestures and autonomous warehouse robots optimizing routes based on real-time
feedback.
Applications
AI-powered robots are revolutionizing multiple industries through intelligent automation and
adaptive decision-making.
 Healthcare: Surgical robots assisting in precision procedures and robots supporting
patient care.
 Transportation: Self-driving cars and drones that use AI for safe and efficient navigation.
 Agriculture: Robots monitoring soil health, optimizing irrigation and automating
harvesting tasks.
 Defense and Security: Surveillance drones, bomb disposal robots and battlefield
assistance.
 Customer Service: Chatbots and humanoid robots interacting with customers using NLP
and sentiment analysis.
 Disaster Response: Search and rescue robots locating survivors in hazardous or collapsed
environments.
END EFFECTORS
In robotics, an end effector is the device at the end of a robotic arm, designed to interact with
the environment. The exact nature of this device depends on the application of the robot.

The end effector means the last link (or end) of the robot. At this endpoint the tools are
attached. In a wider sense, an end effector can be seen as the part of a robot that interacts with
the work environment. This does not refer to the wheels of a mobile robot or the feet of a
humanoid robot which are also not end effectors—they are part of the robot's mobility.

End effectors may consist of a gripper or a tool. The gripper can be of two fingers, three
fingers or even five fingers.

Mechanism of gripping

Generally, the gripping mechanism is done by the grippers or mechanical fingers. Though in
the industrial robotics due to less complications, two finger grippers are used. The fingers are
also replaceable. Due to gradual wearing, the fingers can be replaced without actually
replacing the grippers.

Shape of the gripping surface

The shape of the gripping surface on the fingers can be chosen according to the shape of the
objects that are lifted by the grippers. For example, if the robot is designated a task to lift a
round object, the gripper surface shape can be a negative impression of the object to make the
grip efficient, or for a square shape the surface can be plane.
Types:

1. Impactive – jaws or claws which physically grasp by direct impact upon the object.
2. Ingressive – pins, needles or hackles which physically penetrate the surface of the
object (used in textile, carbon and glass fibre handling).
3. Astrictive – suction forces applied to the objects surface (whether by vacuum,
magneto– or electroadhesion).
4. Contigutive – requiring direct contact for adhesion to take place (such as glue, surface
tension or freezing).

Mechanical Grippers

A mechanical gripper is used as an end effector in a robot for grasping the objects with its
mechanically operated fingers. In industries, two fingers are enough for holding purposes. As
most of the fingers are of replaceable type, it can be easily removed and replaced.

A robot requires either hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic drive system to create the input
power. The power produced is sent to the gripper for making the fingers react. It also allows
the fingers to perform open and close actions. Most importantly, a sufficient force must be
given to hold the object.

In a mechanical gripper, the holding of an object can be done by two different methods such
as:

 Using the finger pads as like the shape of the work part.
 Using soft material finger pads.

In the first method, the contact surfaces of the fingers are designed according to the work part
for achieving the estimated shape. It will help the fingers to hold the work part for some
extent.

In the second method, the fingers must be capable of supplying sufficient force to hold the
work part. To avoid scratches on the work part, soft type pads are fabricated on the fingers.
As a result, the contact surface of the finger and co – efficient of friction are improved. This
method is very simple and as well as less expensive. It may cause slippage if the force applied
against the work part is in the parallel direction. The slippage can be avoided by designing
the gripper based on the force exerted.
 µnf Fg = w …………………. 1

µ:- co – efficient of friction between the work part and fingers

nf :- no. of fingers contacting

Fg :- Force of the gripper

W:- weight of the grasped object

The equation 1 must be changed if the weight of a work part is more than the force applied to
cause the slippage.

µ nf Fg = w g …..……………. 2

g => g factor

During rapid grasping operation, the work part will get twice the weight. To get rid out of it,
the modified equation 1 is put forward by Engelberger. The g factor in the equation 2 is used
to calculate the acceleration and gravity.

The values of g factor for several operations are given below:

 g = 1 – acceleration supplied in the opposite direction.

 g = 2 – acceleration supplied in the horizontal direction.
 g = 3 – acceleration and gravity supplied in the same direction.

Pneumatic gripper

A pneumatic gripper is a specific type of pneumatic actuator that typically involves either
parallel or angular motion of surfaces, A.K.A. “tooling jaws or fingers” that will grip an
object. When combined with other pneumatic, electric, or hydraulic components, the gripper
can be used as part of a "pick and place" system that will allow a component to be picked up
and placed somewhere else as part of a manufacturing system.

Types of Pneumatic Grippers:

The most popular types of pneumatic grippers are the 2 jaw parallel and 2 jaw angular gripper
styles. Parallel grippers open and close parallel to the object that it will be holding, these are
the most widely used grippers. They are the simplest to tool and can compensate for some
dimensional variation. Angular grippers move the jaws in a radial manner to rotate the jaws
away from the object and therefore require more space.
Adhesive grippers

A type of end effector that uses a continuously fed ribbon covered with an adhesive that
sticks to the objects the robot manipulates. Adhesive grippers are commonly used for
lightweight materials where other gripper types would be less effective. An adhesion gripper
is a robot end effector that grasps objects by literally sticking to them. In its most primitive
form, this type of gripper consists of a rod, sphere, or other solid object covered with two-
sided tape.

A major asset of the adhesive gripper is the fact that it is simple. As long as the adhesive
keeps its “stickiness,” it will continue to function without maintenance. However, there are
certain limitations. The most significant is the fact that the adhesive cannot readily be
disabled in order to release the grasp on an object. Some other means, such as devices that
lock the gripped object into place,must be used.
Magnetic grippers

Magnetic grippers are most commonly used in a robot as an end effector for grasping the
ferrous materials. It is another type of handling the work parts other than the mechanical
grippers and vacuum grippers.

Types of magnetic grippers:

The magnetic grippers can be classified into two common types, namely:

Magnetic grippers with

Electromagnets:

Electromagnetic grippers include a controller unit and a DC power for handling the
materials. This type of grippers is easy to control, and very effective in releasing the part
at the end of the operation than the permanent magnets. If the work part gripped is to be
released, the polarity level is minimized by the controller unit before the electromagnet is
turned off. This process will certainly help in removing the magnetism on the work parts.
As a result, a best way of releasing the materials is possible in this gripper.

Permanent magnets:

The permanent magnets do not require any sort of external power as like the
electromagnets for handling the materials. After this gripper grasps a work part, an
additional device called as stripper push – off pin will be required to separate the work
part from the magnet. This device is incorporated at the sides of the gripper.

The advantage of this permanent magnet gripper is that it can be used in hazardous
applications like explosion-proof apparatus because of no electrical circuit. Moreover, there
is no possibility of spark production as well.

Benefits:

 This gripper only requires one surface to grasp the materials.

 The grasping of materials is done very quickly.
 It does not require separate designs for handling different size of materials.
 It is capable of grasping materials with holes, which is unfeasible in the vacuum grippers.
Importance:

The end effectors that can be used as tools serves various purposes. Such as, Spot welding in
an assembly, spray painting where uniformity of painting is necessary and for other purposes
where the working conditions are dangerous for human beings. Surgical robots have end
effectors that are specifically manufactured for performing surgeries. The end effector of an
assembly line robot would typically be a welding head, or a paint spray gun. A surgica
robot’s end effector could be a scalpel or others tools used in surgery. Other possible end
effectors are machine tools, like a drill or milling cutters. The end effector on the space
shuttle’s robotic arm uses a pattern of wires which close like the aperture of a camera around
a handle or other grasping point.