Measuring Instruments

1. Hydrometer Measuring the density or relative density of liquids. Based on

floatation principle.
2. Magnetron Produces microwave. Used in ovens.
3. Actinometer Used to measure intensity of electromagnetic radiation
4. Altimeter Aneroid barometer for measuring altitude.
5. Bolometer For measuring heat radiation
6. Dasymeter Measuring density of gas
7. Galvanometer Used for detecting small electric currents.
8. Gyroscope Determine orientation in aircraft, ships etc.
9. Katharometer Measuring thermal conductivity
10. Manometer Measuring the pressure of a gas.
11. Nethoscope Determining the speed of celestial bodies.
12. Rectifier Converts AC into DC.
13. Tonometer Measures pitch of sound
14. Venturimeter Measures rate of flow of fluids
15. Udometer Rain guage.

Biologists & Their Contribution

1. Coined the term ‘cell’ Robert Hooke

2. Binomial nomenclature Carolus Linnaeus
3. One gene one enzyme hypothesis Beadle & Tatum
4. Operon Concept Jacob & Monod
5. Jumping Genes concept Dr. McClintock
6. Human Blood Groups Karl Landsteiner
7. Fluid Mosaic Model Singer & Nicholson

Pollution Linked Diseases

Heavy Metal Human Impacts

Mercury Kidney damage, ulcers, death if in the form of methyl mercury, Minamata disease
Lead Kidney damage, metabolic interference, central and peripheral nervous system toxicity,
depressed biosynthesis of protein and red blood cells, irritability, anemia
Cadmium Renal disease. Various cancers
Arsenic Hyperkeratosis, hyperpigmentation, skin tumors and cancer, damage to
gastrointestinal tract and liver
Aluminum Linked to Alzheimer's disease, anemia, softening of bones, senile dementia

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 Deficiency Diseases

Names Disease Comments

Vitamin A Xerophtalmia Lachrimal glands stop producing tears leading to blindness.
(retinol) Dermatosis
Thiamine Beri Beri Extreme weakness, swelling, pain in legs, loss of appetite,
(Vitamin B1) enlarged heart, headache & shortness of breath
Riboflavin Ariboflavinosis Blurred vision, burning of the eye & tongue, cracking of skin
(Vitamin B2) at angle of mouth
Niacin Pellagra Tip & lateral margins of tongue, mouth & gums become red,
(Nicotinamide) swollen & develop ulcers
Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
Pantothenic Acid
Biotin
Cobalamin Perinicious or Reduction of Haemoglobin due to disturbance in formation of
(Vitamin B12) Megaloblastic RBC.
Anemia
Folic Acid
Vitamin C Scurvy Pain in joints, loss of weight, gums become spongy & bleed.
(Ascorbic acid) Teeth loose & fragile.
Vitamin D Rickets Occurs in Children. Softness & deformities of bones.
(cholecalciferol) Osteomalacia Bones susceptible to fracture.
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
Potassium Hypokalemia Rise in heart beat rate. Kidney damage.
Sodium Hyponatremia Low blood pressure.
Proteins Kwashiorkar Potbelly due to retention of water by the cells (Oedema).

Genetic Diseases

1. Albinism Absence of pigment melanin in the skin. Cause by a recessive gene that
blocks the conversion of amino acid tyrosine to melanin.
2. Cri-du-chat syndrome Caused by deformity of chromosome 5. Infants cry like mewing of cat,
small head.
3. Cystic Fibrosis Results because of recessive autosomal gene. Cause abnormal pancreatic
functions & generally leads to early death
4. Down Syndrome Also called Mongolism. Chromosome 21 occurs in triplicate (trisomy)
rather than duplicate. Affected individuals carry 47 chromosomes are
greatly retard mentally & physically.
5. Edwards Syndrome Trisomy of chromosome 18. Infants die before 6 months.
6. Fabry’s Disease Caused by recessive X-linked gene that affects metabolism of
glycosphingolipids. These lipids deposit in hear, kidneys & eyes.
7. Galactosemia Recessive autosomal gene causes defect in the enzyme utilizing the
sugar galactose. Causes high level of galactose leading to cataracts & brain
damage.
8. Haemophilia Sex linked recessive gene. Bleeding can be stopped by injecting a
protein (factor VIII)
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 9. Huntington’s Disease Caused by dominant autosomal gene which leads to progressive
deterioration of the nervous system. Develops at an age of 30 to 40 years
causing loss of control of limbs.
10. Klinefelter Syndrome Improper development of testes due to addition X chromosome (XXY).
Permanent sterility.
11. Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome Sex linked recessive trait resulting into the development of
involuntary movements, mental retardation & kidney damage.
12. Marfan Syndrome Autosomal dominant resulting in abnormalities of body parts especially
eyes & fingers.
13. Muscular Dystrophy Sex linked recessive disease developing during 1-6 years. Patient becomes
confined to wheel chair by 12 year of age. People die before 20.

14. Patau Syndrome Trisomy of chromosome 13. Die within 3 months of birth.
15. Phenylketonuria (PKU) Recessive autosomal gene results into lack of an enzyme essential for the
metabolism of amino acid phenylalanine. As a result the amino acid
accumulates in the brain causing damage. It detected soon it can
be prevented by feeding the child on low Phenylalanine.
16. Sickle Cell Anemia Caused by abnormal haemoglobin molecule due to recessive gene in
homozygous condition resulting in sickling of RBCs.
17. Tay Sachs Disease Caused by autosomal recessive gene. Leads to progressive mental
degradation resulting in death by the age of 2-3 years.
18. Thalassemia Also called Cooley’s Anaemia. Occurs mostly in children & is nearly
fatal. Controlled by a recessive gene which causes severe anaemia.
19. Turner Syndrome Affected individuals are phenotypically females but have rudimentary sex
organs & mammary glands. Results from lack of an X chromosome, that is
the comliment of XO with 45 chromosomes (45, XO).

20. Xeroderma Pigmentosum Extremely sensitive to UV radiation. Sunlight causes lesions which
frequently become cancerous.

Extraction Process for various Elements

1. Frasch Process Sulphur

2. Acheson process Graphite
3. Hall Herault Aluminium
4. Ostwald process Nitric acid
5. Bayer process Extraction of Aluminium from ore
6. Bessemer process Steel from molten pig iron
7. Patio process Silver
8. Dow process Bromine
9. Pidgeion process Magnesium
10. Fischer Tropsch process Gasoline
11. Azeotropic distillation Absolute alcohol

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 Gland Hormone Effect
Pituitary/Hypophysis Growth Hormone or Growth of long bones, muscles.
Anterior Lobe Somatotrophic hormone (STH).
Thyroid Stimulating Hor. (TSH)
Adreno Corticotrophic hormone Influences the production of corticosteroids by
(ACTH) adrenal cortex involved in defending body
against physiological stress.
Follicle Stimulating hormone Growth & maturation of follicles in the ovary,
(FSH) production of female sex hormone Estrogen &
maturation of spermatozoa in males.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Stimulates interstitial cells in the testis to

produce testosterone. Causes ovulation. Release
of estrogen & formulation of corpus luteum in
female.
Prolactin or Luteotrophic Helps to maintain pregnancy. Stimualate
Hormone (LH) mammary glands to secrete milk.
Middle Lobe Melanophore stimulating Associated with melaonophyte which give skin its
Hormone (MSH) colour
Posterior Lobe Vasopressin or Anti-diuretic Controls water reabsorption in the kidney
Hormone tubule.
Oxytocin Causes uterine contractions & active
expulsion of milk during & after birth.
Hypothalamus Releasing Hormone (RH) for Production of all the anterior pituitary
each anterior pituitary hormone: hormone is controlled by messages from the
GH-RH, TSH-RH, ACTH-RH, hypothalamus via hypophyseal portal vessels.
FSH-RH & likewise
Thyroid Thyroxine BMR. Influences heat production.
Calcitonin Calcium level in blood
Parathyroids Parathormone Raises blood calcium level
Adrenals Aldosterone Regulates sodium and potassium levels in the
blood to control blood pressure
Hydrocortisone Plays key role in stress response; increases blood
glucose levels and mobilizes fat stores; reduces
inflammation
Epinephrine or Adrenalin Increases blood pressure, heart and metabolic
rate, and blood sugar levels; dilates blood
vessels. Also released during exercise
Norepinephrine/ Noradrenalin Increases blood pressure and heart rate;
constricts blood vessels
Thymus Thymosin Development of white blood cells
Pancreas or Islets of Insulin Lower the blood sugar level
Langerhans Glucagon Increse the blood sugar level.
Ovaries Estrogen Secondary sexual characteristics.
Progesterone Prepares Endometrium (inner lining of
Uterus) & maintains it during pregnancy

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Alloys

1. Brass Copper (80%) & Zinc (20%)

2. Bronze Copper (90%) & Tin (1%)
3. German Silver Copper (60%), Zinc (20%) & Nickel (20%)
4. Duralumin Aluminium & Copper
5. Alnico Aluminium, Nickel, Cobalt & Iron
6. Magnalium Aluminium (95%) & Magnesium (5%)
7. Babbit Metal Tin, Antimony, Copper & Lead. Used in ball bearings to reduce friction.
8. Invar Iron & Nickel. Used in precision instruments
9. Bell metal Copper & tin.
10. Gun Metal Copper, Tin & Zinc
11. Monel Metal Nickel (67%), Copper & Iron.
12. Pewter Tin (80-90%), Copper & Lead
13. Solder Tin, Lead & Antimony.

Elements/Compounds & Their Uses

1. Xenon High speed photographic tubes. Electric valves & t.v. tubes
2. Krypton Incandescent bulb. Airfield lights because of characteristic red colour.
3. Lithium Deoxidizer and to remove unwanted gases during the manufacture of metals.
4. Beryllium X-ray (transparent) window. Moderator in nuclear reactions around the core.
5. Neon Neon lights. Cryogenics
6. Hopsalite Mixture of oxides of manganese, cobalt, copper & silver – Anti pollution
7. Ammonia Refrigerant, fertilizers
8. Yttrium Used in TVs to produce red colour
9. Bismuth Joined with iron to make it malleable
10. Sodium Street lamp
11. Gadolinium CDs. Aluminium is sometimes used to coat the disc.
12. Cesium Atomic clocks
13. Tellurium Tint glass (one way visibility used in cars).
14. Technetium Superconductor at -262 degree Celsius.
15. Paraformaldehyde Common disinfectant & contraceptives
16. Potassium Dichromate Used in breath analyzer for detecting alcohol. Safe limit is < .1 %.