1

Program
Networking 1 is one of the program requirements for a BSIT student in
School of Engineering and Technology.

Course Description
Networking 1 covers the basic concepts of data communication, protocols,
standards, networking types, errors and corrections, and how is data is
encoded and transmitted.

Prerequisite Course(s)
Networking 1 requires a satisfactory completion of Platform Technologies.

Module Description
This module is used for instructional purposes only for second year
student of the BSIT program under the School of Engineering and
Technology of J.H. Cerilles State College.
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Lesson 1: Data Communications and Networking

At the end this lesson, the students can:
✓ Explore fundamental concepts in data communications and
network models, fostering a comprehensive understanding
✓ Differentiate between various network types
✓ Comprehend the intricate architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite,
delving into its components and functionalities
✓ Appreciate the diverse levels of standards and protocols governing
effective communication within networks

Data communications
Data
Are information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using it. It is also known as information.
Communication
Process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a
common system of symbols, signs or behavior
Data communications
Is sharing of information. The sharing can be done face-to-face or takes
over a distance. Communication at a distance is also known as
telecommunication which includes telephony, telegraphy and television.
Are the exchanged of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as wire cable
How does data communications occur?
Communication devices must be a part of a communication system made
up of: hardware (physical equipment) and software (applications)
Effectiveness of Data Communications System
The success of a data communication system depends on the following
fundamental characteristics:
a. Delivery. The delivery of data to the intended device or user
and only to that device or user.
b. Accuracy. Accurate data are delivered to the intended
device or user.
c. Timeliness. Data are delivered to the intended device or
user accurately and on-time.
d. Jitter. Even variation of packet that arrive at the intended
device or user.
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Five Components of Data Communications

Figure 1: components of data communications

1. Message. The data or information to share; it may be a text,
numbers, pictures, audio and video.
2. Sender. The device that sends the data message; it may be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera and so
on.
3. Receiver. The device that receives the data message; it may be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera and so
on.
4. Transmission medium. The physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Example are twisted-pair, coaxial,
fiber-optic and radio waves.
5. Protocol. Are set of rules that govern data communications.
Represents an agreement between the communicating devices.

Data Representation
1. Text. Represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text
symbols. Each set is called code and the process of representing
symbols is called coding. The prevalent coding system is called
Unicode, which uses 32-bits to represent a symbol or character.
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
constitutes the first 127 characters in Unicode and is also
referred to as Basic Latin.
2. Numbers. Are also represented by bit patterns but is not
represented by ASCII. Numbers are directly converted to a binary
number to simplify mathematical operations.
3. Images. Are also represented by bit pattern. In its simplest form,
it is composed of a matrix of dots or pixels (picture elements). The
size of the pixel depends on the resolution.
4. Audio. Refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music.
Audio is by nature different from text, numbers, or images. It is
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continuous, not discrete. Even when a microphone is used to

change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a
continuous signal.
5. Video. Refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or
movie. Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (e.g.,
by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images, each a
discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.

Data Flow
This refers to flow of data in the network.
a. Simplex. Flow of data is unidirectional (one-way). Only one of the
devices on the link can send and the other can receive. Examples:
keyboards, traditional monitors, radio broadcasting
b. Half-duplex. Flow of data is bi-directional (two-way) but not at the
same time. Both devices on the link can send and receive data but
not at the same time. This means that one device is the sender while
the other device will receive. Once the transmission is done, the
receiver can send data, making it the sender and the sender can
receive data making it the receiver. This flow of data cannot happen
at the same time. Examples: walkie-talkies, browsing the internet.
c. Full-duplex. Also known as duplex. Flow of data is bi-directional and
simultaneous. Devices on the link can either be a sender and
receiver at the same time. Examples: cellphones, telephones,
audio/video calls, live chats.

Types of Data and Signals

In data communications, most data that are usable to a person or an
application are not in the form that can be directly transmitted over a
network. Transmission of data is in the form of electromagnetic signals
across the transmission medium. These signals can either be a analog or
digital.
Analog data
Refers to a continuous data. Example: analog clock where the hour,
minute and seconds hands that continuously give information, human
voice
Digital data
Refers to a data that has discrete states. Examples: digital clock has
hour and minutes represented with exact number like 8:00 to 8:01, data
stored in computer memory
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Can be classified as simple or composite. Refers to a continuous

data that is usually represented by a sine wave that cannot be decomposed
into simpler signals.
Analog Signals
Has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. Uses
frequency. See Figure 2.a
Digital Signals
Has limited number of defined values. Uses bits. See

Figure 2.a: Analog Signals

Figure 2.b: Digital Signals

Networks
The interconnection of a set devices capable of communication. The set of
devices are connected using wired or wireless transmission media such as cable
or air.
A device can be a host (also known as end system) such as large computer,
desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular phone or security system.
A device can also be a connecting device such as router, switch, modem,
and so on.
Network Criteria
Below are the criteria that a network must met:
a. Performance. Measured in many ways, including transit
time and response time. Transit time is the amount of time
required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and
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a response. The performance of a network depends on a

number of factors, including the number of users, the type
of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected
hardware, and the efficiency of the software.

✓ Performance = more throughput, less delay

o Throughput. The amount of output passing through the
system.
o Delay. A period of time by which something is late.

b. Reliability. Measured by the frequency of failure, the time

it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s
robustness in a catastrophe.
c. Security. Issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.

Network Physical Structures

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is
a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line
drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must
be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are
two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point
Provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most
point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect
the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are
also possible, see figure 3.a. Example: remote control for TVs
Multipoint
one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In a
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally, see figure 3.b.
Spatially shared. Several devices can use the link
simultaneously connection.
Timeshared. Users must take turns.
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Figure 3.a : Point-to-Point Connection

Figure 3.b: Multipoint Connection

Physical Topology
Refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology
of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are
four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
Mesh Topology
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device, see figure 4. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic
only between the two devices it connects. To find the number of physical
links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider
that each node must be connected to every other node.
Table 1: Pros and Cons of a Mesh Topology
Advantages (Pros) Explanation
guarantees that each connection can
carry its own data load, eliminating
No traffic problems the traffic problems that can occur
when links must be shared by
multiple devices
If one link becomes unusable, it does
Robust not
incapacitate the entire system
When every message travel along a
Privacy / security dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it.
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make fault identification and fault

isolation easy; traffic can be routed
Point-to-point links
to avoid links with suspected
problems.

Disadvantages Explanation
(Cons)
because every device must be
Difficult to connected to every
configure
other device
wiring can be greater than the
Bulky available space (in walls, ceilings, or
floors) can accommodate
Hardware required to connect each
Expensive link (I/O ports and cable) depends on
the number of nodes to connect

Figure 4: Fully connected Mesh Topology

Star Topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point to a central controller called hub. The
devices are not directly linked to one another. Does not allow direct traffic
between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send
data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data
to the other connected device, see Figure 5.
Table 2: Pros and Cons of a Star Topology
Advantages (Pros) Explanation
Less expensive Far less cabling needs to be housed, and
additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection: between that device and the hub
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Easy to install and reconfigure each device needs only one link and one I/O
port to connect it to any number of others.

Robust If one link fails, only that link is affected; all

other links remain active

Fault identification and fault isolation

Disadvantages (Cons) Explanation

Dependency on the central controller big disadvantage; If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead.

Figure 5: Star Topology

Bus Topology
A multipoint, one long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines
and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device and the
main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic
core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it
travels farther and farther For this reason there is a limit on the number
of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.

Table 3: Pros and Cons of a Bus Topology

Advantages (Pros) Explanation
Backbone cable can be laid along the
most efficient path, then connected to
Easy to install
the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths.
less cabling than mesh or star
Less expensive
topologies; redundancy is eliminated

Disadvantages (Cons) Explanation

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Difficult reconnection difficult to add new devices

Signal reflection at the taps can cause
Quality degradation
deterioration
a fault or break in the bus cable stops
all transmission, even between devices
on the same side of the problem. The
Fault Isolation
damaged area reflects signals back in
the direction of origin, creating noise in
both directions.

Figure 6: Bus Topology

Ring Topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination Each device
in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along, see Figure 7.
Table 4: Pros and Cons of a Bus Topology
Advantages (Pros) Explanation
Each device is linked to only its
immediate neighbors (either physically
Easy to install
or logically). To add or delete a device
requires changing only two connections.
signal is circulating at all times, If one
device does not receive a signal within a
Fault isolation is simplified specified period, it can issue an alarm.
The alarm alerts the network operator to
the problem and its location

Disadvantages (Cons) Explanation

In a simple ring, a break in the ring
Unidirectional traffic (such as a disabled station) can disable
the entire network. This weakness can
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be solved by using a dual ring or a

switch capable of closing off the break.

Figure 7: Ring Topology

Network Types
a. Local Area Network (LAN)

Usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a single office,

building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN
can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it
can extend throughout a company and include audio and video devices.
Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address, that uniquely defines the
host in the LAN. A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the
source host’s and the destination host’s addresses.
✓
✓
✓
✓

Figure 8.a: LAN with

common cable (past)

Figure 8.b: LAN with a switch (today)

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b. Wide Area Network (WAN)

An interconnection of devices capable of communication. Has a

wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the
world. A LAN interconnects hosts; WAN interconnects connecting devices
such as switches, routers, or modems. Normally created and run by
communication companies and leased by an organization that uses it.
Point-to-point WAN

A network that connects two communicating devices through a

transmission media (cable or air).

Figure 9: Point-to-Point WAN

Switched WAN

a network with more than two ends, is used in the backbone of

global communication today. A combination of several point-to-point
WANs that are connected by switches

Figure 10: Switched WAN

Internetwork

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are

connected to one another. When two or more networks are connected, they
make an internetwork, or internet.
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Figure 11: internetwork made of two LANS and one point-to-point WAN
c. Switching

Where a switch connects at least two links together. A switch needs

to forward data from a network to another network when required. The
two most common types of switched networks are circuit-switched and
packet-switched networks.
Circuit-Switched Network

dedicated connection, called a circuit, is always available between

the two end systems; the switch can only make it active or inactive.

Figure 12: Circuit-Switched Network

Packet-Switched Network

The communication between the two ends is done in blocks of data.

In other words, instead of the continuous communication we see between
two telephone sets when they are being used, we see the exchange of
individual data packets between the two computers. A router in a packet-
switched network has a queue that can store and forward the packet.

Figure 13: Packet-Switched Network

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d. The Internet

is composed of thousands of interconnected networks. Has several

backbones, provider networks, and customer networks. Backbones and
provider networks are also called Internet Service Providers (ISP). The
backbones are often referred to as international ISPs; the provider networks
are often referred to as national or regional ISPs.

Figure 14: The Internet

Standards
Internet Standards
A thoroughly tested specification that is useful to and adhered to by those
who work with the Internet. It is a formalized regulation that must be
followed. There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains
Internet standard status. A specification begins as an Internet draft.
Internet Draft
a working document (a work in progress) with no official status and
a six-month lifetime. Upon recommendation from the Internet authorities,
a draft may be published as a Request for Comment (RFC). Each RFC is
edited, assigned a number, and made available to all interested parties.
RFCs go through maturity levels and are categorized according to their
requirement level.
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Maturity levels
An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of six maturity levels, see
Figure 14.

Figure 14: Maturity Levels

a. Proposed Standard. Is a specification that is stable, well
understood, and of sufficient interest to the Internet
community. At this level, the specification is usually
tested and implemented by several different groups.
b. Draft Standard. Is elevated to draft standard status after
at least two successful independent and interoperable
implementations.
c. Internet Standard. After demonstrations of successful
implementation.
d. Historic. Are significant from a historical perspective.
They either have been superseded by later
specifications or have never passed the necessary
maturity levels to become an Internet standard.
e. Experimental. Describes work related to an
experimental situation that does not affect the
operation of the Internet. Such an RFC should not be
implemented in any functional Internet service.
f. Informational. Contains general, historical, or tutorial
information related to the Internet. It is usually written
by someone in a non-Internet organization, such as a
vendor.

Requirement Levels
a. Required. If it must be implemented by all Internet systems
to achieve minimum conformance.
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b. Recommended. Is not required for minimum conformance;

it is recommended because of its usefulness.
c. Elective. Is not required and not recommended. However, a
system can use it for its own benefit
d. Limited use. Should be used only in limited situations.
Most of the experimental RFCs fall under this category.
e. Not recommended. Is inappropriate for general use.
Normally a historic (deprecated) RFC may fall under this
category.

Network Models
Protocol Layering
Protocol
defines the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
Layering
Task are divided into a hierarchy of smaller and more manageable
layers, each performs a specific function
Protocol layering
Task are divided into different layers where a protocol is needed at
each layer
Scenario 1:
communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer.
Assume Marvin and Maribel are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.
Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face to
face, in the same language, see figure 15.

Figure 15: Single -Layer protocol

Scenario 2:
assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company,
but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from Maria.
The two friends still want to continue their communication and exchange
ideas because they have come up with an innovative project to start a new
 17

business when they both retire. They decide to continue their conversation
using regular mail through the post office. However, they do not want their
ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters are intercepted. They
agree on an encryption/decryption technique. The sender of the letter
encrypts it to make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver of the letter
decrypts it to get the original letter.

Figure 16: Three-layered protocol

TCP/IP Protocol Suite
A protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers) used in the
Internet today. It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules,
each of which provides a specific functionality. The term hierarchical means
that each upper-level protocol is supported by the services provided by one
or more lower-level protocols. The original TCP/IP protocol suite was
defined as
four software
layers built
upon the
hardware.
Today,
however,
TCP/IP is
thought of
as a five-layer
model.
Figure 17: TCP/IP protocol suite layers
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Layered Architecture
To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are involved in
communication between two hosts, assume that we want to use the suite
in a small internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a link-layer
switch. Also assume that the links are connected by one router.

Figure 18: Communication through an internet

Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Physical layer
responsible for carrying individual bits in a frame across the link.
Although the physical layer is the lowest level in the TCP/IP protocol suite,
the communication between two devices at the physical layer is still a
logical communication because there is another, hidden layer, the
transmission media, under the physical layer. Two devices are connected
by a transmission medium (cable or air). We need to know that the
transmission medium does not carry bits; it carries electrical or optical
signals. So, the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer are
transformed and sent through the transmission media, but we can think
that the logical unit between two physical layers in two devices is a bit.
There are several protocols that transform a bit to a signal.
Protocol Examples: ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Token-ring
Data-link layer
Responsible for taking the datagram and moving it across the link.
The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a wireless LAN, a
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wired WAN, or a wireless WAN. Responsible for moving the packet through
the link.
Protocol Examples: PPP, IEEE, 802.3
Network layer
Responsible for creating a connection between the source computer
and the destination computer. The communication at the network layer is
host-to-host. However, since there can be several routers from the source
to the destination, the routers in the path are responsible for choosing the
best route for each packet. Responsible for host-to-host communication
and routing the packet through possible routes.
Protocol Examples: IP, ARP, ICMP
Transport layer
The logical connection at the transport layer is also end-to-end. The
transport layer at the source host gets the message from the application
layer, encapsulates it in a transport layer packet (called a segment or a
user datagram in different protocols) and sends it, through the logical
(imaginary) connection, to the transport layer at the destination host. In
other words, the transport layer is responsible for giving services to the
application layer: to get a message from an application program running
on the source host and deliver it to the corresponding application program
on the destination host.
Protocol examples: TCP, UDP
Application layer
Communication at the application layer is between two processes
(two programs running at this layer). To communicate, a process sends a
request to the other process and receives a response. Process-to-process
communication is the duty of the application layer. The application layer
in the Internet includes many predefined protocols, but a user can also
create a pair of processes to be run at the two hosts

Protocol Examples: NFS, NIS+, DNS, telnet, FTP, rlogin, rsh,

rcp, RIP, RDISC, SNMP

Recommended Readings
Khan, R. Z., & Shiranzaei, A. (2015). A Comparative Study on IPv4 and IPv6.
International Journal of Advanced Information Science and Technology
(IJAIST), 33(33), 9-16. Retrieved January 11, 2024, from
[Link]
Study_on_IPv4_and_IPv6
 20

Paul, H. C., & Bakon, K. A. (2016). A STUDY ON IPv4 and IPv6: THE
IMPORTANCE OF THEIR CO-EXISTENCE. International Journal of
Information System and Engineering, 4(2), 97-106.
doi:10.24924/ijise/2016.11/v4.iss2/97.106
 21

Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Online Activity 1
Instruction:
✓ Answer the following questions
✓ Submit this activity 1 week after the upload of this file.
✓ Upload your answers at the appropriate Google Drive Folder
provided to you.
✓ file name must be in the format of: FamilyName

Exercises
1. What is the maximum number of characters or symbols that can be
represented by Unicode?
2. A color image uses 16 bits to represent a pixel. What is the maximum
number of different colors that can be represented?
3. Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are
needed? How many ports are needed for each device?
4. For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a
connection fails.
a. Five devices arranged in a mesh topology
b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub)
c. Five devices arranged in a bus topology
d. Five devices arranged in a ring topology
5. We have two computers connected by an Ethernet hub at home. Is this a
LAN or a WAN? Explain the reason.
6. In the ring topology in Figure 7, what happens if one of the stations is
unplugged?
7. In the bus topology in Figure 6, what happens if one of the stations is
unplugged?
8. Performance is inversely related to delay. When we use the Internet, which
of the following applications are more sensitive to delay?
a. Sending an e-mail
b. Copying a file
c. Surfing the Internet
9. When a party makes a local telephone call to another party, is this a point-
to-point or multipoint connection? Explain the answer.
10. Compare the telephone network and the Internet. What are the
similarities? What are the differences?
22
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Lesson 2: Transmission Media

At the end of this lesson, the students can:
✓ Acquire a thorough understanding of the distinct categories of
transmission media, unraveling their unique attributes
✓ Distinguish the disparities between guided and unguided media,
clarifying their respective roles in data communication
✓ Appreciate the specific characteristics and applications associated
with each transmission medium, enhancing comprehension of their
varied uses

Introduction
Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are
directly controlled by the physical layer. Figure 19 shows the position of the
transmission media in relation to the physical layer.
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination. For example, the transmission
medium for two people having a dinner conversation is the air. The air can also
be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a written
message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an
airplane.
In data communications the definition of the information and the
transmission medium is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free
space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. The information is usually a signal
that is the result of a conversion of data from another form.

Figure 19: Transmission medium and physical layer

Brief History
During the 19th century, the use of long-distance communication using
electric signals started with the invention of the telegraph by Morse.
Communication by telegraph was slow and dependent on a metallic medium.
Extending the range of the human voice became possible when the telephone
was invented in 1869. Telephone communication at that time also needed a
metallic medium to carry the electric signals that were the result of a conversion
from the human voice. The communication was, however, unreliable due to the
 24

poor quality of the wires. The lines were often noisy and the technology was
unsophisticated. Wireless communication started in 1895 when Hertz was able
to send high frequency signals. Later, Marconi devised a method to send
telegraph-type messages over the Atlantic Ocean.

Categories of Transmission Media

In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad
categories: guided and unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space.

Figure 20: Categories of Transmission Media

Guided Media
Which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along
any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors
that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical
fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each
with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used
to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create
unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted
signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations
relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other
is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver.
By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose
in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther;
in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both
wires are equally affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk). This
 25

means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between the two,
receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly canceled
out. From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of twists per
unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.

Figure 21: Twisted-Pair Cable

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is
referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version
of twisted-pair cable for its use, called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable
has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable
by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more
expensive. Our discussion focuses primarily on UTP because STP is
seldom used outside of IBM.

Figure 22: UTP and STP cables

Table 5: Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Category Specification Data Rate (Mbps) Use
1 Unshielded twisted-pair <0.1 Telephones
used in telephone
2 Unshielded twisted-pair 2 T-1 Lines
originally used in T lines
3 Improved CAT 2 used in 10 LANs
LANs
4 Improved CAT 3 used in 20 LANs
Token Ring networks
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5 Cable wire is normally 24 100 LANs

AWG with a jacket and
outside sheath
5E An extension to category 5 125 LANs
that includes
extra features to minimize
the crosstalk and
electromagnetic
interference
6 new category with matched 200 LANs
components
coming from the same
manufacturer. The
cable must be tested at a
200-Mbps data rate.
7 Sometimes called SSTP 600 LANs
(shielded screen
twisted-pair). Each pair is
individually
wrapped in a helical
metallic foil followed by a
metallic foil shield in
addition to the outside
sheath. The shield
decreases the effect of
crosstalk and increases
the data rate.

Connector
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered
jack), the RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be
inserted in only one way.

Figure 23: UTP Connector

 27

T568A And T568B Wiring Standard Basis

A RJ45 connector is a modular 8 position, 8 pin connector used for
terminating Cat5e patch cable or Cat6 cable. A pinout is a specific
arrangement of wires that dictate how the connector is terminated. There
are two standards recognized by ANSI, TIA and EIA for wiring Ethernet
cables. The first is the T568A wiring standard and the second is T568B.

T568B has surpassed 568A and is seen as the default wiring scheme for
twisted pair structured cabling. If you are unsure of which to use, choose
568B.
Figure 24: T568a and T568B Color Scheme Standard
Straight Through Cable
A straight through cable is a type of twisted pair cable that is used
in local area networks to connect a computer to a network hub such as a
router. This type of cable is also sometimes called a patch cable and is an
alternative to wireless connections where one or more computers access a
router through a wireless signal. On a straight through cable, the wired
pins match. Straight through cable use one wiring standard: both ends
use T568A wiring standard or both ends use T568B wiring standard. The
following figure shows a straight through cable of which both ends are
wired as the T568B standard.
 28

Figure 25: Straight Through Cable Color Scheme Standard

Crossover Cable
A crossover Ethernet cable is a type of Ethernet cable used to
connect computing devices together directly. Unlike straight through
cable, the RJ45 crossover cable uses two different wiring standards: one
end uses the T568A wiring standard, and the other end uses the T568B
wiring standard. The internal wiring of Ethernet crossover cables reverses
the transmit and receive signals. It is most often used to connect two
devices of the same type: e.g. two computers (via network interface
controller) or two switches to each other.

Figure 26: Crossover Cable Color Scheme Standard

Straight Through vs Crossover Cable
Straight through vs crossover cable, which one should I choose?
Usually, straight through cables are primarily used for connecting unlike
devices. And crossover cables are used for connecting alike devices.
Use straight through Ethernet cable for the following cabling:
✓ Switch to router
✓ Switch to PC or server
 29

✓ Hub to PC or server

Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

✓ Switch to switch
✓ Switch to hub
✓ Hub to hub
✓ Router to router
✓ Router Ethernet port to PC NIC
✓ PC to PC

Performance
One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to
compare attenuation versus frequency and distance. A twisted-pair cable
can pass a wide range of frequencies. However, with increasing frequency,
the attenuation, measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km), sharply
increases with frequencies above 100 kHz as shown in Figure 24. Note that
gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and
data channels. The local loop—the line that connects subscribers to the
central telephone office— commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair
cables.
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide
high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of
unshielded twisted-pair cables.

Figure 24: UTP Performance

 30

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges
than those in twisted-pair cable, in part because the two media are
constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a
central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed
in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor
of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic
wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also
enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a
plastic cover.

Figure 25: Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable Standards
Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings.
Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including
the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner
insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer
casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized
function.
Table 6: Categories of a Coaxial Cable
Category Impedance Use
RG-59 75  Cable TV
RG-58 50  Thin Ethernet
RG-11 50  Thick Ethernet
 31

Coaxial Cable Connectors

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The
most common type of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector. Figure 26 shows three popular types of these connectors:
the BNC connector, the BNC T connector, and the BNC terminator. The
BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as
a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out
to a connection to a computer or other device. The BNC terminator is used
at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.

Figure 26: BNC Connectors

Performance
Figure 27 shows the performance of a coaxial cable. Its attenuation
is much higher in coaxial cable than in twisted-pair cable. In other words,
although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal weakens
rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.
Applications
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where
a single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used
in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry
digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks
has largely been replaced today with fiberoptic cable.
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable
TV network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable
TV providers replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid
networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the
consumer premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable. Another common
application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of its
high bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was
chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or
Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit
data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 m. The 10Base5, or Thick Ethernet,
uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000
m. Thick Ethernet has specialized connectors.
 32

Figure 27: Coaxial Cable Performance

Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals
in the form of light. To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore
several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a straight line as long
as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light
traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a
different density), the ray changes direction. Figure 28 shows how a ray of
light changes direction when going from a denser to a less dense
substance. As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray
makes with the line perpendicular to the interface between the two
substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer
to the surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the
light bends along the interface. If the angle is greater than the critical
angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the denser
substance. Note that the critical angle is a property of the substance, and
its value differs from one substance to another. Optical fibers use reflection
to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by
a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two
materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is
reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
 33

Figure 28: Bending of Light Ray

Figure 29: Optical Fiber

Propagation Modes
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single
mode) for propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber
with different physical characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in
two forms: step-index or graded-index.

Figure 30: Propagation Modes

Multimode
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source
move through the core in different paths. How these beams move within
the cable depends on the structure of the core. In multimode step-index fiber,
the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A
beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until
 34

it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there
is an

Figure 31: Modes

abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle of the
beam’s motion. The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this change,
which contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the
fiber. A second type of fiber, called multimode graded-index fiber, decreases
this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers
to the index of refraction. As we saw above, the index of refraction is related
to density. A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities.
Density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its
lowest at the edge. Figure 31 shows the impact of this variable density on
the propagation of light beams.
Single-Mode
Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of
light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the
horizontal. The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller
 35

diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower

density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results in a critical
angle that is close enough to 90 to make the propagation of beams almost
horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical,
and delays are negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination “together”
and can be recombined with little distortion to the signal.
Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to
the diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers. The
common sizes are shown in Table 7.3. Note that the last size listed is for
single-mode only.
Table 7: Fiber Types
Types Core Cladding Mode
50/125 50.0 125 Multimode, graded index
62.5/125 62.5 125 Multimode, graded index
100/125 100.0 125 Multimode, graded index
7/125 7.0 125 Single mode

Cable Composition
The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket
are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used
in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another plastic
coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it
consists of cladding and core.

Figure 32: Fiber Construction

 36

Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors

There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, as shown
in Figure 33. The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It
uses a push/pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for
connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system
and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size
as RJ45.

Figure
33: Fiber-Optic Cable Connector
Performance
The plot of attenuation versus wavelength in Figure 34 shows a very
interesting phenomenon in fiber-optic cable. Attenuation is flatter than in
the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable. The performance is such
that we need fewer (actually one tenth as many) repeaters when we use
fiber-optic cable.
Applications
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its
wide bandwidth is cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division
multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps. The
SONET network that we discuss in Chapter 14 provides such a backbone.
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial
cable, thus creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the backbone
structure while coaxial cable provides the connection to the user premises.
This is a cost-effective configuration since the narrow bandwidth
requirement at the user end does not justify the use of optical fiber.
 37

Figure 34: Optical Fiber Performance

Advantages of Fiber-Optic Cable
✓ Higher bandwidth. Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher
bandwidths (and hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or
coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over
fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal
generation and reception technology available.
✓ Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is
significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal can
run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters
every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
✓ Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot
affect fiber-optic cables.
✓ Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive
materials than copper.
✓ Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
✓ Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to
tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects
that can easily be tapped.
 38

Disadvantages of Fiber-Optic Cable

✓ Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new
technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that
is not yet available everywhere.
✓ Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional.
If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
✓ Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than
those of other guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not
high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.

Unguided Media
Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus
are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Figure 35 shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3
kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless communication. Figure 36 shows,
unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several
ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of
the atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate
in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of
the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The
greater the power, the greater the distance. In sky propagation, higher-
frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of
atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to
earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower
output power. In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals
are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or
close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-
of-sight propagation is tricky because radio transmissions cannot be
completely focused. The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined
as radio waves and microwaves is divided into eight ranges, called bands,
each regulated by government authorities. These bands are rated from
very low frequency (VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF). Table 7 lists
these bands, their ranges, propagation methods, and some applications.
 39

Figure 35: Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Figure 36: Propagation methods

Table 7: Bands
Band Range Propagation Application
very low frequency 3–30 kHz Ground Long-range radio
(VLF) Navigation
low frequency (LF) 30–300 kHz Ground Radio beacons and
navigational locators
middle frequency 300 kHz–3 Sky AM radio
(MF) MHz
high frequency (HF) 3–30 MHz Sky Citizens band (CB),
ship/aircraft
very high frequency 30–300 MHz Sky and VHF TV, FM radio
(VHF) line-of-sight
ultrahigh frequency 300 MHz–3 Line-of-sight UHF TV, cellular
(UHF) GHz phones,
paging, satellite
superhigh 3–30 GHz Line-of-sight satellite
frequency (SF)
 40

extremely high 30–300 GHz Line-of-sight Radar, satellite

frequency (EHF)

Radio Waves
Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and
microwaves, electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz
and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies
between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. However, the behavior of the
waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better criterion for classification.
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna
transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means
that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A
sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna. The omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio
waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can
travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
distance broadcasting such as AM radio. Radio waves, particularly those
of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This characteristic
can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because,
for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a
disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or
outside a building. The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1
GHz, compared to the microwave band. When this band is divided into
subbands, the subbands are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for
digital communications. Almost the entire band is regulated by authorities
(e.g., the FCC in the United States). Using any part of the band requires
permission from the authorities.
Omnidirectional Antenna
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all
directions. Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of
transmission, we can have several types of antennas.
 41

Applications
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them
useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers.
AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.

Figure 37: Omnidirectional Antenna

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz
are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna
transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional
property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. The following
describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:
✓ Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the
mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers
that are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth as
well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to
communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for
long distance communication.
✓ Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
✓ The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore,
wider subbands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
✓ Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from
authorities.
 42

Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one
direction. Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications:
the parabolic dish and the horn.
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every
line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at
angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and
directing them to a common point. In this way, more of the signal is
recovered than would be possible with a single-point receiver. Outgoing
transmissions are broadcast through a horn aimed at the dish. The
microwaves hit the dish and are deflected outward in a reversal of the
receipt path. A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing
transmissions are broadcast up a stem (resembling a handle) and
deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head.
Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in
a manner similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the
stem.

Figure 38: Unidirectional Antennas

Applications
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful
when unicast (one-to- one) communication is needed between the sender
and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks, and
wireless LANs.
Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
 43

penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference

between one system and another; a short-range communication system in
one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room. When
we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes
infrared signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we
cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun’s rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
Applications
The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for
data transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital
data with a very high data rate. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an
association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has established
standards for using these signals for communication between devices such
as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. For example, some manufacturers
provide a special port called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard
to communicate with a PC. The standard originally defined a data rate of
75 kbps for a distance up to 8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate
of 4 Mbps. Infrared signals defined by IrDA transmit through line of sight;
the IrDA port on the keyboard needs to point to the PC for transmission to
occur.

Recommended Reading
Khan, R. Z., & Shiranzaei, A. (2015). A Comparative Study on IPv4 and IPv6.
International Journal of Advanced Information Science and Technology
(IJAIST), 33(33), 9-16. Retrieved January 11, 2024, from
[Link]
Study_on_IPv4_and_IPv6
Paul, H. C., & Bakon, K. A. (2016). A STUDY ON IPv4 and IPv6: THE
IMPORTANCE OF THEIR CO-EXISTENCE. International Journal of
Information System and Engineering, 4(2), 97-106.
doi:10.24924/ijise/2016.11/v4.iss2/97.106
 44

Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Online Activity 2
Instruction:
✓ Answer the following questions
✓ Submit this activity 1 week after the submission of Online Activity
1.
✓ Upload your answers for the written exercise at the appropriate
Google Drive Folder provided to you.
✓ file name must be in the format of: FamilyName

Written Exercises
1. What is the difference between a refraction and a reflection? Discuss
briefly.
2. What is the purpose of cladding in an optical fiber?
3. how does line-of-sight differ from sky propagation?
4. what is the difference of an omnidirectional and unidirectional waves?
5. What is T568A and T568B used for?
6. What is the standard color scheme for T568A and T568B?
7. What is the standard color scheme for straight through cable?
8. What is the standard color scheme for crossover cable?
9. is it possible to interchange the standard color scheme for straight through
and crossover cable? Explain briefly.
10. T568A and T568B are standard color schemes for what
transmission media?
 45

Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Activity 1
Hands-on Exercise
Materials to use:
✓ 1 meter of UTP
✓ 4 RJ45s
✓ 1 digital or analog Tester

Instruction: To be given by the instructor

 46

Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Activity 2
Hands-on Exercise
Instruction: To be given by the instructor
Device Name Physical Address IP Address Subnet Mask

1. What type of network cable did you use for this activity?
_______________________________________________________________________
2. What command is used to display some IP configuration in a device?
_______________________________________________________________________
3. What command is used to display all IP configuration in a device?
_______________________________________________________________________
4. What command is used to verify the connectivity between two or more
computers in a network?
_______________________________________________________________________
5. What is the output when the command from number 4 is used and the
connection is successful?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
6. What is the output when the command from number 4 is used and the
connection is not successful?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

7. What is the output when the command from number 4 is used and the
connection is not reachable?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
47
 48

Lesson 3: The Internet Protocol

At the end of this lesson, the students can:
✓ Comprehend the concepts of internet protocol, delving into the
fundamental principles that govern modern communication
networks
✓ Distinguish between the characteristics of IPv4 and IPv6,
highlighting the evolution and advancements in internet protocol
standards
✓ Appreciate the pivotal role that internet protocols play in facilitating
seamless and efficient data transmission across global networks

Introduction
The network layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite is responsible for the host-
to-host delivery of datagrams. It provides services to the transport layer and
receives services from the data-link layer.
Let us briefly discuss the network-layer services that, in general, are
expected from a network-layer protocol. Let us take the scenario of a
communication between Alice and Bob at the network layer, as shown in figure
39. The figure shows that the Internet is made of many networks (or links)
connected through the connecting devices. In other words, the Internet is an
internetwork, a combination of LANs and WANs.
 49

Figure 39: Communication at the network layer

Duties of a Network Layer

Packetizing
Encapsulating the payload (data received from upper layer) in a network-
layer packet at the source and decapsulating the payload from the
network-layer packet at the destination. In other words, one duty of the
network layer is to carry a payload from the source to the destination
without changing it or using it. The network layer is doing the service of a
carrier such as the postal office, which is responsible for delivery of
packages from a sender to a receiver without changing or using the
contents.
The source host receives the payload from an upper-layer protocol, adds a
header that contains the source and destination addresses and some other
information that is required by the network-layer protocol (as discussed
later) and delivers the packet to the data-link layer. The source is not
 50

allowed to change the content of the payload unless it is too large for
delivery and needs to be fragmented.
The destination host receives the network-layer packet from its data-link
layer, decapsulates the packet, and delivers the payload to the
corresponding upper-layer protocol. If the packet is fragmented at the
source or at routers along the path, the network layer is responsible for
waiting until all fragments arrive, reassembling them, and delivering them
to the upper-layer protocol.
The routers in the path are not allowed to decapsulate the packets they
received unless the packets need to be fragmented. The routers are not
allowed to change source and destination addresses either. They just
inspect the addresses for the purpose of forwarding the packet to the next
network on the path. However, if a packet is fragmented, the header needs
to be copied to all fragments and some changes are needed, as we discuss
in detail later.
Routing and Forwarding
Routing
The network layer is responsible for routing the packet from its
source to the destination. A physical network is a combination of networks
(LANs and WANs) and routers that connect them. This means that there
is more than one route from the source to the destination. The network
layer is responsible for finding the best one among these possible routes.
The network layer needs to have some specific strategies for defining the
best route. In the Internet today, this is done by running some routing
protocols to help the routers coordinate their knowledge about the
neighborhood and to come up with consistent tables to be used when a
packet arrives. The routing protocols, which we discuss in Chapters 20
and 21, should be run before any communication occurs.
Forwarding
If routing is applying strategies and running some routing protocols
to create the decision-making tables for each router, forwarding can be
defined as the action applied by each router when a packet arrives at one
of its interfaces. The decision-making table a router normally uses for
applying this action is sometimes called the forwarding table and sometimes
the routing table. When a router receives a packet from one of its attached
networks, it needs to forward the packet to another attached network (in
unicast routing) or to some attached networks (in multicast routing). To
make this decision, the router uses a piece of information in the packet
header, which can be the destination address or a label, to find the
 51

corresponding output interface number in the forwarding table. Figure 40

shows the idea of the forwarding process in a router.

Figure 40: Forwarding process

Other Services
These services are not necessarily a network layer service but the layer
can do these services if needed to such as error control, flow control,
congestion control, quality of service and security.
Error Control
Although error control also can be implemented in the network
layer, the designers of the network layer in the Internet ignored this issue
for the data being carried by the network layer. One reason for this
decision is the fact that the packet in the network layer may be fragmented
at each router, which makes error checking at this layer inefficient.
The designers of the network layer, however, have added a
checksum field to the datagram to control any corruption in the header,
but not in the whole datagram. This checksum may prevent any changes
or corruptions in the header of the datagram.
Although the network layer in the Internet does not directly provide
error control, the Internet uses an auxiliary protocol, ICMP, that provides
some kind of error control if the datagram is discarded or has some
unknown information in the header.
Flow Control
Flow control regulates the amount of data a source can send without
overwhelming the receiver. If the upper layer at the source computer
produces data faster than the upper layer at the destination computer can
consume it, the receiver will be overwhelmed with data. To control the flow
of data, the receiver needs to send some feedback to the sender to inform
the latter that it is overwhelmed with data.
 52

The network layer in the Internet, however, does not directly provide
any flow control. The datagrams are sent by the sender when they are
ready, without any attention to the readiness of the receiver.
A few reasons for the lack of flow control in the design of the network
layer can be mentioned. First, since there is no error control in this layer,
the job of the network layer at the receiver is so simple that it may rarely
be overwhelmed. Second, the upper layers that use the service of the
network layer can implement buffers to receive data from the network layer
as they are ready and do not have to consume the data as fast as it is
received. Third, flow control is provided for most of the upper-layer
protocols that use the services of the network layer, so another level of flow
control makes the network layer more complicated and the whole system
less efficient.
Congestion Control
Another issue in a network-layer protocol is congestion control.
Congestion in the network layer is a situation in which too many
datagrams are present in an area of the Internet. Congestion may occur if
the number of datagrams sent by source computers is beyond the capacity
of the network or routers. In this situation, some routers may drop some
of the datagrams. However, as more datagrams are dropped, the situation
may become worse because, due to the error control mechanism at the
upper layers, the sender may send duplicates of the lost packets. If the
congestion continues, sometimes a situation may reach a point where the
system collapses and no datagrams are delivered.
Quality of Service
As the Internet has allowed new applications such as multimedia
communication (in particular real-time communication of audio and
video), the quality of service (QoS) of the communication has become more
and more important. The Internet has thrived by providing better quality
of service to support these applications. However, to keep the network
layer untouched, these provisions are mostly implemented in the upper
layer.
Security
Another issue related to communication at the network layer is
security. Security was not a concern when the Internet was originally
designed because it was used by a small number of users at universities
for research activities; other people had no access to the Internet. The
network layer was designed with no security provision. Today, however,
security is a big concern. To provide security for a connectionless network
layer, we need to have another virtual level that changes the
 53

connectionless service to a connection-oriented service. This virtual layer,

called IPSec.

Internet Protocol
IPv4, or Internet Protocol version 4, is a widely used protocol for identifying
and locating devices on a network, particularly on the Internet. It serves as a
fundamental communication protocol that enables data to be sent and received
between devices over a network.
IPv4 addresses are numerical labels assigned to each device connected to
a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. These addresses
are 32-bit numerical values, typically expressed as four sets of decimal digits
separated by periods (for example, [Link]). The 32-bit address space allows
for approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses, which were thought to be
sufficient when IPv4 was developed.
Internet Protocol (IP) has currently two versions that is use by the industry
nowadays: version 4 and 6. Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), is responsible for
packetizing, forwarding, and delivery of a packet at the network layer. The
Internet Control Message Protocol version 4 (ICMPv4) helps IPv4 to handle some
errors that may occur in the network-layer delivery. The Internet Group
Management Protocol (IGMP) is used to help IPv4 in multicasting. The Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to glue the network and data-link layers in
mapping network-layer addresses to link-layer addresses. Figure 41 shows the
positions of these four protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite.

Figure 41: Position of IP and other network layer protocols in TCP/IP protocol
suite
Unique and Universal
IPv4 addresses are unique because each address defines one, and only
one, connection to the internet."
In the context of computer networking, IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
addresses serve as unique identifiers for devices connected to the Internet.
Each device, whether it's a computer, smartphone, or any other networked
 54

device, is assigned a unique IPv4 address. This address is crucial for

communication over the Internet because it allows data to be sent to and
received from that specific device.
The uniqueness of IPv4 addresses is essential to avoid conflicts and ensure
that each device on the Internet can be uniquely identified. If two devices
were to share the same IPv4 address, it would lead to confusion and
disruptions in communication. Therefore, the "one, and only one" aspect
emphasizes the individuality and exclusivity of each IPv4 address.
"At the same time, IPv4 addresses are universal since the addressing
system must be accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the
internet."
This part highlights the universality of IPv4 addresses, emphasizing that
any device that wishes to connect to the Internet must adhere to and use
the IPv4 addressing system. In other words, the addressing system is
standardized and universally recognized across the global Internet
infrastructure.
For a device to communicate with other devices on the Internet, it needs
to have a valid IPv4 address that follows the rules and conventions set by
the Internet Protocol. This universality ensures interoperability, meaning
that devices from different manufacturers and running different operating
systems can communicate seamlessly as long as they adhere to the IPv4
addressing standards.
The uniqueness of IPv4 addresses ensures that each device has its own
distinct identifier, while their universality ensures that the addressing
system is accepted and recognized globally, allowing for a standardized
and interconnected Internet.
IPv4 Address Space
The total number of addresses used by the protocol is 2N, where N is the
number of bits and since there are 2 different values in a bit (0s and 1s).
Notations
Refers to the various ways of representing and expressing IPv4 addresses.
The two primary notations used for IPv4 addresses are dotted-decimal
notation and CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) notation. there is also
a not so common representation of IPv4, the Dotted-binary notation.
Crucial for communication and configuration purposes in networking. It
provides a standardized way of representing IP addresses and their
associated information, making it easier for network administrators to
work with and understand the addressing schemes in use.
 55

Octet
An octet refers to a group of eight bits. IPv4 addresses are 32-bit
numerical values, divided into four octets for ease of representation and
readability. Each octet is typically expressed as a decimal number, ranging
from 0 to 255, as there is 2^8 (256) possible combinations of eight bits.
In the dotted-decimal notation used for IPv4 addresses, the 32 bits
are separated into four groups, and each group is represented as a decimal
number. These decimal numbers are the values of the four octets.
For example, in the IPv4 address [Link]:
192 represents the first octet (8 bits).
168 represents the second octet (8 bits).
0 represents the third octet (8 bits).
1 represents the fourth octet (8 bits).
Dotted-Binary Notation
IPv4 addresses can be written as four sets with 8-bit binary numbers
separated by periods (dots). These types of notations are frequently
employed in instructional materials to facilitate the teaching of route
summarization. They serve as essential tools for illustrating to students
the separation between the network and host portions within an IPv4
address. Note that there can be no less than or more than 32 numbers of
either 0s and 1s in one address.
Example: The IPv4 address [Link] can be written in binary as
11000000.10101000.00000000.00000001.
Dotted-Decimal Notation
IPv4 addresses are commonly written as four sets of decimal
numbers separated by periods (dots). Each decimal number represents 8
bits of the 32-bit IPv4 address.
It's important to keep in mind a few rules when working with IPv4
addresses. First, ensure there are no leading zeros in each octet. Second,
there should be no more than four groups of numbers separated by dots
in the address. Third, every number in an octet must be less than or equal
to 255. Lastly, avoid mixing binary and decimal numbers within the same
address. Following these guidelines ensures proper formatting and
adherence to the conventions of IPv4 addressing.
Example: The IPv4 address [Link] is written in dotted-decimal
notation, where 192 represents the first 8 bits, 168 represents the next 8
bits, 0 represents the next 8 bits, and 1 represents the last 8 bits.
 56

CIDR
Is used to represent IP addresses along with their associated routing
prefixes in a more concise manner. It involves writing the IP address
followed by a forward slash ("/") and a number, indicating the length of
the network prefix in bits.
Example: [Link]/24 represents an IPv4 address range where
the first 24 bits are used for the network, and the remaining 8 bits are
available for host addresses.

Classful Addressing
Classful addressing refers to the original addressing scheme used in
IPv4 networks, which was based on fixed address classes. In this system,
IP addresses were divided into three main classes: Class A, Class B, and
Class C. Each class had a predefined range of network and host addresses,
and the division was based on the leading bits of the IP address.
Here is a brief overview of the three classes:
✓ Class A:

Range: [Link] to [Link]

Subnet mask: [Link]
Leading bits: 0
First octet reserved for network, allowing for a large
number of networks with a relatively small number of hosts.
✓ Class B:

Range: [Link] to [Link]

subnet mask: [Link]
Leading bits: 10
First two octets reserved for network, suitable for
medium-sized organizations with a moderate number of
networks and hosts.
✓ Class C:

Range: [Link] to [Link]

Subnet mask: [Link]
Leading bits: 110
 57

First three octets reserved for network, providing a large

number of networks with a smaller number of hosts per
network. Often used by smaller organizations.
Classful addressing had limitations in terms of address space
utilization and scalability. As the demand for IP addresses grew, it became
evident that a more flexible and efficient addressing system was needed.
This led to the development of Classless addressing or the Classless Inter-
Domain Routing (CIDR), which allows for variable-length subnetting and
a more efficient allocation of IP addresses. CIDR replaced classful
addressing in modern networking practices.

Determining the Network IDs

using only a given IPv4 address and the subnet mask, you can determine
its network ID. For example, [Link], what is the network ID of the
given IPv4 address? You can get the network ID by simply first identify the
subnet mask of the IP address then use the logic operator AND to get the
answer. So, in this case the subnet mask is [Link] since the given IP
address has a leading bit of 0, this means that if the given IP address be
converted to binary, it will be: 00001000.10000101.10111010.00101111,
Notice that the first octet is 00001000 and that bit represents the leading
bit. To get the network ID, convert also the subnet mask into binary then
use the AND operator between the converted given IP address and the
subnet mask. Thus,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 . 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 . 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 . 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
A N D
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Network ID is [Link]
first address of the network is [Link]
last address of the network is [Link]
Subnet mask is [Link]
Another example, what is the network ID of [Link]. Since the
leading bits of the given IP is 10, then this means that the subnet mask is
[Link] since the given IP is a Class B. Thus,
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 . 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 . 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
A N D
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Network ID is [Link]
 58

first address of the network is [Link]

last address of the network is [Link]
Subnet Mask is [Link]
Classless Addressing
The reason that classful addressing has become obsolete is address
depletion. Since the addresses were not distributed properly, the Internet
was faced with the problem of the addresses being rapidly used up,
resulting in no more addresses available for organizations and individuals
that needed to be connected to the Internet. To understand the problem,
let us think about class A. This class can be assigned to only 128
organizations in the world, but each organization needs to have a single
network (seen by the rest of the world) with 16,777,216 nodes (computers
in this single network). Since there may be only a few organizations that
are this large, most of the addresses in this class were wasted (unused).
Class B addresses were designed for midsize organizations, but many of
the addresses in this class also remained unused. Class C addresses have
a completely different flaw in design. The number of addresses that can be
used in each network (256) was so small that most companies were not
comfortable using a block in this address class. Class E addresses were
almost never used, wasting the whole class.
Subnetting and supernetting in classful addressing did not really solve the
address depletion problem. With the growth of the Internet, it was clear
that a larger address space was needed as a long-term solution. The larger
address space, however, requires that the length of IP addresses also be
increased, which means the format of the IP packets needs to be changed.
Although the long-range solution has already been devised and is called
IPv6 (discussed later), a short-term solution was also devised to use the
same address space but to change the distribution of addresses to provide
a fair share to each organization. The short-term solution still uses IPv4
addresses, but it is called classless addressing. In other words, the class
privilege was removed from the distribution to compensate for the address
depletion.
IPv6
IPv6, or Internet Protocol version 6, is the most recent version of the
Internet Protocol that is designed to succeed and eventually replace IPv4
(Internet Protocol version 4). IPv6 was developed to address the limitations
of IPv4, particularly the exhaustion of available IPv4 addresses due to the
explosive growth of devices connected to the Internet.
IPv6 adoption has been gradually increasing as the demand for IP
addresses continues to grow. While IPv4 is still widely used, the transition
 59

to IPv6 is crucial for ensuring the continued growth and sustainability of

the Internet. Both IPv4 and IPv6 coexist in many networks during the
transition period, and modern networking infrastructure is designed to
support both protocols.
IPv6 Structure
The structure of an IPv6 address consists of several components,
and it is typically represented in hexadecimal notation. Here is a
breakdown of the key elements in the structure of an IPv6 address:
✓ IPv6 Address Format: IPv6 addresses are written as eight groups
of four hexadecimal digits, separated by colons. For example:
[Link].
✓ Hexadecimal Digits: Each group consists of four hexadecimal digits
(0-9, a-f or A-F), representing 16 bits. Hexadecimal is used because
it allows for a more concise representation of the 128-bit address.
✓ Zero Compression: Consecutive groups of zeros within an IPv6
address can be compressed by writing ::. This can be used only once
in an address to represent multiple groups of consecutive zeros. For
example: [Link] compresses consecutive groups of zeros.
✓ IPv6 Address Types: IPv6 addresses can be classified into different
types, including unicast, multicast, and anycast addresses. Unicast
addresses are used for one-to-one communication, multicast
addresses for one-to-many communication, and anycast addresses
for one-to-nearest communication.
✓ Subnet Prefix: The leftmost part of an IPv6 address often represents
the network or subnet prefix. The length of the subnet prefix is
indicated by the number of bits, such as /64, which specifies a 64-
bit subnet prefix.
✓ Global Routing Prefix: For global unicast addresses (addresses
used on the public Internet), the global routing prefix identifies the
portion of the address assigned to a specific organization or service
provider.
✓ Interface Identifier: The rightmost part of the address typically
represents the interface identifier, which identifies a specific
interface on a networked device.

Example breakdown of the IPv6 address

[Link]
Global Routing Prefix: [Link]
Subnet Identifier (zeros compressed): ::
Interface Identifier: [Link]
 60

Understanding the structure of IPv6 addresses is essential for

network administrators and engineers working with IPv6-enabled
networks.
Features of an IPv6
✓ Larger Address Space: IPv6 uses a 128-bit address format,
providing an astronomically larger number of unique addresses
compared to IPv4's 32-bit address space. This allows for a virtually
unlimited number of unique IP addresses, accommodating the
growing number of devices connected to the Internet.
✓ Simplified Header Format: IPv6 has a simplified header structure
compared to IPv4, which streamlines packet processing and
enhances network efficiency.
✓ Improved Security: While not a direct security feature, IPv6 was
designed with security considerations in mind. It includes features
such as IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) as an integral part of the
protocol suite, providing enhanced security capabilities for
communications over the Internet.
✓ Auto-Configuration: IPv6 supports stateless address auto-
configuration, allowing devices to automatically configure their IPv6
addresses without the need for DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) servers in certain scenarios.
✓ Multicast and Anycast Improvements: IPv6 includes
enhancements to multicast and anycast communication, providing
more efficient and scalable ways for devices to communicate with
groups of other devices.

Recommended Reading
Khan, R. Z., & Shiranzaei, A. (2015). A Comparative Study on IPv4 and IPv6.
International Journal of Advanced Information Science and Technology
(IJAIST), 33(33), 9-16. Retrieved January 11, 2024, from
[Link]
Study_on_IPv4_and_IPv6
Paul, H. C., & Bakon, K. A. (2016). A STUDY ON IPv4 and IPv6: THE
IMPORTANCE OF THEIR CO-EXISTENCE. International Journal of
Information System and Engineering, 4(2), 97-106.
doi:10.24924/ijise/2016.11/v4.iss2/97.106
 61

Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Online Activity 3

Instruction:
✓ Answer the following questions
✓ Submit this activity 1 week after the submission of Online Activity
2.
✓ Upload your answers at the appropriate Google Drive Folder
provided to you.
✓ file name must be in the format of: FamilyName

Exercise 1:
Write ic if the following IP address is incorrect. Write c if the following IP
addresses is correct
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. 192.168.10101000.10
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link].0
8. [Link]
9. [Link]
10. [Link]

Exercise 2:
Write the class and the subnet mask of the following addresses. Write N/A if the
class does not have a subnet mask.
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link]
9. [Link]
10. [Link]
 62

Exercise 3:
Using the IPv4 address given below determine the network ID, subnet mask, first
address, last address, and how many IP addresses are there in the network.
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
63
 64

Lesson 4: Cisco Packet Tracer Application

At the end of this lesson, the students can:
✓ Comprehend the use of a Cisco Packet Tracer Application
✓ Design a simple network using the application
✓ Appreciate usefulness and real-world application of Packet Tracer

Introduction
Packet Tracer is a cross-platform visual simulation tool designed by Cisco
Systems that allows users to create network topologies and imitate modern
computer networks. The software allows users to simulate the configuration of
Cisco routers and switches using a simulated command line interface. Packet
Tracer makes use of a drag and drop user interface, allowing users to add and
remove simulated network devices as they see fit. The software is mainly focused
towards Cisco Networking Academy students as an educational tool for helping
them learn fundamental CCNA concepts. Previously students enrolled in a CCNA
Academy program could freely download and use the tool free of charge for
educational use.
Packet Tracer can be run on Linux, Microsoft Windows, and macOS.
Similar Android and iOS apps are also available. Packet Tracer allows users to
create simulated network topologies by dragging and dropping routers, switches
and various other types of network devices. A physical connection between
devices is represented by a 'cable' item. Packet Tracer supports an array of
simulated Application Layer protocols, as well as basic routing with RIP, OSPF,
EIGRP, BGP, to the extents required by the current CCNA curriculum. As of
version 5.3, Packet Tracer also supports the Border Gateway Protocol.
Download and Install Cisco Packet Tracer
To obtain and install a copy of Cisco Packet Tracer, follow the instructions
from the link below:
[Link]
The Packet Tracer User Interface
Packet Tracer is a tool that allows you to simulate real networks. It
provides three main menus that you can use for the following:
✓ Add devices and connect them via cables or wireless
✓ Select, delete, inspect, label, and group components within your
network
✓ Manage your network

The network management menu lets you do the following:

✓ Open an existing/sample network
✓ Save your current network
 65

✓ Modify your user profile or your preferences

Figure 42: Cisco Packet Tracer 4.0 Interface

1. Menu Bar
o This bar provides the File, Options, and Help menus
o You will find basic commands such as Open, Save, Print, and
Preferences in these menus
o You will also be able to access the Activity Wizard from the File menu
2. Main Tools Bar
o This bar provides shortcut icons to the File menu commands,
including the Activity Wizard
o On the right, you will also find the Network Information button,
which you can use to enter a description for the current network or
any text you wish to include
3. Common Tools Bar
o Select
o Move Layout
o Place Note
o Delete
 66

o Inspect
o Add Simple PDU
o Add Complex PDU
4. Workspace Type Bar
o You can toggle between the Physical Workspace and the Logical
Workspace with the tabs on this bar
5. Workspace
o This area is where you will create your network, watch simulations,
and view many kinds of information and statistics
6. Realtime or Simulation Bar
o You can toggle between Realtime Mode and Simulation Mode with
the tabs on this bar
7. Network Component Box
o This box is where you choose devices and connections to put onto
the workspace
o It contains the Device-Type Selection Box and the Device-Specific
Selection Box
8. Device Type Selection Box
o This box contains the type of devices and connections available in
Packet Tracer 5.3.0
o The Device-Specific Selection Box will change depending on which
type of devices you clicked
9. Device Selection Box
o This box is where you choose specifically which devices you want to
put in your network and which connections to make
10. Created Packet Window
o This window manages the packets you put in the network during
simulation scenarios

GUI and CLI Configuration in Cisco Packet Tracer

Packet Tracer also provides a variety of tabs for device configuration
including the following:
Physical
The Physical tab provides an interface for interacting with the device
including powering it on or off or installing different modules, such as a
wireless network interface card (NIC).
 67

Figure 43: Physical Tab

Red box is the list of interfaces
Violet box is the description of the click interface
Blue box is the slot where the interface can be place; if the slot are already
full, you can remove the interface by dragging the interface and dropping
it inside the red box
Green box is the power button of the device; must be turn off if you wish
to change the interface
Light Green is the interface; you need to drag this then drop to the slot in
the blue box to add the interface
Config
For intermediate devices such as routers and switches, there are two
ways to access device configurations. Configurations can be accessed via
a Config tab, which is a Graphical User Interface (GUI). Configurations can
also be accessed using a command line interface (CLI).
The Config tab does not simulate the functionality of a device. This
tab is unique to Packet Tracer. If you don’t know how to use the command
line interface, this tab provides a way to use a Packet Tracer-only GUI to
configure basic settings. As settings are changed in the GUI, the equivalent
CLI commands appear in the Equivalent IOS Commands window. This
 68

helps you to learn the CLI commands and the Cisco Internetwork
Operating System (IOS) while you are using the Config tab.
For example, in the figure, the user has configured SampleRouter as
the name of the device. The Equivalent IOS Commands window shows the
IOS command that achieves the same results in the CLI.
In addition, device configuration files can be saved, loaded, erased,
and exported here.

Figure 44: Configuration Tab

CLI
The CLI tab provides access to the command line interface of a Cisco
device. Using the CLI tab requires knowledge of device configuration with
IOS. Here, you can practice configuring Cisco devices at the command line.
 69

CLI configuration is a necessary skill for more advanced networking

implementations.
Note: Any commands that were entered from the Config tab are also
shown in the CLI tab.

Figure 45: Command Line Interface (CLI) Tab

Desktop
For some end devices, such as PCs and laptops, Packet Tracer
provides a desktop interface that gives you access to IP configuration,
wireless configuration, a command prompt, a web browser, and other
applications.
 70

Figure 46: Desktop Tab

Services
A server has all of the functions of a host with the addition of one
more tab, the Services tab. This tab allows a server to be configured with
common server processes such as HTTP, DHCP, DNS, or other services, as
shown in the figure.
The tabs that are shown depend on the device you are currently
configuring.

Figure 47: Services Tab

 71

Recommended Readings
Ed, K., & Kumar, A. (2022). Study on Network Simulation using Cisco Packet
Tracer. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology
(IRJET), 7(Special), 666-671. Retrieved January 11, 2024, from
[Link]
rk_Simulation_using_Cisco_Packet_Tracer
Rashid, N. A., Othman, M. Z., & Johan, R. (2019). Cisco Packet Tracer
Simulation as Effective Pedagogy in Computer Networking Course.
International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM), 13(10), 4-18.
Retrieved January 11, 2024, from
[Link]
acer_Simulation_as_Effective_Pedagogy_in_Computer_Networking_Course
 72

Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Activity 3
Hands-on
Instruction:
✓ Using the Cisco Packet tracer app, perform the topology shown below.
Submit this activity sheet after filling up the table 1 below together with
the pkt file.
✓ The pkt file must be submitted via the online platform that was
discussed during the orientation.

Table 1
Switch
Device Name IP Address Subnet Mask
Interface

Rubrics:
Hand-on 50 40 30 15 0 pnts
The connectivity of the devices is
The student was able to The student was not able to
Accuracy successful. The topology was fully
partially converged the configure correctly the
(40%) converged and end-to-end
network (50% to 85%) topology.
connectivity is achieved
 73

Students was able to assigned

Students was able to assign the Students was not able to
Addressing IP addresses in every interface
correct IP address for every assigned correct IP
(20%) but was using an incorrect IP
interface addresses in every interface
address
Students was only able to Students was only able to
Configuration Student was able to assign all the
assigned 50% to 85% of the configure 50% and below of
(15%) necessary configuration
necessary configuration the necessary configuration
Student follow the correct Student did not follow the
Topology
communication channels or - correct communication
(10%)
devices channels or devices
Answers
- - -
(15%)

Total
 74

Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Activity 4
Hands-on
Instruction:
✓ Using the Cisco Packet tracer app, perform the topology shown below.
Submit this activity sheet after filling up the table 1 together with the pkt
file.
✓ The pkt file must be submitted via the online platform that was
discussed during the orientation.

Table 1
Device Name IP Address Subnet Mask Default Gateway
 75

Rubrics:
Hand-on 50 40 30 15 0 pnts
The connectivity of the devices is
The student was able to The student was not able to
Accuracy successful. The topology was fully
partially converged the configure correctly the
(40%) converged and end-to-end
network (50% to 85%) topology.
connectivity is achieved
Students was able to assigned
Students was able to assign the Students was not able to
Addressing IP addresses in every interface
correct IP address for every assigned correct IP
(20%) but was using an incorrect IP
interface addresses in every interface
address
Students was only able to Students was only able to
Configuration Student was able to assign all the
assigned 50% to 85% of the configure 50% and below of
(15%) necessary configuration
necessary configuration the necessary configuration
Student follow the correct Student did not follow the
Topology
communication channels or - correct communication
(10%)
devices channels or devices
Answers
- - -
(15%)

Total
76
 77

Lesson 5: Introduction to Routing and Packet

Forwarding
At the end of this lesson, the students can:
✓ Comprehend a router as a computer with an OS and hardware
designed for the routing process
✓ Demonstrate the ability to configure devices and apply addresses
✓ Appreciate how a router determines a path and switches packets

Router as a Computer
Computers that specialize in sending packets over the data network. These
are responsible for interconnecting networks by selecting the best path for a
packet to travel and forwarding packets to their destination. Routers generally
have two connections: WAN connection (Connection to ISP), and LAN connection.
Routers forward packets from the original source to the final destination.
Router’s responsibilities lie primarily in determining the best path to send
packets and to forward the packets out the correct interface. It examines a
packet’s destination IP address and determine the best path by enlisting the aid
of a routing table.

Figure 48: Routing table

Router components and their functions

• CPU - Executes operating system instructions
• Random access memory (RAM) - Contains the running copy of
configuration file. Stores routing table. RAM contents lost when
power is off.
• Read-only memory (ROM) - Holds diagnostic software used when
router is powered up. Stores the router’s bootstrap program.
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• Non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) - Stores startup configuration. This may

include IP addresses (Routing protocol, Hostname of router).
• Flash memory - Contains the operating system (Cisco IOS).
• Interfaces - There exist multiple physical interfaces that are used to
connect network. Examples of interface types:
o Ethernet / fast Ethernet interfaces
o Serial interfaces
o Management interfaces

Major phases to the router boot-up process

• Test router hardware
o Power-On Self Test (POST)
o Execute bootstrap loader
• Locate & load Cisco IOS software
o Locate IOS
o Load IOS
• Locate & load startup configuration file or enter setup mode
o Bootstrap program looks for configuration file

Figure 49: How a Router Boots Up

Verify the router boot-up process:

• The show version command is used to view information about the
router during the bootup process. Information includes:
o Platform model number
o Image name & IOS version
o Bootstrap version stored in ROM
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o Image file name & where it was loaded from

o Number & type of interfaces
o Amount of NVRAM
o Amount of flash
o Configuration register

Figure 50: Router information

Router Interface is a physical connector that enables a
router to send or receive packets
• Each interface connects to a separate network
• Consist of socket or jack found on the outside of a router
• Types of router interfaces:
o Ethernet
o Fastethernet
o Serial
o DSL
o ISDN
o Cable
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Figure 51: Basic Interfaces/Ports in a Router

Two major groups of Router Interfaces
• LAN Interfaces
• Are used to connect router to LAN network
• Has a layer 2 MAC address
• Can be assigned a Layer 3 IP address
• Usually consist of an RJ-45 jack
WAN Interfaces
• Are used to connect routers to external networks that interconnect
LANs
• Depending on the WAN technology, a layer 2 address may be used
• Uses a layer 3 IP address
Routers and the Network Layer
• Routers use destination IP address to forward packets
• The path a packet takes is determined after a router consults
information in the routing table
• After router determines the best path
• Packet is encapsulated into a frame
• Frame is then placed on network medium in form of Bits
Routers Operate at Layers 1, 2 & 3
• Router receives a stream of encoded bits
• Bits are decoded and passed to layer 2
• Router de-encapsulates the frame
• Remaining packet passed up to layer 3
• Routing decision made at this layer by examining destination IP
address
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• Packet is then re-encapsulated & sent out outbound interface

Figure 52: Router at Layer 1 to 3

Configure Devices and Apply Addresses

▪ Implementing Basic Addressing Schemes
▪ When designing a new network or mapping an existing network you
must provide the following information in the form of a document:
– Topology drawing that Illustrates physical connectivity
– Address table that provides the following information:
• Device name
• Interfaces used
• IP addresses
• Default gateway
▪ Basic Router Configuration
– A basic router configuration should contain the following:
• Router name - Host name should be unique.
• Banner - At a minimum, banner should warn against
unauthorized use.
• Passwords - Use strong passwords.
• Interface configurations - Specify interface type, IP address
and subnet mask. Describe purpose of interface. Issue no
shutdown command. If DCE serial interface issue clock rate
command.
– After entering in the basic configuration, the following tasks should
be completed:
• Verify basic configuration and router operations.
• Save the changes on a router.

Routing Table Structure

▪ Routing Table is stored in ram and contains information about
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– Directly connected networks - this occurs when a device is

connected to another router interface
– Remotely connected networks - this is a network that is not directly
connected to a particular router
– Detailed information about the networks includes source of
information, network address & subnet mask, and IP address of
next-hop router
▪ Adding a connected network to the routing table
– Router interfaces
▪ Each router interface is a member of a different network
▪ Activated using the no shutdown command
▪ In order for static and dynamic routes to exist in routing table
you must have directly connected networks
▪ Static routes in the routing table
– Includes: network address and subnet mask and IP address of next
hop router or exit interface
– Denoted with the code S in the routing table
– Routing tables must contain directly connected networks used to
connect remote networks before static or dynamic routing can be
used
▪ When to use static routes
– When network only consists of a few routers
– Network is connected to internet only through one ISP
– Hub & spoke topology is used on a large network
▪ Dynamic routing protocols
– Used to add remote networks to a routing table
– Are used to discover networks
– Are used to update and maintain routing tables
▪ Automatic network discovery
– Routers are able discover new networks by sharing routing table
information
▪ Maintaining routing tables
– Dynamic routing protocols are used to share routing information
with other router & to maintain and up date their own routing table
▪ IP routing protocols - example of routing protocols include:
▪ RIP
▪ IGRP
▪ EIGRP
▪ OSPF
▪ Routing Table Principles
– 3 principles regarding routing tables:
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▪ Every router makes its decisions alone, based on the

information it has in its routing table
▪ Different routing table may contain different information
▪ A routing table can tell how to get to a destination but not how
to get back

Router Paths and Packet Switching

▪ Internet Protocol (IP) packet format contains fields that provide
information about the packet and the sending and receiving hosts
– Destination IP address
– Source IP address
– Version & TTL
– IP header length
– Precedence & type of service
– Packet length
▪ MAC Layer Frame Format
▪ MAC Frames are also divided into fields - they include:
– Preamble
– Start of frame delimiter
– Destination MAC address
– Source MAC address
– Type/length
– Data and pad
– Frame check sequence
▪ A Metric is a numerical value used by routing protocols help determine
the best path to a destination
– The smaller the metric value the better the path
▪ 2 types of metrics used by routing protocols are:
– Hop count - this is the number of routers a packet must travel
through to get to its destination
– Bandwidth - this is the “speed” of a link also known as the data
capacity of a link
▪ Equal cost metric is a condition where a router has multiple paths to the
same destination that all have the same metric
▪ To solve this dilemma, a router will use Equal Cost Load Balancing - this
means the router sends packets over the multiple exit interfaces listed in
the routing table.
▪ Path determination is a process used by a router to pick the best path to
a destination
▪ One of 3 path determinations results from searching for the best path
– Directly connected network
– Remote network
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– No route determined

Figure 53: Finding the Best Path

▪ Switching Function of Router is the process used by a router to switch a
packet from an incoming interface to an outgoing interface on the same
router
– A packet received by a router will do the following:
• Strips off layer 2 headers
• Examines destination IP address located in Layer 3 header to
find best route to destination
• Re-encapsulates layer 3 packet into layer 2 frame
• Forwards frame out exit interface
▪ As a packet travels from one networking device to another
– The Source and Destination IP addresses NEVER change
– The Source & Destination MAC addresses CHANGE as packet is
forwarded from one router to the next
– TTL field decrement by one until a value of zero is reached at
which point router discards packet (prevents packets from
endlessly traversing the network)
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Name: ________________________________________________ Section: ____________

IT 205 – Networking 1
_____ semester, SY ____________
Activity 5
Hands-on
Instruction:
✓ Using the Cisco Packet tracer app, perform the topology shown below.
Submit this activity sheet after filling up the table 1 together with the pkt
file.
✓ The pkt file must be submitted via the online platform that was
discussed during the orientation.

Table 1
Device Interface Network ID Subnet Mask Default
Gateway

Fa0/0 1. 8.

R1 Fa1/0 2. 9.

Fa2/0 3. 10.

pc0 Fa0 4. 11. 15.

pc1 Fa0 5. 12. 16.

pc2 Fa0 6. 13. 17.

pc3 Fa0 7. 14. 28.

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Rubrics:
Hand-on 50 40 30 15 0 pnts
The connectivity of the devices is
The student was able to The student was not able to
Accuracy successful. The topology was fully
partially converged the configure correctly the
(40%) converged and end-to-end
network (50% to 85%) topology.
connectivity is achieved
Students was able to assigned
Students was able to assign the Students was not able to
Addressing IP addresses in every interface
correct IP address for every assigned correct IP
(20%) but was using an incorrect IP
interface addresses in every interface
address
Students was only able to Students was only able to
Configuration Student was able to assign all the
assigned 50% to 85% of the configure 50% and below of
(15%) necessary configuration
necessary configuration the necessary configuration
Student follow the correct Student did not follow the
Topology
communication channels or - correct communication
(10%)
devices channels or devices
Answers
- - -
(15%)

Total