(2 CREDIT UNITS)

Concepts of heat, temperature; measurement of temperature, clinical thermometer. Heat

capacity, specific heat, latent heat, calorimetry. Gas laws; kinetic theory of gases. Thermal
energy, isothermal and adiabatic changes. Conduction, convection, radiation, sound waves,
intensity, pitch and quality of sound. Propagation of sound in solids, liquids and gases.
Doppler Effect. The ear, reflection and refraction of light; plane and spherical mirrors, thin
lenses; optical instruments. The eye, defects of vision and their corrections. Wave nature of
light, interference, diffraction. Velocity of light.
Concepts of Heat and Temperature:
Heat is a form of energy that flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature. To understand this, consider a cup of hot coffee placed on a table. Heat from
the coffee is transferred to the table, causing the coffee to cool down while the table gets
slightly warmer.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. For
instance, when water is heated, its temperature increases as the molecules gain more kinetic
energy and move faster.
Example: Calculating Temperature Change
Let's consider a scenario where 100 grams of water at 20°C is heated until its temperature
reaches 50°C. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g°C. We can calculate the heat
energy gained by the water using the formula Q = mcΔT, where Q is the heat energy, m is
the mass, c is the specific heat capacity, and ΔT is the change in temperature.
Q = (100g) x (4.18 J/g°C) x (50°C - 20°C)
Q = 100g x 4.18 J/g°C x 30°C
Q = 12,540 Joules
Measurement of Temperature:
Temperature can be measured using different scales. For example, the Celsius scale sets the
freezing and boiling points of water at 0°C and 100°C respectively. Let's convert a
temperature from Celsius to Fahrenheit using the formula F = (C x 9/5) + 32.
Example: Converting Temperature
If the temperature is 30°C, then:
F = (30°C x 9/5) + 32
F = 86°F.
Clinical Thermometer:
A clinical thermometer is designed to measure human body temperature
- It typically has a range of 35°C to 42°C (95°F to 108°F) and is designed to be more accurate
than traditional household thermometers.
- The most common type of clinical thermometer is the mercury-in-glass thermometer,
although digital thermometers are increasingly popular due to their ease of use and safety.
Example: Measuring Body Temperature
If a person's body temperature is 37.5°C, we can convert this to Fahrenheit using the formula
mentioned earlier:
F = (37.5°C x 9/5) + 32
F = 99.5°F
Heat Capacity, Specific Heat, and Latent Heat:
Heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance
by 1 degree Celsius.
Specific heat, on the other hand, is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.
Latent heat refers to the heat energy absorbed or released during a phase change without a
change in temperature.
Example: Calculating Heat Capacity
Consider a block of copper with a mass of 200g and a temperature increase of 50°C when
provided with 25,000 Joules of heat energy. We can calculate the heat capacity using the
formula C = Q/ΔT, where C is the heat capacity, Q is the heat energy, and ΔT is the change
in temperature.
C = 25,000 J / 50°C
C = 500 J/°C
The latent heat, denoted by L, is the amount of heat energy absorbed or released during a
phase change without a change in temperature. It can be calculated using the formula L = Q
/ m, where Q is the heat energy and m is the mass.
Artwork: Normally things get hotter (their temperature rises) as you supply
more heat energy. That doesn't happen at the points when things melt (change
from solid to liquid) and vaporize (turn from liquid to gas). Instead, the energy
you supply is used to change the state of matter. The energy doesn't vanish:
it's stored as latent heat.

When a substance changes from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas, it takes
energy to change its state. To turn solid ice into liquid water, for example you
have to push the water molecules inside further apart and break apart the
framework (or crystalline structure) that holds them together. So while ice is
melting (in other words, during the change of state from solid water to liquid
ice), all the heat energy you supply is being used to separate molecules and
none is left over for raising the temperature.

The heat needed to change a solid into a liquid is called the latent heat of
fusion. Latent means hidden and "latent heat of fusion" refers to the hidden
heat involved in making a substance change state from solid to liquid or vice-
versa. Similarly, you need to supply heat to change a liquid into a gas, and this
is called the latent heat of vaporization.

Latent heat is a kind of energy and, although it may seem to be "hidden," it

doesn't vanish into thin air. When liquid water freezes and turns back to ice,
the latent heat of fusion is given off again. You can see this if you cool water
systematically. To start with, the temperature of the water falls regularly as
you remove heat energy. But at the point where liquid water turns to solid ice,
you'll find water freezes without getting any colder. That's because the latent
heat of fusion is being lost from the liquid as it solidifies and it's stopping the
temperature from falling so quickly.
Example 1: Calculating Latent Heat of Fusion
Let's consider the process of melting ice. If 500 grams of ice absorbs 80,000 Joules of heat
energy to completely melt, we can calculate the latent heat of fusion using the formula L =
Q / m.

L = 80,000 J / 500 g
L = 160 J/g
Example 2: Calculating Latent Heat of Vaporization
When 100 grams of water vapor condenses and releases 226,000 Joules of heat energy, we
can calculate the latent heat of vaporization using the same formula.
L = 226,000 J / 100 g
L = 2260 J/g
These examples illustrate the application of the latent heat formula in determining the
amount of heat energy required or released during phase changes, such as melting or
vaporization.
Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes.
It involves using devices called calorimeters to measure the heat exchanged during such
processes.
Example: Calorimetry Calculation
If 100g of water at 20°C is mixed with 50g of water at 40°C, we can calculate the final
temperature using the formula m1c1ΔT1 = -m2c2ΔT2, where m is the mass, c is the specific
heat capacity, and ΔT is the change in temperature.
Solution;
Gas Laws and Kinetic Theory of Gases:
The gas laws describe the behavior of gases under various conditions, including pressure,
volume, and temperature. The kinetic theory of gases explains the behavior of gas molecules
in terms of motion and energy.
Example: Ideal Gas Law Calculation
Using the ideal gas law PV = nRT, where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of
moles, R is the gas constant, and T is temperature, we can calculate the pressure of 2 moles
of gas in a 5-liter container at 300K.
P(5L) = (2 moles)(0.0821 [Link]/mol.K)(300K)
P = 9.852 atm
The kinetic theory of gases is a fundamental model that describes the behavior of gases
based on the motion of their constituent particles. It is built upon several key postulates and
assumptions, which provide a framework for understanding the macroscopic properties of
gases in terms of the behavior of individual gas particles.
Postulates and Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases:
1. Particle Motion: The theory describes a gas as a large number of submicroscopic particles
(atoms or molecules) that are in constant, random motion
2. Particle Collisions: The molecules are in constant, random motion and frequently collide
with each other and with the walls of any container. These collisions are assumed to be
perfectly elastic, meaning that no energy is lost during the collisions.
3. Particle Energy: The individual gas particles possess kinetic energy, and the average
kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
4. Particle Size and Separation: The particles are assumed to be point masses with negligible
volume, and the separation between particles is much larger than the size of the particles
themselves.
5. Influence of Gravity: The influence of gravity on the movement of gaseous molecules is
considered, particularly in terms of the distribution of molecular speeds.
Applications:
The kinetic theory of gases provides a basis for understanding and predicting the behavior
of gases under different conditions, including changes in temperature, pressure, and volume.
It forms the foundation for the development of gas laws, such as Boyle's law, Charles's law,
and the ideal gas law, which are essential in the study of thermodynamics and fluid
mechanics.
First and Second Law of Thermodynamic

For a closed system, one may write the first law of thermodynamics as : ΔU = Q + W,
where ΔU denotes the change of the system's internal energy, Q the quantity of energy added
to it as heat, and W the work done on it by its surroundings.

The second law states that isolated systems gravitate towards thermodynamic equilibrium,
also known as a state of maximum entropy, or disorder; it also states that heat energy will
flow from an area of low temperature to an area of high temperature. The best example is
when something is caught under fire we pour water.
There are 4 type of processes in Thermodynamic.
1. Isobaric Process: An isobaric process is one where the pressure of the system (often a
gas) stays constant: ΔP = 0.
2. Isochoric Process: An isochoric process is one where the volume of the system stays
constant: ΔV = 0
3. Isothermal Process: An isothermal process is one where the temperature of the system
stays constant: ΔT = 0
4. Adiabatic Process: In physics, an adiabatic process is a Thermodynamic process in which
there is no heat or matter transfer into or out of a system and is generally obtained by
surrounding the entire system with a strongly insulating material or by carrying out the
process so quickly that there is no time for a significant heat or matter transfer to take place.
Q = 0.
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy refers to the internal energy of a system due to the kinetic energy of its
particles.
Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through stationary matter by direct physical contact. A
classic example of conduction is the process of heating a tin can of water using a Bunsen
burner. Initially, the flame produces radiation, which heats the tin can. As the tin can comes
into direct contact with the water, the heat is conducted from the can to the water, causing
the water to heat up.
Another example of conduction is the ironing of clothes. When the hot iron comes into direct
contact with the clothes, heat is conducted from the iron to the fabric, resulting in the removal
of wrinkles through the transfer of heat.
Convection
Convection is the heat transfer by the macroscopic movement of a fluid. A common example
of convection is the process of heating water on a stove. As the water near the heat source
becomes hot, it rises, and cooler water moves in to take its place. This creates a continuous
circulation of water, leading to the transfer of heat throughout the entire body of water.
Another example involving convection is the warming of the atmosphere by the sun. As the
sun heats the Earth's surface, the air in contact with the warm ground becomes heated and
rises, creating convection currents that contribute to the transfer of heat in the atmosphere.
Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. An example involving
radiation is the heat transfer from the sun. The sun emits electromagnetic radiation, which
travels through the vacuum of space and reaches the Earth, where it is absorbed, leading to
an increase in temperature. This process demonstrates the transfer of heat through radiation
across vast distances.

Sound Waves
Sound is a wave. More specifically, sound is defined to be a disturbance of matter that is
transmitted from its source outward. A disturbance is anything that is moved from its state
of equilibrium. Some sound waves can be characterized as periodic waves, which means
that the atoms that make up the matter experience simple harmonic motion.
A vibrating string produces a sound wave as illustrated in Figure 14.2, Figure 14.3,
and Figure 14.4. As the string oscillates back and forth, part of the string’s energy goes into
compressing and expanding the surrounding air. This creates slightly higher and lower
pressures. The higher pressure... regions are compressions, and the low pressure regions
are rarefactions. The pressure disturbance moves through the air as longitudinal
waves with the same frequency as the string. Some of the energy is lost in the form of
thermal energy transferred to the air. You may recall from the chapter on waves that areas
of compression and rarefaction in longitudinal waves (such as sound) are analogous to
crests and troughs in transverse waves.

Figure 14.2 A vibrating string moving to the right compresses the air in front of it and
expands the air behind it.

Figure 14.3 As the string moves to the left, it creates another compression and rarefaction
as the particles on the right move away from the string.
Figure 14.4 After many vibrations, there is a series of compressions and rarefactions that
have been transmitted from the string as a sound wave. The graph shows gauge pressure
(Pgauge) versus distance x from the source.
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure; it is positive for pressures
above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it. For ordinary, everyday
sounds, pressures vary only slightly from average atmospheric pressure.
The amplitude of a sound wave decreases with distance from its source, because the energy
of the wave is spread over a larger and larger area. But some of the energy is also absorbed
by objects, such as the eardrum in Figure 14.5, and some of the energy is converted to
thermal energy in the air. Figure 14.4 shows a graph of gauge pressure versus distance
from the vibrating string. From this figure, you can see that the compression of a
longitudinal wave is analogous to the peak of a transverse wave, and the rarefaction of a
longitudinal wave is analogous to the trough of a transverse wave. Just as a transverse
wave alternates between peaks and troughs, a longitudinal wave alternates between
compression and rarefaction.
Figure 14.5 Sound wave compressions and rarefactions travel up the ear canal and force
the eardrum to vibrate.
There is a net force on the eardrum, since the sound wave pressures differ from the
atmospheric pressure found behind the eardrum. A complicated mechanism converts the
vibrations to nerve impulses, which are then interpreted by the brain.

The Speed of Sound

The speed of sound varies greatly depending upon the medium it is traveling through. The
speed of sound in a medium is determined by a combination of the medium’s rigidity (or
compressibility in gases) and its density. The more rigid (or less compressible) the medium,
the faster the speed of sound. The greater the density of a medium, the slower the speed of
sound. The speed of sound in air is low, because air is compressible. Because liquids and
solids are relatively rigid and very difficult to compress, the speed of sound in such media is
generally greater than in gases. Table 14.1 shows the speed of sound in various media. Since
temperature affects density, the speed of sound varies with the temperature of the medium
through which it’s traveling to some extent, especially for gases.

Medium vw (m/s)

Gases at 0 °C
Air 331
Carbon dioxide 259
 Medium vw (m/s)
Oxygen 316

Helium 965

Hydrogen 1290

Liquids at 20 °C
Ethanol 1160

Mercury 1450

Water, fresh 1480

Sea water 1540

Human tissue 1540

Solids (longitudinal or bulk)

Vulcanized rubber 54

Polyethylene 920

Marble 3810
Glass, Pyrex 5640

Lead 1960
Aluminum 5120

Steel 5960
The relationship between the speed of sound, its frequency, and wavelength is the
same as for all waves:
v=f λ
where v is the speed of sound (in units of m/s), f is its frequency (in units of hertz), and λ is
its wavelength (in units of meters). Recall that wavelength is defined as the distance
between adjacent identical parts of a wave. The wavelength of a sound, therefore, is the
distance between adjacent identical parts of a sound wave. Just as the distance between
adjacent crests in a transverse wave is one wavelength, the distance between adjacent
compressions in a sound wave is also one wavelength, as shown in Figure 14.7. The
frequency of a sound wave is the same as that of the source. For example, a tuning fork
vibrating at a given frequency would produce sound waves that oscillate at that same
frequency. The frequency of a sound is the number of waves that pass a point per unit time.

Figure 14.7 A sound wave emanates from a source vibrating at a frequency f, propagates
at v, and has a wavelength λ.
One of the more important properties of sound is that its speed is nearly independent of
frequency. If this were not the case, and high-frequency sounds traveled faster, for example,
then the farther you were from a band in a football stadium, the more the sound from the
low-pitch instruments would lag behind the high-pitch ones. But the music from all
instruments arrives in cadence independent of distance, and so all frequencies must travel at
nearly the same speed.
Recall that v = f λ, and in a given medium under fixed temperature and humidity, v is
constant. Therefore, the relationship between f and λ is inverse: The higher the frequency,
the shorter the wavelength of a sound wave.
The speed of sound can change when sound travels from one medium to another. However,
the frequency usually remains the same because it is like a driven oscillation and maintains
the frequency of the original source. If v changes and f remains the same, then the
wavelength λ must change. Since v = f λ, the higher the speed of a sound, the greater its
wavelength for a given frequency.