Chapter One: BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1 Circuit Elements
Passive Circuit Elements
Passive elements do not generate any energy. They may either consume energy (i.e. convert from electrical
form to a non-electrical form such as heat or light), or store energy (in electrostatic and electromagnetic
fields). Examples are:
Resistance (unit: ohm, Ω; letter symbol: R , r )
The basic equation governing the resistor is Ohm’s Law.
v(t) = R.i(t)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐺. 𝑣(𝑡)
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𝐺= 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑆𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛, 𝑆)
𝑅
Inductance (unit: henry, H; letter symbol: L , l )
𝑑𝑖
𝑣=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Capacitance (unit: farad, F; letter symbol: C , c )
The charge stored is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
𝑄 = 𝐶. 𝑣
Since 𝑞 = ∫ 𝑖. 𝑑𝑡 the basic equation for the capacitor may be re-written in circuit terms as
1 𝑑𝑣
𝑣= � 𝑖. 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑖=𝐶
𝐶 𝑑𝑡
Impedance and Admittance
These may all be written in the form
𝑣 = 𝑍(𝑝)𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 𝑌(𝑝)𝑣
Where 𝑍(𝑝) is the impedance operator, and 𝑌(𝑝) is the admittance operator.
Impedances and Admittances may be either linear or non-linear. This is defined based on whether the values
of R, L and C (slope of characteristic) are constants or not.
Active Circuit Elements
An Active Circuit Element is a component in a circuit which is capable of producing or generating energy.
[Producing energy actually means converting non-electrical form of energy to an electrical form]. Active
circuit elements are thus sources of energy (or simply sources) and can be categorised into voltage sources
and the current sources.
Independent sources
An independent voltage source is a two-terminal element that maintains a specified voltage between its
terminals regardless of the current through it as shown by the v-i plot in Fig. 1.1a.
The independent current source is a two terminal element that maintains a specified current regardless of the
voltage across its terminals, as illustrated by the v-i plot in Fig. 1.1b.
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Figure 1.1 :Symbols for (a) independent voltage source, (b) independent current source.
In their normal mode of operation, independent sources supply power to the remainder of the circuit.
However, they may also be connected into a circuit in such a way that they absorb power e.g charging
battery with another battery.
Dependent sources
Dependent sources generate a voltage or current that is determined by a voltage or current at a specified
location in the circuit. There are four possibilities:
• Voltage dependent (controlled) voltage source
• Current dependent (controlled) voltage source
• Voltage dependent (controlled) current source
• Current dependent (controlled) current source
Figure 1.2: Dependent sources
1.2 ELECTRONIC COLOR CODE
The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, very commonly
for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, and others. A separate code, the 25-pair color code, is used to
identify wires in some telecommunications cables. Table 1.1 shows the resistor colour codes.
Resistor Color Codes
The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5-band resistors only. All 5-
band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%) "band" is only used with the "4-band" code (3
colored bands + a blank "band").
Figure 1.3: Resistor colour codes
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Colour Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101 1
Red 2 102 2
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105 0.5
Blue 6 106 0.25
Violet 7 107 0.1
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10−1 5
Silver 10−2 10
(none) 20
Table 1.1: Resistor colour codes.
Bad Boys Rape Our Young Girls But Violet Gives Willingly
Examples
• A resistor colored Yellow-Violet-Orange-Gold would be 47 kΩ with a tolerance of +/- 5%.
• A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 20%. When you see only
three color bands on a resistor, you know that it is actually a 4-band code with a blank (20%) tolerance
band.
• A resistor colored Brown-Green-Grey-Silver-Red would be 1.58 Ω with a tolerance of +/- 2%.
1.3 Health & Safety Considerations
Soldering and de-soldering
Solder melts at between 180 and 200°C. Soldering irons will heat up to between 250 and 400°C. Be
extremely careful when soldering and take the following precautions:
• Switch off the soldering iron at the mains when not in use
• Always keep the iron in its stand
• Make sure your workspace is clear, well lit and well ventilated
• Never solder while your circuit is powered up
• Never solder without tutor supervision
• Only apply the soldering iron for the minimum amount of time
• Keep your soldering tidy and use the minimum amount of solder
• Avoid breathing in solder fumes
• You must only use the lead-free solder provided
• You must use tools e.g. pliers to support components that are being soldered and ensure the board is
secure.
Switching it on
Powering up a circuit that is incorrectly connected can cause components or equipment to get extremely hot
or even ‘blow’. A short circuit (where unintended electrical connections are made) for example may damage
equipment or blow components causing them to behave in an unpredictable way.
• Before powering up your circuit you MUST have it checked by the tutor
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• Have your neighbour physically inspect your work before powering on
• If your circuit does not behave as you expect, switch it off immediately
• Use your nose! A faulty circuit with hot components will often smell or smoke.
1.4 Testing and fault-finding
If your circuit does not behave as you expect:
• With the power off, confirm by eye that your circuit is connected correctly and that you are using all
the correct components and mounted with the correct polarities
• Inspect your circuit closely for short circuits, soldering faults and dry joints.
• Do all the testing on your circuit that you can with it powered off.
• Be extremely careful when probing your circuit live as the probe itself can cause short circuits
When probing with an oscilloscope ensure the earth is connected.
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