Ahmednagar Jilha Maratha Vidya Prasarak Samaj‟s

NEW LAW COLLEGE, AHMEDNAGAR

Subject : Sociology, Paper Name –Research Methodology (404)

Class : [Link] (Semester IV ) Pattern – 2017

Name of Teacher : Anuradha Sahebrao Jadhav ( M.A. ( NET) )

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 Index

MODULE PARTICULARS PAGE

NO. NO.
1. 4-9

Introduction to Social Research – Philosophy of Social

Research

[Link] Research – Meaning and Significance

[Link] of Social Research – Pure and applied research
[Link] and ethics in social research
2. 10-16

Research Process:

[Link] in social research

[Link] and formulation of research problem
[Link] – meaning, characteristics and types
[Link] collection – Primary and secondary sources
[Link] – meaning and techniques
3. 17-25

Techniques of Data Collection

[Link] – nature, types, advantages and limitations

[Link] – nature, advantages and limitations
[Link] – nature, types, advantages and limitations

4. Quantitative and Qualitative Research: 26-28

[Link] between Quantitative Research and Qualitative research

2. Survey – Meaning, nature advantages and disadvantages
[Link] research methods
4. Case study – meaning, nature advantages and disadvantages
5. Recent strategies – combining the Quantitative and Qualitative

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 Methods in research
5 Computer in Social Research: 29-33

1.E-research : using the internet as object and method of data

Collection
[Link] of computer in data analysis

6. Report Writing 34-35

[Link] of report writing

[Link] Qualitative and a Quantities research – presentation and
interpretation Qualities of good research report
reference 36

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 Module No 1

Introduction to Social Research – Philosophy of Social Research

[Link] Research – Meaning and Significance

[Link] of Social Research – Pure and applied research
[Link] and ethics in social research

1) Social Research – Meaning and Significance

What is Research?

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. Scientific Research is a
systematic and objective attempt to provide answers to certain questions. The purpose of
scientific research is to discover and develop an organised body of knowledge. Therefore,
scientific research may be defined as the systematic and empirical analysis and recording of
controlled observation. Which may lead to development of theories, concepts, generalizations
and principles, resulting in predication and control of those activities that may have some
cause – effect relationship.

Research is an attempt to know new things, facts, information, etc. in a scientific manner.
Its mai Research is an attempt to know new things, facts, information, etc. in a scientific
manner n purpose is to diffuse knowledge and establish theories on the basis of the believable
facts. A research makes an untiring effort to collect new facts, information and knowledge
about things or phenomena. He may not become always successful in all his efforts to collect
new facts. But the desire to know new things persists in him.

According to L.V. Redman –

„Systematised effort to gain new knowledge we call research‟.

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„Research is a more system activity directed towards discovery and the development of an
organised body of knowledge‟

ÔãâÎããñ£ã¶ã ½Ö¥ã•ãñ Ìãõ—ãããä¶ã‡ãŠ ¹ã£ª¦ããè ¹ãƦ¾ãàãã¦ã ‡ãŠã¾ããöÌããè¦ã ‡ãŠÀ¥¾ããÞããè ãä¶ã¾ã½ãºã£ª Ôãì̾ãÌãÔ©ããè¦ã Ìã ÔãŒããñË ¹ãƇãÆŠãè¾ãã Öãñ¾ã

Social Research Meaning and Significance:-

Ôãã½ãããä•ã‡ãŠ Ü㛶ãã Ìã Ôã½ãÔ¾ãã ¾ããºããºã¦ã ¶ããäÌã¶ã —ãã¶ã ¹Æã㹦ã ÌÖãÌãñ ½Ö¥ãì¶ã ‡ãŠñËñ˾ãã ‡ãÆŠ½ãºã£ª ÔãâÎããñ£ã¶ããËã Ôãã½ãããä•ã‡ãŠ ÔãâÎããñ£ã¶ã
½Ö¥ã¦ãã¦ã.

Meaning and Definition:-

Social research may be defined as a scientific understanding which by means of logical

and systematized techniques seeks to discover new facts of verify and test old facts. Analyse
their sequences, interrelationships and casual expiation which were derived within an
appropriate theoretical frame of references as well as develop new scientific tools, concepts
and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour.

Not only in the field of physical science but also in the realm of social sciences research
are taking place. The youngest of the social science that is sociology is also doing a lot of
research work. Sociological research is highly interesting and exciting. Research in sociology
is really a kind of systematic detective work. It faces innumerable puzzles and suspicions,
withstands disappointments and discouragements, Challenges blind faith and hearsays and
finally becomes successful in unravelling the mystery that clouds the truth. Research today
has become a part of sociology. Research in sociology is where the real action takes place.

Definition of Social Research:-

1. According to Wallace and Wallace:-

“Sociological research refers to the structural observation of social behaviour”

2. According to Pauline v. Young. :-

“Social research is a systematic method of exploring, analysing and conceptualising social

life in order to extend , correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the
construction of a theory or in the practice of an art.”

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Significance of Social Research:-

Research is carried on in the social field not just with academic interests. It has both
academic and non academic purposes and importance. Significance of research can be briefly
stated here.

1. Research is essential to diffuse knowledge and to expand its

horizon.
2. Research helps us to verify or disprove, confirm or reject, modify
and re-assert the existing theories and to establish new ones.
3. Research provides practical clues, to undertake measure that leads
to social improvement, social changes or social progress.
4. Research by probing into the perplexing problems of the day ...
provides new insight re-grading their nature. Research helps us to
know the nature and the magnitude of the problems.
5. Research has commercial importance also. Industries, business
firms and commercial establishments can get lot of information and
clues about their endeavours in society.
6. Research can provide all the required data and facts to the
administrators to adopt and undertake appropriate policies, plans
and programmes.
7. Research has educational importance. It is mainly an intellectual
activity. Information obtained through research may have their
educational importance
8. Research motivates interdisciplinary studies. It stresses the
interdependence of different sciences. It thus strengthens the
“interdisciplinary approach” which is emerging out these days.
9. Other uses and importance
i) Those working in the academic field can obtain a new degree
known as Ph.D ( Doctor of Philosophy ) by successfully carrying
out research as per the stipulated rules.
ii) Those working in the research department attached to industries,
other types of establishment have made research their profession
and obtained salary for their service. It provides job opportunities
for a few intellectuals.

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iii) For the philosophers and scientists research can be intellectually
delighting and mentally satisfying
iv) Those who are in the field of literature, art architecture, etc., can
seek to establish new styles and trends through research.

Types of Research

There are different types of research. A detailed description of the same can be had from
below

1. Applied Research
2. Pure Fundamental Research

1. Applied Research :-

Applied research is an investigation for ways of using scientific Knowledge to solve

practical problems. (Hunt) Applied Research aim at finding a solution for an immediate
problem faced by any business organization. This research deal with real life situations.
Applied research has a practical problem solving emphasis. It brings out many new facts.
Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of Morden world, rather than to
acquire knowledge‟s sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition . It
focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is generally
conducted on a large scale basis and is expensive. As such, it is often conducted with the
support of some financing agency like the national government, public corporation, world
bank, UNICEF, UGC, Etc. Example, Use of Fibre glass body for cars instead of metal. And
improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve the energy
efficiency of homes, offices, how can communication among workers in large companies be
improve.

2. Pure Fundamental or Basic Research:-

Gathering knowledge for knowledge‟s sake is known as basic research. It is not directly
involved with practical problems. There is no intention to apply this research in practice
conducts such studies. This research is conducted largely for the enhancement of Knowledge,

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and is research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research which is
done for human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called Basic Pure or
Fundamental research. The main motivation here is to expand man‟s knowledge, not to create
or invent something. This research generates new ideas, principles, and theories which may
not be immediately utilized but nonetheless from the basis of progress and development in
different fields .Today‟s computers, for example, could not exist without research in pure
mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical
application at the time. Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their everyday
concern, nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking that have the potential to
revolutionize and dramatically improve how practitioners deal with a problem in the future.

Values and Ethics in social research :-

Value is an abstract generalized principle of behaviour to which the members of a group

feel a strong emotionally toned positive commitment and which provides a standard for
judging specific acts and goals. To the sociologists, values are constituent fact of social
structure. The sociologist does not try to assess their intrinsic worth, but he treats them as
scare objects of socially conditional desire, unevenly distributed and differently ranked.
The problem of value judgement is one of the most debatable topic s in social. A judgement
of what is desirable or worthwhile is called value judgement value judgements are essential in
all human activities except where they lead to rigidities and dogmatism. Value judgements
are undesirable in sociology if they exclude or obscure available or obtainable facts,
knowledge, or insights. On the other hand value judgements influence the selection of
problems for investigation and practical application of scientific findings. Moreover even in
the course of scientific investigation itself, it is impossible to eliminate all value judgements.
However the scientific method constantly strives to maximize objectivity and strives to
maximize objectivity and stick to the facts. The control of value judgements allows
sociologists and social scientists of diverse value system to communicate and co-operate with
each other in the attempt to increase our understanding of social life.
The issue of value is discussed by Durkheim and Weber in sociological study.
Durkheim rejects the importance of values in sociological inquiry and theorizing to avoid
subjectivity. Weber advocated that value orientation cannot be avoided although a
sociologist must avoid value judgements. Value neutrality is considered as indispensable
for scientific sociology.

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Ethics in social research:-

Ethical Neutrality is very important in social research for collecting good facts. In
order to discover what is and to properly conceptualize what is, it is necessary for social
scientist to bring no personal prejudice or bias to his study. The position of ethical
neutrality arose curiously among those who adopted a subjective approach to social
problems. It was felt that proper understanding of social structure, processes and
behaviour demanded interference from data and an interpretive appreciation of abstract
human relations.
Value freedom was essential, For the data to be obtained only in this way, the
observer would have to hold his feelings in check for the duration of his observation and
conceptualization. Since all data collection was subjective in nature, if there were no
attempts at ensuring ethical neutrality, the social scientific ventures would surely raise
controversies of opinion. In sum, it was thought that the social scientist should describe
things as they are; to the best of his ability, keeping moral values out. He needed
techniques that would actually measure things he wants to measure and not fool himself
by measuring sometimes else.

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 Module 02 Research Process :

As a research progresses from the formulation of the problem through collection of data to
presenting the conclusions, the focus of researcher‟s attention necessarily shifts from one
kind of activity to the other. Such shifts, it should be remembered, reflect differing emphases
at different points on specific operations involved in research process, rather than a singular
concentration at any time on any particular step.

Steps in social research

Sociological research consists of several stages. The researcher must first choose a topic to
investigate and then become familiar with prior research research on the topic. Once
appropriate data are gathered and analyzed, the researcher can then draw appropriate
conclusions. This sections these various stages of the research process.

1. Formation of Research Problem:-

The first stape in research process is choosing of research topic. There are countless topics
from which to choose, so how does a researcher go about choosing one
2. Conducting a Literature Review :-
Whatever topic is chosen, the next stage in the research process is a review of literature. A
researcher who begins a new project typically reads a good number of studies that the
researcher wants to investigate. In sociology, most of these are published in journals, but
many are also published as books. The government and private research organizations also
publish reports that researchers consult for their literature reviews.
Regardless of the type of published study, a literature review has several goals. First the
researcher needs to determine that the study she or he has in mind has not already been done.
Second, the researcher needs to determine how the proposed study will add to what is known
about the topic of the study. How will the study add to theoretical knowledge of the topic?
How will the study improve on the methodology of earlier studies? A third goal of a
literature review is to see how prior studies were conducted. What research design did they
use? From where did their data come? How did they measure key concepts and variables? A
thorough literature review.
[Link] a Hypothesis:-
Once the problem to be answered in the course of research is finally instituted, the
researcher may, if feasible proceed to formulate tentative solutions or explanations are called

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hypotheses which the researcher is obliged test on the basis of fact already known or which
can be made known. The hypothesis guide the researcher through a bewildering jungle of
facts to see and select only those facts that are relevant to the problem of difficulty he
proposes to solve.

[Link] Data:-
After the hypothesis has been formulated, the sociologist is now ready to begin the actual
research. Data must be gathering via primary or secondary sources. Data can either be
quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (no numerical). Data gathered through a questionnaire
are usually quantitative. The answers a respondent gives to a questionnaire are coded for
computer analysis.
Data also gathered through observation and interviewing, research designs.
[Link]:-
After any measurement issues have been resolved, it is time to gather the data. For the sake of
simplicity, let‟s assume the unit of analysis is the person. A researcher who is doing a study
„from scratch‟ must decide which people to study. Because it is certainly impossible to study
everybody, the researcher only studies a sample, or subset of the population of people in
whom the researcher is interested. Depending on the purpose of the study, the population of
interest various widely.

5. Analysing Data :-

After all data have been gathered, the next stage is to analyze the data . If the data are
quantitative, the analysis will almost certainly use high sophisticated statistical techniques
beyond the scope of this discussion. Many statistical analysis software packages exist for this
purpose, and sociologists learn to use one more of these packages during graduate school. If
data are qualitative ,researcher analysis their data what they have observed and what people
have told them in interviews. Many researcher researchers now use qualitative analysis
software that helps them uncover important themes and patterns in the qualitative or data they
gather. However qualitative or quantitative data are analyzed, It is essential that the analysis
be as accurate as possible.

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1. Drawing a Conclusion:-
Once the data are analyzed, the researcher finally determines whether the data analysis
supports the hypothesis that has been tested, taking into account the criteria of causality just
discussed. Whether or not the hypothesis is supported, the researcher typically also discusses
what the results of the present research imply for both prior and future studies on the topic. I f
the primary purpose of the project has been to test or refine a particular theory, the conclusion
will discuss the implications of the result for this theory. If the primary purpose has been to
test or advance social policy, the conclusion will discuss the implications of the results for
policy making relevant to the project‟s subject matter.
Formation of Research Problem:-
The Formation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research
process. It is like the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. As in the
absence of a clear research problem, a clear and economical plan is impossible.
A research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the
building. The type and design of the building is dependent upon the formation is well
designed and strong you can expect the building to be also strong and well designed. in case
of research the research problem serves as the foundation of a research study. If it well
formulated, you can expect a good study to follow.
A research problem may take a number of forms from the very simple to the very
complex. The way you formulate a problem determines almost every steps that follows, that
is 1. The type of study design that can be used 2. The type of sampling strategy that can be
employed 3. The research instrument that can be used or developed 4. The type of analysis
that can be undertaken.
The formation to a problem is like the input into a study and the output the quality of the
contents of the research report and the validity of the associations or causation established is
entirely depend upon it. Hence the famous saying about computers garbage in garbage out is
equally applicable to research problem.

Hypothesis – meaning, characteristics and types

Definition of Hypothesis :-
[Link] to Kerlinger – A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between
two or more variables.

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[Link] A. Lundberg : A hypothesis is a tentative generalization. The validity of which
remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,
imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or investigation.
[Link] and Hatt:- A position which can be put to test to determine validity

Characteristics of Hypothesis :

1 .Specific:
The hypothesis should not be vague or general, It is specific. One may hypothesize that
something will happen in next five munities, with absolute
[Link] gives point to enquire:
It makes the enquire more specific and to the point. The research has to proceed along
certain lines only.
[Link] of empirical test :
The hypothesis is should be such as can be put to empirical test. It should not be a mere moral
judgement.

The hypothesis should conceptually clear.-

[Link]:
The hypothesis should be simple and to the point. The hypothesis should be as sharp as
razor‟s blade. In forming of hypothesis neither more nor less onerous causes are to be
assumed than are necessary to account for the phenomena.
5. Related to available technique:
It has been pointed in the hypothesis should be capable of being tested or verified. For this
purpose we have to take into consideration the technique of study that is available. The
theorist who does not know what techniques are available to test his hypothesis is a poor way
to formulate usable question.
Hypothesis helps in deciding the direction in which to proceed:
Just as a person proceeding in the right direction is likely to reach ultimately his goal even if
the actual path is not known to him in the same way a scientist with proper hypothesis can
arrive at right conclusion.

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[Link] helps in selecting pertinent facts :
We have to study only those facts Factors that are relevant to our study. It requires the
process of delimiting and singling out pertinent facts and hypothesis is essential for purpose,
the use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data
which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study.
7. Hypothesis helps in drawing specific Conclusion:-
Hypothesis is useful not only in proceeding in our study on right lines, it is also important in
drawing conclusions. Without hypothesis the research is unfocussed, a random empirical
wandering. The results can not be stated as facts with clear morning. Hypothesis is necessary
link between theory and investigations, which lead to discovery of addition to knowledge.

OBSERVATION

Nature of Observation:-

Observation is the basic technique of scientific method. A study is scientific if there is

enough evidence consists of facts which can be verified through scientific observation.
Observation may take place in the natural or real life setting or in a laboratory. Observation is
one of the principal techniques of social sciences. Observation is essential for any scientific
study or research. Observation may take many forms and is at once the most primitive and
most modern of research techniques. It includes the most casual uncontrolled experiences as
well as the most exact firm records of laboratory experimentation. There are many
observational techniques and each has its own uses. This method had been and continues to
be one of the methods for the study of social problems.

Definition of Observation:-

(ãä¶ãÀãèàã¥ã ½Ö¥ã•ãñ ‡ãŠã¶ã Ìã Ìãã¥ããè ¾ãã ¹ãñàãã ¡ãñß¾ããâÞãã ÔÌã¦ãâ¨ã ¹Æã¾ããñØã ‡ãŠÀ¥ãñ Öãñ¾ã.)

[Link] to C. A. Mozar:- „ Observation means use of eyes than Ear or Speech”

2. According to Wallace and Wallace:- „In an observational study the researcher actually
witnesses social behaviour in its natural setting „

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[Link] to P.G. Gisbert :- “Observation consists in the application of our mind and its
cognitive powers to the phenomena which we are studying”.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

Observation may be of two broad types

a) Uncontrolled Observation :-
In this type of observation no stringent criteria or hard and fast rules can be laid down as to
how the observer will go about observing a particular situation it would be helpful.
However, to indicate some of the significant aspect that the observer can overlook only at his
peril.

b) Controlled observation :-
In this type of observation observer tries to systematise the process of observation and does
not try to limit the activities of the observed individuals. This is most useful in exploratory
studies. The observer makes use of the carefully drawn schedules and questionnaires and
better techniques of observation. He tries to check his own biases, his selective perception,
and the vagueness of his senses. He makes use of standardised instrument like camera, tape-
records, maps, sociometric scales etc. to record his observation with more precision.
C) Participant Observation:-
In this type of observation. The degree of participation of the observer depends largely upon
the nature of the study and practical demands of the situation. The observer must identify
himself closely with the group studied, since the subject matter is quite new and requires
intensive study
For example –Erving Goffman 1961, an American social psychologist spent many months as
an observer in mental hospital. His description gives us an idea as to how the organization of
an asylum systematically depersonalises the patients and may even aggravate their problems.

D) Non Participant Observation:-

In this type of observation observer to take part in many activities of the group so as to
avoid the awkwardness of complete non-participation. This has been a classic pattern in

15
social research. It was used by Leplay in his study of European working Families. In such
studies the investigators have lived as a member of the family as participants in community
activities taking part in games and dance or even in study groups. They nevertheless made
clear that their purpose was to gather facts.

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 Module 03

Techniques of Data Collection

[Link] – nature, types, advantages and limitations

[Link] – nature, advantages and limitations
[Link] – nature, types, advantages and limitations

OBSERVATION
Nature of Observation:-

Observation is the basic technique of scientific method. A study is scientific if there is

enough evidence consists of facts which can be verified through scientific observation.
Observation may take place in the natural or real life setting or in a laboratory. Observation is
one of the principal techniques of social sciences. Observation is essential for any scientific
study or research. Observation may take many forms and is at once the most primitive and
most modern of research techniques. It includes the most casual uncontrolled experiences as
well as the most exact firm records of laboratory experimentation. There are many
observational techniques and each has its own uses. This method had been and continues to
be one of the methods for the study of social problems.

Definition of Observation:-
[Link] to P.G. Gisbert :-“Observation consists in the application of our mind and its
cognitive powers to the phenomena which we are studying”.
Characteristics of Observation
1. It serves formulated research purpose
2. It planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly
3. It systematically recorded and related to more general propositions. 2

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[Link] is based mainly on visual-audio scence.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Observation may be of two broad types
a) Uncontrolled Observation :-
In this type of observation no stringent criteria or hard and fast rules can be laid
down as to how the observer will go about observing a particular situation it would be
helpful. However, to indicate some of the significant aspect that the observer can overlook
only at his peril.

b) Controlled observation :-

In this type of observation observer tries to systematise the process of observation and does
not try to limit the activities of the observed individuals. This is most useful in exploratory
studies. The observer makes use of the carefully drawn schedules and questionnaires and
better techniques of observation. He tries to check his own biases, his selective perception,
and the vagueness of his senses.

C) Participant Observation:-
In this type of observation when the observer can so disguise himself as to be accepted as
a member of the group under study. The degree of participation of the observer depends
largely upon the nature of the study and practical demands of the situation. The observer must
identify himself closely with the group studied, since the subject matter is quite new and
requires intensive study

D) Non Participant Observation:-

In this type of observation observer to take part in many activities of the group so as to avoid
the awkwardness of complete non-participation. This has been a classic pattern in social
research. It was used by Leplay in his study of European working Families.

18
Merits and Limitations of Observation: -
Merits of Observation:-
[Link] whether of participant or non –participant type, has, it is to be acknowledged,
it‟s own advantages. As Robertson has pointed out “Observational studies have the advantage
that they come to grips with 3

19
real-life situations and so offer insights that years of experimenting and surveying might
overlook‟‟.
[Link] great advantage of the observational study is that the research is accomplished by
directly observing subject‟s behaviour as opposed to a survey or an analysis of existing
sources in which the researcher must rely of others‟observation and reports .Observational
techniques are also greatly superior to either the survey or the document study in providing
information about non –verbal behaviour ‟‟
[Link] techniques allow the researcher to observe the subject in a natural setting,
and they provide the study of the subject over a time rather than at one point as a survey
usually does .
[Link] peculir strength of participant observation demands not complete detachment, but the
involvement of the research workersin the lives of the people he is studying. This gives him a
deeper insight into the behaviourof the people he is studing.

Demarits of Obsrvation:-

[Link] of the limitation of observation is that the data collected through observation can not
always be quantified
[Link] is essentially the study of occurrences at the time they occur. Hence it is very
much limited by the duration of the event. Events do not wait for the conveniences of the
observer.
3. Observation can not be effectively used to study the private and secret behaviour of the
individuals. For example, observing the criminal behaviour of a so called decent person is not
an easy task.
4. There is no guarantee that the observer studies the phenomenon in an impartial manner and
without prejudice. Hence, there is scope for the danger of bias, especially hidden bias.
Conclusion:-
Observation is one of the effective methods of collection reliable information about the social
behaviour of man through it has its own limitations In this method the role of the observer is
very significant. The effectiveness of the method depend to a great exent on the efficience of
the observer.

20
 Interview – nature, advantages and limitations

Meaning:- An interview means gathering or collecting information in which one person ask
and another either in person directly, or indirectly. Interview , is an effective, informal verbal
or non-verbal conversation, initiated for specific purposes and foussed on certain planned
content areas.
Definition of interview:-
[Link] to Young-“ as the very term implies, “ interviewing is an interactional process”.
Characteristices of Interview Method
[Link] contact or intertaction between two or more persons.
[Link] object to know the views and ideas of others.
[Link] –to- face relationship between individuals.
[Link] is collected about a related social problem.
Nature of Interview:-
A systematic interview may consist of the following stages:
1. At the beginning of the interview, the interviewer has to introduce himself to the
interviewee in a very polite manner to win over his confidence.
[Link] nature and purpose of the interview must be made known to the interviewee so as
to dispel the undesirable anxiety and tension.
3. The interviewer may ask some serious questions in the beginning and later on talk freely
with the interviewee.
[Link] interviewer may also assist the interviewee in electing information from him and must
prompt here and there depending upon the need.

21
Types of Interview:-
Interviews are generally of the following types:-
[Link] interview:- It is known as controlled, guided or direct interview. In this kind of
interview a complete scheduled is used. The interviwer is asked to get the answer to these
questions only.
2. Unstructured Interview:- It is known as uncontrolled unguided or undirected interviews.
No direct or predetermined question are used in this type of interview. The fild worker may
be told certain broad topics upon which the information is to be collected.
3. Focused interview:- Such an interviewee is generally used to study the social and
psychoilgical effects of mass communication e.g. the reaction of a film show or radio
programme. The type of interview is also in from of free story or narrative type, and is in
many respects similar to non structures interview.
Advantages of Interview Techinques-
[Link] to study the events that are not poen to observation (hidden factors), e.g., feelings,
attitudes, fear, emotions, interests, reactions.
[Link] answers are possible.
[Link] from respondants so that misunderstanding can minised.
[Link] can be pursued in depth.
5. A higher responce is possible and the reliable information can be obtained.
Disadvantages of Interview Techinque.
[Link] data collected are of a doubtful nature.
[Link] method
[Link] measurement problame due to difference in social characteristics, e.g., race,
ethnicity, perceived status differences.
[Link] much dependency on the memory of the respondent.

22
QUESTIONNAIRE

Introduction :-
Questionar are widely used to collect data, particularly when data are to be collected from a
large number of people who are scattered over a wide area. Questionnaire is a comman and
popular research tool of sociologists these days. The questionnaire ia a list of important and
pertinent questions concerning a problem.
Definations-
[Link] to Lundberg – “Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to which
literate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under these stimuli”.
Types of Questionnaire –
[Link] / closed questionnaire : Contains definite, concrete and pre- ordinate questions
with additional questional limited to those necessary to classify inadequate answers or to
elicit a more detailed responce.
[Link] structured /open questionnaire – Often known as interview guide is used for
focused, depth and non directive interviews.
George A Lundberg has classified questionnaire in two parts
[Link] of Fact- Which requires certain information of facts from the respondent
without any reference to his opinion or attitude about them
2. Questionnaire of opinion and attitude – In which the information‟s opinion, attitude or
preference regarding some phenomena is sought.
Advantages of Questionnaire-
Questionnaires as a tool of data collection, have strengths and weakness and thus advantages
and disadvantages are listed below.
[Link] cost- Questionnaires are less expensive than other methods. Even the staff required
is not much as either the researcher himself 7

23
may mail or one or two investigators may be appointed for hand-distributing the
questionnaire. Giving salary and TA/DA to the investigators and the research officers
increases the cost of the survey. In questionnaire the research has only to spend mony on
postage for sending the questionnairs and stamped envelopes for getting back the filled-in
questionnaires or on follow-up letters. The mailed questionnaires thgus cost less.
[Link] Saving- Since the respondants may be geographically dispersed and sample size may
be very large, the time required for gatting back the questionnaire may be little greater but
usally less than that for face to face interviews. Thus, since all questionnaires are sent
simultaneously and most of the replies are received in 10-15 days, schedules take months to
complete. In simple terms, questionnaires produce quick result.
[Link] to widespresd respondents – When the respondants are separted
geographically, they can be reached by correspondence which saves travel cost.
[Link] interviewer’s bias – Since the interviewer is not physically present at interviewee‟s
place, be cannot influence his answers, either by promating or by giving his own opinion or
by misreading the question.
[Link] anonymity – The absence of the interviewer assures anonymity which enables
respondant to express free opinions and answers even to socially undesirable questions. The
absence of the interviewer assure privacy to the respondants because of which they willingly
give details of all events and incidents they would have not revealed otherwise.
[Link]’s convenience–The respondant can fill-in the questionnaire leisurely at his
convenience. He is not forced to complete all questions at one time. Since he fills up the
questionnaire in spare time, he can answer easy questions first and take time for difficult
questions.
[Link] Wordings- Each respondent is exposed to same words and therefore there is
little difference in understanding questions. The comparison of answers is thus facilited. 8

24
[Link] variation- Questionnaires are a stable, consistent and uniform measure, without
variation.
Disadvantages of Questionnaire-
[Link] mailed questionnaires can be used only for educated people. This restricts the number
of respondents.
[Link] return rate of questionnaires is low. The comman return rate is 30 to 40 percent.
[Link] mailing address may not be correct which may omit some eligible respondents. Thus
the sample selected many a time is described as biased.
[Link] diffrant respondents interprete questions differently. The misunderstanding
cannit be corrected.
[Link] may be bias in the responce selectivity because the respondant having no interest in
the topic may not give responce to all questions . Since the researcher is not present to
explain the meaning of certain concepts, the respondent may leave the question blank.
[Link] do not provide an opportunity to collect additional information while they
are being completed.
[Link] are not sure whether the person to whom the questionnaire was mailed has
himself answered the questions or somebody else has filled up the questionnaire.
[Link] questions remain unanswered. The partial response affects the analysis.
9. The respondant can consult other persons befour filling in the questionnaire. The
responses, therefore, cannot be viewed as his opinions.
[Link] reliability of respondant‟s background information cannot be verified. A middle class
person can identify himself as rich person or a person of intermediate caste can describe
himself as uppercaste person.
[Link] the size of the questionnaire has to be kept small ,full information cannot be secured
form the respondent .
12. There is lack of depth or probing for a more specific answer.

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 Module 04

Quantities and Qualitative Research:

Difference between Quantitative Research and Qualitative research
Survey – Meaning, nature advantages and disadvantages
 Qualitative research methods
Casestudy–meaning, nature advantages and
disadvantages
Recent strategies – combiningthe Quantitative an
Qualitative Methods in research .

Qualitative and Qualitative Research

Introduction-
Research problem can be studied with different approaches. A researcher may take into
consideration the phenomenon as a whole and describe it as it exists or may wish to analyze it
by its components in measurable or quantifiable terms. The former approach is termed as
qualitative approach. These are further described as under
Qualitative Research –
Qualitative research is a scientific method of observation to gather non – numerical data. This
types of research “refers to the meanings, concepts, definitations, characteristics, metaphors,
symbols, and description of things” and not to their „count or measures‟. This research
answers why and how a certain phenomenon may occur rather than how often. Qualitative
research approach are employed across many academic disciplines on the social and natural
sciences.
Qualitative approach takes into consideration „detailed description‟ of situations, events,
people, intractions and observed behaviours. These data are also available in the form of
„direct quotations‟ from people about their experiences, attitudes, beliefs and

thoughts. Data in qualitative approach are collected through direct observations,

participant

26
observations, in-depth interviewing, case studies, recorded documents, open-ended
questionnaires and journals.
Qualitative methods are best for researching many of the why and how questions of
human experience in making a decision for example and strong basis in the field of sociology
to understand government and social programs. Qualitative research is widely used in
sociology, political science, social work, and education researchers.
In contrast, a qualitative researcher might argue that understanding of a phenomenon or
situation or event, comes from exploring the totality of the situation. Qualitative research is of
great value to sociological studies that can shed light on the intricacies in the functionality of
society and human interaction. This approach describes the experiences of people in depth
and permits the researcher torecord and understand people thoroughly in their own
perceptions. This approach helps us to examine the nature of human behaviour and
experience and social conditions. It also permits the researcher to study selected issues, cases
or events in depth. While using this approach, the researcher seeks to capture what people
have to say in their own words.
The validity and reliability of qualitative data depends to a great extent on the
methodological skills, sensitivity and integrity of the researcher. Systematic and rigorous
observation involves far more than just being present and looking around. Skilful
interviewing involves much more than just asking questions. Content analysis requires
considerably more insight into the data than reading to see what‟s there. Thus, generating
useful, credible qualitative findings through cbservation, interviewing and content analysis
requires discipline, knowledge, training, practice, creativity and hard work.
Qualitative Approach –
Quantative approach focuses on objective and standardize means of inquiry and application
of statistical analysis for attainment of objectivity and generalizations. Quantitative
researchers use interview, questionnaire and structured observation as major methods
to collect data. Quantitative approach uses standardized measures that fit diverse options and
experiences into predetermined response categories. This approach measures the reactions of
a large number of individuals to a limited set of questions, thus facilitating comparision and
analysis of data with the help of closed-ended questionnaires, attitude scales, rating scales
and postal surveys.

27
Difference between Quantitative Research and Qualitative research

Qualitative Research- Involves analysis of data such as words(e.g., from interviews)

pictures (e.g., vedio), or objects (e.g.,an artefact)

Quantitative Research – Involves analysis of numerical data

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
[Link] aim is a complet, detailed description. [Link] aim is classify featurs, count them, and
construct statistical models in an attempt to
explain what is observed
[Link] may only know roughly in [Link] knows clearly in advance what
advance what he/she is looking for. he/she is looking for.
[Link] during earlier phases of 3. Recommended during latter phases of
research project. research project.
[Link] design emerges as the study unfolds. [Link] aspects of the study are carefully designed
befourdata is collected.
[Link] is the data gathering instrument. 5. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires
or equipment to collect numerical data.
[Link] is in the form of words, piciures or 6. Data is in the form of numbers and ststistics.
objects.
7. Subjective-„ individuals‟ interpretation of 7. Objective – seeks precise measurement &
events is important e.g., uses participant analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys,
observation, in-depth interviews etc. questionnaires etc.
[Link] data is more „rich‟, time 8. Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test
consuming, and less able to be generalized. hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
[Link] tends to become subjectively [Link] tends to remain objectively
immersed in the subject matter. separated from the subject matter.

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 Module No.5

Computer in Social Research:

1.E-research : using the internet as object and method of data Collection
[Link] of computer in data analysis

E- research : using the internet as object and method of data Collection

Introduction -

In our research, the data are gathered in the laboratory on a DEC PDP- ll/24 minicomputer.
Once the data are gathered, they are analog -to-digital (AID) converted and sent by the PDP
to an IBM 370·3031. The data are submitted to a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) on the IBM
computer. Once the FFT is completed, the data are accessed by an m M PC-XT that is
equipped with an IRMA system. The PC is used in its emulation mode to access the data in
the mainframe. In the mainframe, SPSS or SAS is used to do the initial statistical analyses.
When necessary, subsets of the data are transferred to the PC, where other computer
programs are used to analyze the data. In many instances, they are returned to the mainframe
from the PC, where they are submitted to multivariate statistical analysis. Finally, all of the
data are stored on floppy disks, which are prepared on the PC. The gathering, handling, and
analysis of EEG and EKG data have always been difficult. The sensitivity of the instruments,
the rate at which the data are gathered, the transformation of the data needed prior to
statistical analysis, and the number of data gathered from each subject make the entire
experimental process one which is filled with tasks that must be carried out with great care.
Each step of the experiment must be conducted with care for results to be valid. The power
and sophistication of computers now assist us in the gathering and managing of complex
data. The gathering and handling of EEG and EKG data consist of a series of complex tasks.
The initial gathering and storage of the data require a computer to work with analog data.
Also, a computer that can electronically control the delivery of a stimulus as a part of the
experiment is frequently needed. Once the data are gathered, they must be transformed from
their original analog form to a digital form. The performance characteristics of the computer
used to transform the data from one form to another are typically different from those used to
control experiments and gather the data. Finally, the data must be reviewed, edited, and

29
statistically analyzed, which usually requires the use of another computer. This third type is
usually a large, powerful computer designed to do mathematical calculations. Through
networking or interfacing, the data The authors' mailing address is: Department of
Psychology, Trinity University, San Antonio, TX 78284. can be passed from one computer to
another without having to be re entered. This article describes the review, analysis, and
decision-making process involved in developing the computer network used in our laboratory
to gather and analyze EEG and EKG data.

Computer Network –

A network of three computers is used to conduct our research. Figure 1 contains a

graphic description of the network. The data are gathered and the experiments are controlled
by a DEC PDP-ll/24 computer located in the neuropsychology laboratory. Basically, the
PDP-l1/24 is configured as a process-control computer. Using this computer in conjunction
with a Vetter analogy tape recorder, we can gather up to seven channels of data at a sampling
rate of 256 data points per second. The PDP computer and Vetter tape recorder can be used to
gather these data while the computer simultaneously controls the delivery of stimuli to
subjects. The data are gathered in analogue form. Prior to analysis, the data are AID
converted to digital form by the PDP computer at a rate of 256 points per second per channel.
A dedicated coaxial line connects the PDP computer to the campus mainframe computer, an
ffiM 3031 with 12 MB of virtual memory. A program called KERMIT is used to send the
digitized data from the PDP computer to the University ffiM. The process of identifying,
acquiring, and using KERMIT is described elsewhere in this157 Copyright 1985
Psychonomic Society, Inc. 158 YOST AND BREMNER Figure 1. Computer network. issue
(Yost, Holcombe, & Eddy, 1985). Once the data are sent to the mainframe, they are stored on
tape and then submitted to a computer program that performs a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
on them. To perform the FFT, either a program developed by Benignus (1969) or the
Statistical Analysis System (Ray, 1982) is used. Either can be used with an IBM 3278
terminal attached to the mainframe. These terminals are available at a number of locations on
campus. The editor and control functions of the Conversational Monitoring System (CMS)
are used to operate these programs. The principal advantage of using the mainframe to
perform the FFT is speed. Many data are generated when we gather from multiple channels at
a rate of 256 data points per second for as much as 20 sec. A large, powerful mainframe is
required to perform this mathematical task. Usually we submit the data to the FFT on the

30
IBM computer at nonprime times. The output from the FFT program is the data used in the
statistical analyses, which, prior to analysis, often must be reviewed, and, in some instances,
edited. Because of the loads on the IBM mainframe and the availability of terminals during
the working day, it is best to take the data from the IBM mainframe to a microcomputer for
editing and initial analyses. To do this, we pass the data from the IBM mainframe to an IBM
PC-XT that has been networked with the IBM mainframe.

Selecting an Intelligent Workstation

A number of different networking options were evaluated prior to selecting the IBM PC-
XT. Our first attempt was to use a dumb terminal with a 1200-baud modem. This
configuration gave us access to the mainframe to perform our data-analysis tasks, but due to
the load on the mainframe, its use during prime-time hours was often limited. There were
several other limitations to the use of this configuration. When our IBM mainframe was
accessed through a telephone line, the user was limited to the use of the EDIT editor and
could not use the XEDIT editor. The XEDIT editor allows full screen editing, whereas the
EDIT editor allows only one-line-at-a-time editing. EDIT is more cumbersome and is slower
than XEDIT. Also, a 1200-baud transmission rate seems to be acceptable at first, but after a
very short time becomes very slow, and the terminal appears to lack responsiveness. Finally,
even with a hard disk attached to the dumb terminal, the process of storing and retrieving data
is difficult and cumbersome. Our second attempt at networking was to use a microcomputer
in conjunction with a modem as an intelligent workstation. This configuration allowed a little
more flexibility but it still proved to be impractical. The speed with which we could work
was about the same as with the dumb terminal, and we still could use only the EDIT and not
the XEDIT editor. The fact that this was man intelligent workstation provided some added
flexibility over the dumb terminal, in that the microprocessor could be used as a stand-alone
unit when not connected to the mainframe. Passing files between the microprocessor and the
mainframe was a complex task and one that was time consuming. The data-transfer rates
between the two computers was very limited for the size of the data files that we use in our
analyses. In a final attempt at networking, we chose to acquire the IBM PC-XT computer
with 512K bytes of core and a to-MB hard disk. In addition, we purchased an IRMA
communications card and the accompanying software programs to use in our research. The
combination of the PCXT, the hard disk, the IRMA card, and the IRMA software seems to
satisfy our research needs very well. The IRMA card is installed inside the PC-XT, and the

31
software is installed both on the hard disk and in one of our CMS machines on the IBM
mainframe. The IRMA card is hardwired directly into the mainframe. The IBM PCXT is a
very powerful machine in itself and is capable of performing a great deal of work. We keep
several statistical packages: a graphics package, a database manager, and a work processing
package resident on the disk for immediate use at all times. We also have a printer, a plotter,
a colour graphics monitor, and a monochrome monitor as peripherals on the PC-XT. These
peripheral devices serve to make the research efforts more efficient and provide independence
from the computer centre. The use of the PC-XT as a terminal is very simple. Once the computer is
booted, it automatically seeks out and connects itself to the mainframe. To use the mainframe,
the user simply signs on and gives the necessary identification and account information. The
transfer rate between the PC-XT and the mainframe is 9600 baud. Because of the way that
the PC-XT is connected to the mainframe, it is possible to use the XEDIT editor. One of the
powerful assets of the IRMA communications system is that the PC-XT can be used as a
microprocessor and a terminal to the mainframe simultaneously. That is, it is possible to boot
the PC-XT, sign on to the mainframe, and submit several jobs to be processed, and, while
they are being processed, switch back to the PC-XT and use it as a microprocessor. Switching
back and forth between systems is done by pressing two keys simultaneously. Transferring
files between the mainframe and the PC-XT is a menu-driven process. The files are
transferred directly between a CMS machine and the PC-XT. The process is started by
executing a program on the PC-XT that brings a menu on the screen. Simple non
programming responses to the menu are required to transfer programs or data in either
direction between the two computers. Large data sets can be transferred between the two
computers in reasonable amounts of time. It is easier to store large data sets on floppy disks
with the PC-XT and the IRMA system than it is to store them on tapes at the computer centre.
In 1983 the M Corporation announced the availability of a of a 3278/79 emulation system. This
system is available at present for the M PC and the M PC-XT. The system requires installation of
a board inside the computer, and installation of software in both the mainframe and the
microcomputer. The function, use, and operation of the M system are almost identical to the
IRMA system. Both of the systems cost approximately $1,100.00. We have been successful in
developing a method that permits the use of the same data sets with programs on both the PC-
XT and the mainframe. The data on the mainframe are accessed with either SAS or SPSS. Both
of these programs have options that permit the user to generate data files within the mainframe.
We begin work on the mainframe by developing a data set that we want to analyze. Standard
data-set generation techniques are used to insert the common delimiters and end-of-file marks
required

32
by the programs on the PC-XT. Once the file has been generated, it is transferred to the PC-
XT, where it is read into the directory of our Total Information Management System (TIM), a
database management program. We then use the utility programs within TIM to transfer

Computer Network

The data to the directory containing the statistical program or the directory
containing the graphics program. The entire process can be reversed when data are
transferred from the PC-XT to the mainframe. When the data are in the mainframe, they are
in an EBCDIC form; in the PCXT, they are in an ASCII form. When the IRMA system is
used to transfer the data from one computer to another, the data are automatically
transformed from one form to the other. At the present, we feel very comfortable with our
ability to use three computers to conduct research. Each of the three computers is used to
perform the tasks that it does best, and there are no problems in passing the data from one
computer to another. This provides a very efficient and effective research working
environment.

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 Module 06

Report Writing:
1. Importance of report writing
2. Writing Qualitative and a Quantities research –
3. presentation and interpretation Qualities of good research
report.

Importance of Report Writing in social research –

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research
task remain incomplete till the report has been presented or written. The purpose of research
is not well served unless the findings are made known to others. „Research report is a
research document that contains basic aspects of the research project‟. Mostly research work
is presented in a written form. The practical utility of research study depends heavily on the
way it is presented to those who are expected to act on the basis of research findings.
Research report is a written document containing key aspects of research project. Research
report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is also a good
source of presentation of research work for the feature reference. The research work is not
complete until the report has been written. The hypothesis and findings of study, however
brilliant and original.

The meaning and significance of research report is considered a major component of the
research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and
written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis highly well designed and
conducted research study and the most striking generalizations and findings are of little value
unless they are effectively communicated to others.

The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explain the
significance of writing research report. There are people who do not consider writing of
report as an integral part of the research process, but the general option is in favour of treating
the presentation of research results of the writing of the report as part and parcel of the
research project. Writing of the report is the last steps in a research study and require a set of
skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research.

34
This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care he may seek the
assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.

Each research has a purpose and each report could be prepared and read by different
publics. For example, it may be prepared only as an academic exercise to be published in a
book form, to be read by college/university students, or it could be submitted to the funding
organisation which may use it for policy purposes, or it may be used for writing a research
paper to be presented at a professional meeting, or it may be used for writing a paper for
some academic journal, or it may be published in a newspaper to be read by common people ,
and so on. Whatever the purpose may be, the general form of the report is roughly the same.

Presentation and interpretation

The analysis is the ordering of data into constituent parts in order to obtain answers to
research questions. For example, a researcher for mulates a hypothesis pertaining to relation
between high educational level and positative attitude towards a certain phenomenon. He
conducted a study, gathers a data from the respondents in a college/university. He then breaks
down the data and so orders them that he can obtain an answer to the question does high
education change the attitudes? However merely analysis does not provide answers to
research questions. Interpretation of data is also necessary. Interpretation takes the result of
analysis, makes inferences and draws conclusions about the relationship. Thus to interpret is
to explain, to find meaning. In most case, it is difficult to explain raw data. One must first
analyse the data and then interpret the result of the analysis. Data are interpreted in two ways
one the relations within the study and its data are interpreted and two, the results of the study
and the inferences drawn within the data are compared to theory and to other research results.
Thus, in this methods one seeks meaning

35
 References

1. Ahuja Ram 2009, Research Methods, Rawat Publication, jaipure

2. . Lal Das D.K.,2005 , Designs of Social Resaarch, ,Rawat Publications Jaipure

3. 2T. Padma, 2011, Sociology, Alt Publication, Hyderabad.

4. BENIGNUS, V. (1969). Computation of coherence and regression spectra

using the FFr. Common, pp. 45-63.

5. RAY, A. (1982). Users guide: Statistical analysis system. Chicago:

Statistical Analysis Institute.

6. YOST, M., HOLCOMBE, 1., &; EDDY, D. (1985). Microcomputer, minicomputer,

mainframe interfacing. BeluJvior Research Methods. Instruments, de Computers, 17,

163-164.

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