Edexcel A Level Biology Your notes

(A) SNAB
The Brain, Behaviour & Disease
Contents
Brain: Structure & Function
Studying the Brain
Development of the Visual Cortex
The Role of Animal Models in Research
Habituation
Imbalances in Brain Chemicals Leading to Diseases
Action of Drugs on Synapses
Personalised Medicine
Producing Drugs Using GMOs
Nature vs Nurture in Brain Development

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 Brain: Structure & Function
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Brain: Structure & Function

The brain, alongside the spinal cord, is part of the central nervous system (CNS)
The brain is made of billions of interconnected neurones
Within the brain are different regions that carry out different functions

Different regions of the brain carry out different functions

You need to know the functions of the following brain regions

The cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain in humans, accounting for about 80% of the
total mass of the brain
It carries out a large variety of functions involved with conscious activities, including:
Vision
Hearing
Speech
Thinking
Memory
The cerebrum is divided into two halves known as the cerebral hemispheres

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 The hemispheres are joined together by a band of nerve fibres known as the corpus
callosum
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The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left one controls
the right side
The cerebrum has a thin outer layer known as the cerebral cortex or 'grey matter'
The cerebral cortex consists of the cell bodies of neurones
It is highly folded, which increases its surface area and allows it to contain a greater
number of neurones
With more neurones in the brain, more neurone connections can be made
This is important, as the more connections between neurones in the brain,
the greater the ability of the brain to carry out more complex behaviours
Beneath the cerebral cortex or grey matter layer is the 'white matter'
The white matter consists of the myelinated axons of neurones

The cerebrum consists of two hemispheres joined by the corpus callosum

The hypothalamus
The hypothalamus monitors the blood as it flows through the brain and, in
response, releases hormones or stimulates the neighbouring pituitary gland to release
hormones
The hypothalamus plays an important role in some homeostatic mechanisms
Hypothalamus functions include
Regulating body temperature
The hypothalamus monitors blood temperature and initiates a homeostatic
response if this temperature gets too high or too low

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 Osmoregulation
Cells in the hypothalamus monitor the water balance of the blood and releases Your notes
the hormone ADH if the blood becomes too concentrated
ADH increases absorption of water in the kidneys
Regulating digestive activity
The hypothalamus regulates the hormones that control appetite as well as the
secretion of digestive enzymes
Controlling endocrine functions
The hypothalamus causes the pituitary gland to release hormones that control a
variety of processes e.g. metabolism, growth and development, puberty,
sexual functions, sleep, and mood
The cerebellum
The cerebellum coordinates movement
This includes balance; a highly complex function that requires coordination
between multiple parts, including the eyes, semicircular canals in the ears, and many
muscles

The medulla oblongata

Also known as the medulla
The medulla contains co-ordination centres that control different functions e.g.
The cardiac centre controls heart rate
The respiratory centre controls breathing rate

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 Studying the Brain
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Studying the Brain

Our understanding of brain structure and function is limited
The brain is incredibly complex and very delicate
Different regions work together to bring about brain function so can’t be studied
in isolation
It is therefore extremely difficult for neuroscientists to study the brain and find out how it
works
Specialised scanners and techniques can be used to study the brain without having to
resort to surgical intervention

Computerised Tomography
Computerised tomography, or CT, scans produce cross-section images of the brain
using x-ray radiation
A beam of x-rays are aimed at a patient from all angles around the body
Digital x-ray detectors are used to pick up the x-rays as they exit the patient's body
Denser tissue absorbs more of the x-ray radiation so shows up as a lighter region on
a scan
A scan produced in this way shows physical structures of the brain and allows
visualisation of any tissue damage
E.g. blood is less dense than brain tissue so a CT scan can be used to locate
damaged blood vessels and areas of bleeding after a patient has had a stroke
The scans don't directly show the functions of the regions of the brain but it is possible
to link visible symptoms with the location of any tissue damage
This can allow neurologists to work out which regions of the brain are responsible for
which functions
CT scans are not recommended for pregnant patients or children due to the risks of
exposure to the X-ray radiation, which is given at a higher level than in a normal X-ray
The risk of damage from such scans is still very low

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic Resonance Imaging, or MRI, uses a combination of a magnetic field and radio
waves to generate images through the body
The patient being scanned must remain very still while inside a large magnet
Soft tissues can be seen clearly using MRI, and images produced are at a higher
resolution than those produced from CT scanning

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 As with CT scanning, MRI is useful for identifying areas of abnormal or damaged tissue,
but only enables brain function to be analysed by linking damage on a scan with visible
symptoms in a patient Your notes
MRI is especially useful for tumour diagnosis as tumours show up clearly in images
generated in this way
MRI scans can therefore be used to identify and locate tumours in the brain
MRI scans are considerably more expensive to carry out than CT scans but do not carry
the risk associated with the use of potentially harmful x-rays
MRI scans are often the imaging method of choice during long-term therapies
The magnetic field of an MRI scanner can interfere with medical devices such as
pacemakers and insulin pumps, so patients with such devices cannot have MRI scans
Functional MRI
Functional MRI, or fMRI, functions in a similar way to MRI, making use of a magnetic field
and radio waves to generate images of brain structure
The difference between MRI and fMRI is that fMRI scans allow brain function to be
studied in real time
fMRI scans show the location of oxygenated blood in the brain, therefore indicating
which brain regions are active at any one time
The scanner measures the ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated haemoglobin
Patients can be asked to carry out particular actions, answer questions, or think
about a specific topic while inside a scanner and the change in blood flow to
regions of the brain can be assessed
The region of the brain associated with the activity or thought will 'light up' in the
scanner
This can be used in medical diagnosis e.g. searching for the cause of seizures, or
in psychology research

Positron Emission Tomography

PET scans use radioactive tracers which collect in areas where there is increased blood
flow, metabolism, or neurotransmitter activity
The tracer is introduced to the blood in advance of the scan so that it can be
detected by the scanner
E.g. a radioactive tracer might be radioactively labelled glucose; glucose will be
transported in the blood and will be present in high concentrations in metabolically
active areas of the brain
The scanner can detect areas of high radioactivity, and so the movement of the tracer
through the body and any accumulation of tracer in the brain can be seen
The amount of radioactive tracer present in a brain region can indicate whether that
region is active or inactive

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 This has been useful in building an understanding of specific diseases such as
Alzheimer's where brain activity in certain regions decreases
Neurologists can use the images to study the structure and function of the brain in real Your notes
time

Some types of scan show only structure, while other allow the study of structure and
function in real time

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Development of the Visual Cortex
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Development of the Visual Cortex

The visual cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex in which visual information is
processed
The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum
Soon after birth the neurones in the visual cortex of baby mammals begin to form
connections, or synapses, allowing visual information to be transferred through and
processed by the visual cortex
Both eyes need to be visually stimulated in order for the neurones in the visual cortex to
be organised correctly during this period of early development, known as the critical
period
Synapses that pass on nerve impulses during this critical period are strengthened and
become permanent parts of the structure of the visual cortex
Synapses that do not receive nerve impulses during this critical period are lost and
cannot be re-formed
This can result in blindness in one or both eyes if visual stimulation is not provided
during the critical period
Evidence for this critical period of development comes from a study using animal
models carried out by Hubel and Wiesel

The visual cortex is located at the back of the brain within the cerebral cortex

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 The Role of Animal Models in Research
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The Role of Animal Models in Research

The human brain is very difficult to study
The brain is complex and its tissues are delicate meaning that it is easy to cause
damage during a surgical examination
Different regions work together to bring about brain function so often cannot be
studied in isolation
For this reason, animal models have historically been used in brain research
Some animals have similar brain structure to humans, so the findings from such
models can reasonably be applied to the human brain
Many consider experimenting on animals for medical reasons to be more ethically
acceptable than experimenting on humans
Note that a model in science is something that provides a representation of real events
e.g.
Computer modelling can be used to predict the future of global warming
Balls can be used to represent the molecules of a solid, liquid, or gas
Scaled down models of vehicles can be used in design and safety testing

The work of Hubel and Wiesel

Hubel and Wiesel carried out research into the brain's visual systems during the 1960s
and 1970s
They studied the long-term impact of depriving various animal models of vision in one
eye, and in doing so learned about the development of the brain's visual cortex
The visual cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex in which visual information is
processed
Hubel and Wiesel began their research using kittens as animal models
They stitched one of a subject's eyes closed soon after birth, meaning that as the
kitten grew it could only see out of one eye
After 3 months they found that the kittens were blind in the eye that had been
stitched shut
When they studied the activity of the neurones in the kittens' visual cortexes using
electrodes, they found that the ocular dominance columns corresponding to the
stitched shut eye were smaller than in normal kittens while the columns
corresponding to the open eye were larger than normal
Ocular dominance columns are groups of neurones in the visual cortex that
respond only to input from one eye or the other

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 Right ocular dominance columns receive information from the right eye
while left columns receive information from the left eye
They concluded that the ocular dominance columns for the blinded eye were able Your notes
to redistribute in order to correspond to the normal eye; they had switched
dominance
The research was then repeated using adult cat models
They found that no blindness resulted from the 3-month loss of vision, and no
changes took place to the distribution of the ocular dominance columns
They were able to replicate these results in young and adult monkeys, demonstrating
the essential nature of light stimulation to the visual cortex during the early months of
development
Without early stimulation to both eyes the ocular dominance columns in the visual
cortex are unable to develop normally

Ocular dominance columns are stripes of neurones in the visual cortex that receive
information from either the left or right eye

Moral & Ethical Issues Relating to

Animals in Research
The use of animals in medical research is common as it allows for the testing of new
medications and research into anatomy and physiology without endangering the lives
of humans
Despite this, the use of animals in scientific research is highly controversial
Animal Research Ethical Arguments Table

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 Your notes

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 Habituation
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Habituation
Animals must respond to changes in their external and internal environments in order to
survive
Changes in the environment, or stimuli (singular stimulus) are detected by
specialised receptor cells
Receptor cells send signals via either the nervous system or the hormonal
system to the body's co-ordination centres in the brain or spinal cord
Signals are then sent on to the parts of the body which respond, known as
the effectors
The process of detecting and responding to stimuli requires energy, so it is important
that animals don't waste energy responding to non-threatening stimuli
Animals need to conserve energy for essential processes that increase their survival
chances
If a stimulus is repeated many times with no negative outcome, then an animal will learn
not to respond to it; this process is known as habituation
An animal that doesn't respond to a stimulus is said to be habituated to that stimulus
Examples of habituation include
Humans no longer noticing a new smell or sound after a period of exposure
Wild animals losing their fear of humans after regular non-harmful contact
Animals learning not to be alarmed by the presence of non-predatory species
If a stimulus to which an animal has become habituated changes, then the nervous
system will respond to it again
E.g. a constant low-level sound that suddenly becomes louder

The process of habituation

Animals become habituated due to changes in the transmission of nerve impulses from
one neurone to the next
Nerve impulses are transmitted across synapses by the diffusion of chemical
neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are released at the presynaptic membrane in response to an
influx of calcium ions
When habituation has taken place fewer calcium ions move into the presynaptic
neurone on arrival of a nerve impulse
As a result, less neurotransmitter is released and an action potential is less likely to be
generated in the postsynaptic neurone

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 Fewer molecules of neurotransmitter bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane
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Fewer sodium ion channels open
Fewer sodium ions move into the axon and the charge inside the axon remains
negative
Threshold potential is not reached
The nerve impulse therefore does not reach the effector organ and the animal does not
respond to the stimulus

Practical: Investigating Habituation to a

Stimulus
Habituation to a stimulus can be studied by measuring the changes in an animal's
response to a non-harmful stimulus e.g.
Snails often respond to a stimulus by withdrawing into their shell, waiting to
emerge again until the harmful stimulus is likely to be gone
As snails become habituated to a stimulus the time taken for them to re-emerge
from their shells after a stimulus gets shorter

Apparatus
Snail
A soft object with which to provide a stimulus e.g. a damp cotton bud or a blade of grass
Stopwatch

Method
1. Place a snail on a clean, flat surface and give it time to emerge from its shell
The same surface should be used throughout the experiment
Ensure that humidity remains the same throughout as snails will withdraw in a dry
environment
2. Gently brush the snail's head with a damp cotton bud or blade of grass
It is expected that the snail will withdraw into its shell in response to the touch
3. Start the stopwatch and measure the time taken until the snail re-emerges from the shell
and fully extends its eye-stalks again
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 10-15 times, recording the time taken until full re-emergence each
time
Ensure that the same soft object is used throughout and that the location of the
touch on the snail's body remains the same
Waiting for full extension of the eye stalks ensures that the same end-point is used
each time

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5. Plot a graph of touch number against time taken for full re-emergence
The graph would be expected to show a gradual decrease in the time taken for full Your notes
re-emergence as the snail becomes habituated to the stimulus
Note that snails are living organisms and so welfare considerations should be taken into
account when using them for experimental purposes
Snails should be returned to a suitable environment that replicates their natural
habitat at the end of the experiment
If snails were taken from a garden or the school grounds then they should be
returned to the exact location from which they were removed
Any handling and transfer of snails should be carried out gently and quickly
Snails should not be exposed to high temperatures or an overly dry environment

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 Imbalances in Brain Chemicals Leading to Diseases
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Imbalances in Brain Chemicals Leading

to Diseases
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit nerve impulses across synapses
Some disorders and diseases are linked to an imbalance of neurotransmitters in the
brain
Two examples are
Parkinson's Disease
Depression

Parkinson's disease
Parkinson's disease is a brain disorder that affects the co-ordination of movement,
caused by the loss of neurones in some parts of the brain
Symptoms include
A tremor to the specific parts of the body
Slow movement
Stiff and inflexible muscles
Difficulties with balance
Changes to speech
The lost neurones normally produce the neurotransmitter dopamine
Dopamine is involved in muscle control
Individuals that suffer from Parkinson's disease produce insufficient amounts of
dopamine due to the loss of dopamine-producing neurones
Less dopamine is released into the synaptic cleft meaning less is able to bind with
receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
Fewer sodium channels on the membrane are opened so depolarisation of the
postsynaptic neurone does not occur
This leads to fewer action potentials which creates the symptoms such as tremors
and slow movement
Different types of drugs can be used to treat this disease
Dopamine agonists
Produce the same effect as dopamine by binding to and activating the
dopamine receptors on the postsynaptic membrane

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 Dopamine precursors
These are chemicals that can be converted into dopamine in the neurones Your notes
E.g. L-dopa
Enzyme inhibitors
Monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) inhibitors inhibit the activity of enzymes that
would normally break down dopamine in the synaptic cleft, raising levels of
dopamine present in the brain
Research into other treatments for Parkinson's disease is currently ongoing, with some
promising future possibilities in the areas of
Gene therapy
This would involve the addition of genes to the affected cells in the brain to
either increase dopamine production or prevent the destruction of dopamine-
producing cells
Stem cell therapy
Stem cells could be used to replace the lost dopamine-producing cells in the
brain
Depression
Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin have been linked to depression
Serotonin transmits nerve impulses through the areas of the brain that control
mood
Low levels of serotonin increase episodes of depression
Other brain chemicals linked to depression include noradrenaline and dopamine
Some drugs that have been developed for the treatment of depression, known as
antidepressants, work by increasing the levels of relevant neurotransmitters in the
brain
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are a class of antidepressant that
prevent the uptake of serotonin at synapses; this increases the overall levels of
serotonin in the brain
TCAs (tricyclic antidepressants) increase levels of both serotonin and
noradrenaline in the brain
MAOB inhibitors inhibit enzymes that would otherwise break down
neurotransmitters in the synaptic clefts in the brain

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Action of Drugs on Synapses
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Action of Drugs on Synapses

The chemicals in drugs can have a major impact on the functioning of the brain and
nervous system
Some prescription drugs can have a beneficial effect on those suffering from
neurological disorders while recreational drugs can have a damaging or even fatal effect
Many drugs impact the nervous system by altering the events that occur at a synapse
Drugs can increase transmission of impulses at a synapse by
Causing more neurotransmitter to be produced in the synaptic knob
Causing more neurotransmitter to be released at the presynaptic membrane
Imitating the effect of a neurotransmitter by binding to and activating receptors on
the postsynaptic membrane
Preventing the breakdown of neurotransmitters by enzymes
Preventing the reuptake of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic cell
Drugs can decrease transmission of impulses at a synapse by
Preventing production of neurotransmitter in the presynaptic knob
Preventing the release of neurotransmitter at the presynaptic membrane
Enabling neurotransmitter to gradually leak out of the presynaptic knob so there is
little left when an action potential arrives
The neurotransmitter that leaks out of the cell is destroyed by enzymes
Binding to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and so preventing
neurotransmitters from binding

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 Your notes

Drugs can influence the transmission of nerve impulses at synapses

MDMA
MDMA is a recreational drug that is also known as ecstasy
Its use and sale are criminal offences in most parts of the world
MDMA effects multiple neurotransmitters, most notably serotonin
MDMA inhibits the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic neurone by binding to
the specific proteins that enable serotonin reuptake, located on the presynaptic
membrane; this increases the amount of serotonin present in the brain
Serotonin is usually reabsorbed into the presynaptic neurone to be
recycled for future action potentials
MDMA also triggers the release of further serotonin from presynaptic neurones,
further adding to the increase
Serotonin can affect people in many ways including their mood, anxiety and sleep
When an individual takes MDMA they may feel extreme euphoria and enhanced touch
and bodily sensations

L-dopa
L-dopa is a drug used to treat the symptoms of Parkinson's disease
It has a very similar structure to dopamine; a neurotransmitter present at lower levels
than usual in the brains of those who suffer from Parkinson's disease

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L-dopa is transported from the blood into the brain, where it is converted into
dopamine in a reaction catalysed by the enzyme dopa-decarboxylase
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The effect is to increase levels of dopamine in the brain
Note, dopamine cannot be given directly to those who have Parkinson's disease as
it cannot cross the barrier between the blood and the brain
Increased levels of dopamine mean that more nerve impulses are transmitted in parts
of the brain that control movement, giving sufferers better control over their movement
and lessening the symptoms of Parkinson's disease

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Personalised Medicine
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Personalised Medicine
Personalised medicine involves the development of targeted drugs to treat a variety of
human diseases in individuals with different genotypes
Such drugs can be tested on synthetic tissues; groups of cells cultured in a lab that
are genetically identical to certain groups of patients
Information gathered from genome projects like the Human Genome Project (HGP) can
be used to develop genomic medicine, which uses information about the genes to
design medical treatments
The HGP involved the sequencing of the entire human genome
The information gained during the HGP is stored in databases, within which genes
that code for certain proteins can be found and analysed
Knowing the sequence and structure of proteins involved in disease allows the
development of drugs that target specific proteins
E.g. if an enzyme is involved with disease, a drug that acts as an enzyme
inhibitor can be developed
By combining information about the genome with other clinical and diagnostic
information, patterns can be identified that can help to determine an individual's risk of
developing disease
Genetic screening allows individuals with a high chance of developing specific
diseases to be identified and means that preventative measures can be taken e.g.
Certain genetic mutations are known to increase the risk of an individual
developing breast cancer, so those who know that they have such a mutation
can have surgery in advance to reduce their risk
An individual may be able to make certain life choices regarding diet and
lifestyle based on knowledge of their genetic risk of cancers and heart disease
Doctors can also use an individual's genome to work out how well they might respond
to specific treatments, allowing treatments to be selected on the basis of an individual's
genotype

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 Your notes

Databases can be used to store information on gene and protein sequences that can then
be used to design drugs or determine the most effective treatment for a patient
Social, moral and ethical issues
Increased research costs for drug companies could increase the price of new
medicines and mean that only wealthier people have access to personalised medicine
There is fear that insurance companies and employers may use personalised medical
data against individuals to unfairly discriminate against them e.g. insurance costs might
increase for people with certain genetic variants
Some patients may be refused personalised medicine if it is not predicted to be that
effective for them, even if there are no other treatment options
Knowing that the only medication available may not work could be very distressing for
the individual being treated and their families

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 Producing Drugs Using GMOs
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Producing Drugs Using GMOs

Genetic engineering is a technique used to deliberately modify a specific characteristic
of an organism
The technique involves removing a gene that codes for a desired characteristic
from one organism and transferring the gene into another organism where
the desired gene is then expressed
The genetically engineered organism is said to contain recombinant DNA and will be a
genetically modified organism (GMO)
Micro-organisms, plants and animals have been genetically engineered to produce
proteins used in medicine

Genetically modified micro-organisms

Restriction enzymes are used to remove the gene coding for a desired protein from an
organism's genome
The protein coded for here will be responsible for the characteristic desired in the
GMO e.g. the ability to produce insulin
Many copies of the gene are made using the polymerase chain reaction, or PCR
The enzyme DNA polymerase is used to join free nucleotides into new strands of
DNA that are complementary to the original strand
These copies are inserted into small loops of DNA called plasmids, which then transfer
the copies into micro-organisms
The plasmids are said to be DNA vectors
The enzyme DNA ligase catalyses the joining of the desired gene to the plasmid
vector
The genetically modified micro-organisms are grown in large fermenters containing
nutrients, enabling them to multiply and produce large quantities of the new protein
The protein can be isolated and purified before being packaged and distributed
Human insulin and human blood clotting factors are examples of medicinal
proteins produced by genetically modified bacteria

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 Your notes

The human insulin gene can be inserted into bacterial plasmid vectors which are then
transferred into bacterial cells
Genetically modified plants
A similar process can be used to insert desired genes from other organisms into plant
cells
After the gene is inserted into a plasmid and then transferred to a bacterial cell, the
bacteria can be used to infect plant cells; the bacterium acts as a vector for
introducing the gene into the plant DNA
Note that this isn't the only method of introducing new genes into plant cells
Another method involves a 'gene gun'; tiny pellets are coated with the desired
DNA and then fired into the plant cells
The gene is transferred from the bacterial cell into the plant cell nucleus, after which
the plant cell is stimulated to multiply and grow into an adult plant
Each cell of the plant contains a copy of the gene coding for the desired protein

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 The protein can now be purified from the plant tissues, or the plant can be eaten to
deliver the drug
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Human insulin and a cholera vaccine are examples of drugs produced by modified
plants
Genetically modified animals
The gene that codes for the desired protein is injected into the nucleus of a zygote
The zygote is implanted into the uterus of a surrogate animal where it develops into an
adult animal
Every cell of this genetically modified animal will contain a copy of the gene coding
for the desired protein
The protein can be purified from e.g. the milk of the animal
Human blood clotting proteins can be produced from the milk of genetically
modified animals

Using GMOs: Risks & Benefits

While GMOs can be used for medical benefit, there is still much concern about the
potential impacts of changing the genes of organisms, as well as the ethics of
genetically modifying animals
These concerns are often amplified when the GMOs are crop plants destined for
human consumption
Risks and Benefits of Genetic Engineering Table

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 Your notes

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 Nature vs Nurture in Brain Development
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Nature vs Nurture in Brain Development

Brain development refers to the growth of the brain and the formation of connections
between neurones, or neural pathways
There are a number of factors that can be measured to determine brain development
Brain size
Number of neurones
The level at which the brain is functioning
Brain development is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors
The impact of genetic factors can be referred to as the impact of 'nature' on
development while the impact of environmental factors can be referred to that of
'nurture'
It is very difficult to determine which of nature or nurture has the greatest influence on
brain development
The genes and environment of an organism interact with each other and it is difficult
to separate out the impacts of each
A scientist would have to completely remove the influence of one of the factors
in order to investigate the other; an almost impossible task!
There are many different genes and environmental factors to investigate

Methods for investigating the effects of nature & nurture

Animal experiments
Scientists study the effects that different environments have on the brain
development of individuals of the same species
The environment in which animals live can be manipulated to allow the
investigation of the impact of environment on brain development
Animals of the same species would have similar genes, therefore making it
more likely that differences in brain development would be due to the
changed environmental factors
Genetic modification can be used to switch off the function of a certain gene;
raising genetically altered animals alongside unaltered animals in a similar
environment allows the impact of genetic factors to be studied
Any differences observed in the brain development of the two groups would
most likely be due to genetic factors
This type of genetic engineering is considered ethical in animals such as mice,
but cannot be carried out in humans

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Twin studies
Identical twins are genetically identical to each other so if they are raised in Your notes
different environments then any differences in brain development would be due to
nurture, while similarities would be due to nature
E.g. the IQ scores of identical twins are very similar which implies that nature
plays an important role in intelligence
When identical twins are raised together their environments will be very similar, so
it can be very difficult to distinguish between the impacts of nature and nurture
Scientists will often use non-identical twins raised in a similar environment as a
control group when studying identical twins raised together in the same
environment
Non-identical twins are genetically different
This cancels out the effect of the environment, meaning any observable
difference in brain development between the identical and non-identical twins
will be likely due to nature
Traits that are more common in identical twins than non-identical twins are
likely to be determined by largely genetic factors
Traits that show little difference between the pairs of twins are likely to be
determined by largely environmental factors
Cross-cultural studies
Different cultures provide different environmental influences on the brain
development of children
Scientists can study the effect of this by comparing large groups of children of a
similar age from different cultural backgrounds
Any differences in brain development are more likely to be due to nurture, whereas
any similarities will more likely be due to nature
Newborn studies
The environment outside the womb would not have impacted the brain
development of a newborn baby
The level of brain development that babies are born with are therefore more likely
due to nature than nurture
E.g. babies are born with a variety of basic abilities (e.g. crying, feeding,
recognising faces) which suggests that nature plays an important role in the
development of these abilities
They do not have the ability to speak which implies that nurture plays an
important role
Brain damage studies
Brain damage in adults cannot be easily repaired as the brain is fully developed,
however, since a child's brain is still developing, they provide an opportunity for

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scientists to study the effects of brain damage on development
Scientists can choose a particular characteristic and then compare the
development of that trait in children born with and without brain damage Your notes
If children born with brain damage show the development of that
characteristic, then it is more likely due to nurture than nature
E.g. young children with brain damage to the area associated with
language show a delay in language milestones when compared to children
without brain damage, but they catch up to the level of children without
brain damage by the age of 5, suggesting that nurture plays an important
role in language development
If the characteristic doesn't develop in brain damaged children, it is more likely
to be due to nature

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