INDEX

SR NO. TITLE PAGE NO

5 Experimental 6
procedure

6 Procedure 8
7 Observations 10
8 Calculations 12
9 Result and 14
precautions

10 Conclusion 15
11 Bibliography 16

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 INTRODUCTION

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the two points.

Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical
equation that describes this relationship.

Where, I is the current through a conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and & R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms.

More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the
current.

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 RESISITANCE

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric
current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease with which an
electric current passes.

Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI
unit of electrical resistance is the ohm, while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).

An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and length and
inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except for
superconductors, which have a resistance of zero. The resistance of an object depends in large part on
the material it is made of.

Objects made of electrical insulators like rubber tend to have very high resistance and low
conductance, while objects made of electrical conductors like metals tend to have very low resistance

and high conductance.

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 RESISISTIVITY

The resistance of a given wire depends primarily on two factors: What material it is made of, and its
shape. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross- sectional area; for
example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise - identical thin copper wire. Also,
for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has
higher resistance than an otherwise – identical short copper wire. The resistance R of a conductor of
uniform cross-section, therefore, can be computed as:

where, "L" is the length of the conductor, measured in meter(m), "A “is the cross-sectional area of the
conductor measured in m2, who is electrical resistivity (also called specific resistance) of the material,
measured in 2-m. The resistivity is the proportionality constant, and therefore depends only on the
material of the wire, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and Conductivity are reciprocals:

p=1/σ

Resistivity is measure of the material's ability to oppose electric current.

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 WHAT DETERMINES RESISTIVITY

The resistivity of different materials varies by an enormous amount: For example, the conductivity of
Teflon is about 1030 times lower than the conductivity of copper. Why is there such a difference? Loosely
speaking, a metal has large no. of "delocalized" electrons that are not stuck in any one place, but free to
move across large distances, whereas in an insulator (like Teflon), each electron is tightly bound to a
single molecule, and a great force is required to pull it away. Semiconductors lie between these two
extremes. Resistivity varies with temperature. In semiconductors, resistivity also changes when exposed
to light.

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 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Aim: To find the resistivity of wires of different metals using OHM'S LAW.

APPARATUS:

> 5 wires of different metals and respective lengths.

> A battery eliminator

> d.c. Voltmeter (range 3V)

> d.c. Ammeter (range about500mA)

> A rheostat

> One plug key

> Thick connecting wires

> Sand paper ...

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t

VOLTMETER

RHEOSTAT
AMMETER

ONE PLUG KEY CONNECTING WIRES

SANDPAPER

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 PROCEDURE

1) Arrange the various components of the circuit accordingly with plug out of one-way key

2) Rub the ends of the connecting wires with a sand paper to remove any oxidized insulating
coating. Study the circuit carefully and make tight connections accordingly using thick
connecting wires.

3) Ensure that the ammeter is connected in series with the resistance wire with its positive
terminal towards the positive of the battery. Also ensure that the voltmeter is connected in
parallel to resistance coil R in such manner that the current enters at its positive end.

4) Connect rheostat such that one of its lower terminals and the upper terminals.

5)Insert the plug-in key K.

6) Adjust the rheostat so that small current flows through the circuit. Record the readings of
the ammeter and the voltmeter.

7) Shift the rheostat contact to shift the current and take the readings again.

8) Cut the resistance wire at the ends just coming out of voltmeter. Stretch it along the meter
scale and measure its length I.

9) Record your observations.

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.

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 OBSERVATIONS

IRON WIRE

CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

150mA 0.20v 1.3ohm

200mA 0.25v 1.001ohm

300mA 0.30v 1ohm

ALUMINIUM WIRE

CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

200mA 0.10v 0.5ohm

300mA 0.20v 0.66ohm

400mA 0.30v 0.75ohm

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MANGANIN WIRE

CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

150mA 0.20v 1.3ohm

200mA 0.30v 1.5ohm

300mA 0.40v 1.3ohm

COPPER WIRE

CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

150mA 0.10v 0.5ohm

200mA 0.20v 0.54ohm

300mA 0.30v 0.6ohm

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 CALCULATIONS

For Iron wire:

Length of wire= 21cm

Thickness= 0.54x10^-2m

Area= 0.22 x10^-6 m2

mean resistance= (1.3+1.001+1)/3= 1.1 Q

resistivity= RA/L= 10.5×10^-8-ohm m

For Aluminium wire:

Length of wire= 68cm

Thickness=0.66x10^-2m

Area=0.28×10^-6m2

Mean Resistance= (0.5+0.66+0.75)/3=0.6302

Resistivity= RA/L= 2.7×10^-8-ohm m

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- For manganin wire:
Length of wire=57cm

Thickness=0.66x10^-2

Area=0.19x10^-6m2

Mean Resistance= (1.3+1.5+1.3)/3=1.362

Resistivity= RA/L=48.2x10^-82ohm m

- For aluminium wire:

Length of wire=42cm

Thickness=0.49×10^-2m

Area=0.7703x10^-6m2

Mean resistance= (0.5+0.54+0.60)/3=0.542

Resistivity= RA/L=1.7x10^-8 2ohm m

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RESULT

The resistivity of wires is:

1) For iron wire- 10.5 x10^-8-ohm m

2)For aluminium wire- 2.7x10^-8-ohm m

3)For manganin wire- 48.2x10^-8-ohm m

4)For copper wire- 1.7x10^-8-ohm m

*THE GRAPH BETWEEN POTENTIAL DROP AND THE CURRENT THROGH

PRECAUTIONS
1)Connections should be tight.

2)Short circuiting should be avoided.

3)The plug should be inserted only while taking observations otherwise current would cause
unnecessary heating in this current.

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 CONCLUSION
Ohm's law, in the form above, is an extremely useful equation in the field of electrical/electronic
engineering because it describes how voltage, current and resistance are interrelated on a
"macroscopic" level, that is commonly, as circuit elements in an electrical circuit.

Physicist who studies the electrical properties of matter at the microscopic level use a closely related
and more general vector equation, sometimes also referred to as OHM'S law, having variables that are
closely related to the V, I and R scalar variables of Ohm's law, but which are each function of
positions within the conductor. Physicists often use this continuum form of Ohm's law-

E=PJ where "E" is the electric field vector with units of volt /meter, "J" is the current density vector
with units of amperes/unit area, and "p" is the resistivity with units of Q-m. The above equations are
sometimes written as J=(sigma)E where "sigma" is the conductivity which is reciprocal of "p".

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Wikipedia
2. Google photos
3. Physics manual
4. [Link]

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