Geography - Urbanisation

Settlements (rural and urban) and service provision:

A settlement is defined as a place in which people live and where they carry out a variety
of activities, such as residence, trade, agriculture and manufacturing. The study of rural
settlement includes:

» pattern
» form (or shape)
» site and situation
» function and hierarchy

» change.

A number of factors favour nucleation:

» joint and cooperative working of the land — people live in nearby settlements

» defence, for example hilltop locations, sites within a meander or within walled cities,
such as Jericho

» shortage of water, causing people to locate in areas close to springs

» swampy conditions, which force settlements to locate on dry ground

» near important junctions and crossroads, as these favour trade and communications.

Advantages and disadvantages of alternative sites for agriculture and housing:

» availability of water — necessary for drinking, cooking, washing, as a source of food

supply, and for transport

» freedom from flooding — but close to the flooded areas as river deposits form fertile
soils

» level sites to build on — but these are less easy to defend

» local timber for construction and fuel

» aspect, for example sunny, south-facing slopes

(in the northern hemisphere) as these are warmer than north-facing slopes and are
therefore better for crop growth

» proximity to rich soils for cultivation and lush pasture for grazing

» the potential for trade and commerce, such as close to bridges or weirs, near
confluence sites, at heads of estuaries, points of navigation and upland gaps.
 Growth and function of settlements

Table 1.11 A simple rural hierarchy

Hamlet Village Small market town
General store General store General store
Post office Post office Post office
Megalopolis Increasing – Butcher Butcher
Increasing
number of
population – Garage Garage
settlements
size Conurbation – Grocer Grocer
– Hardware store Hardware store
City
– Primary school Primary school, baker, bike
shop, chemist, electrical/
Town television/radio shop, furniture
store, hairdresser, local
Village government offices, restaurant,
shoe shop, solicitor,
supermarket, undertaker
Hamlet

Isolated home/farmstead hamlets as well as serving their own population.

▲ Figure 1.66 A hierarchy ofGrowth and function of settlements The maximum distance that a person is prepared to
settlement
travel to buy a good is known as the range of a good.
and market towns) together with more specialised Low-order goods have a small range whereas high-
Table—
ones high-order
1.11 functions.
A simple rural hierarchy The market towns order goods have a large range. The number of people
draw custom from
Hamlet the surrounding
Village Small villages and
market town needed to support a good or service is known as the
General store General store General store
a Post office Post office Post office b
Increasing – Butcher Butcher
number of
– Garage Garage
settlements
– Grocer Grocer
– Hardware store Hardware store
– Primary school Primary school, baker, bike
shop, chemist, electrical/
ND SERVICE PROVISION television/radio shop, furniture
store, hairdresser, local
government offices, restaurant,
y only live (reside) in the village but
shoework
shop,and shop
solicitor,
e 1000) elsewhere. supermarket, undertaker
epartment
for it to
c
hamlets as well as serving their own population.
d
The maximum distance that a person
Capital/primate city isHighest
prepared
order to
wn as its Anomaly with more
travel to buy a good is known as the range of a good.
settlements
Number of functions (services) provided

generally
ecialised
functions than average,
Low-order goods
e.g. seaside have a small range
resort Cities whereas high-
er towns
t towns order goods have a large range. The number of people
The
s and needed to support a good or service is known as the
ot always Large towns
atures that b
her than Middle order
Small towns settlements

ments Villages
es Anomaly with fewer
re functions than average,
e.g. dormitory town
ably those
mall in ▲ Figure 1.67 Settlement hierarchy in County Kerry. (a) Isolated dwelling in Gullaun, (b) linear settlement Dohilla,
Lowest order
Hamletsvillage, (d) market town Killorglin
(c) Gneeveguilla
some settlements
y be quite Population size of settlements
43
other than ▲ Figure 1.68 The relationship between population size and
people number of services

421363_1.5_IGCSE_OL_Geo_038-[Link] 43 16/01/18

d
 This is the basic model (Figure 1.73b). Burgess (CBD) expands, the concentric rings of land use are
assumed that new migrants to a city moved into pushed further out. The area of immediate change
inner city areas where housing was cheapest and it next to the expanding CBD is known as the zone in
was closest to the sources of employment. Over time transition (usually from residential to commercial).
residents move out of the inner city area as they
become wealthier. In his model, housing quality and Hoyt’s sector model (1939)
social class increase with distance from the city centre. Homer Hoyt’s sector model emphasises the importance
Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as this of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain
a
O = city centre b Concentric zone model (Burgess, 1925)
Retail A = changeover from retail
• model based on Chicago in
to office 4
Offer price

the 1920s
B = changeover from office 3
• the city is growing spatially
to residential
due to immigration and 2
Office natural increase
• the area around the CBD has 1
the lowest status and highest
Residential density housing
• residents move outwards with
increasing social class and their
i homes are taken by new migrants
O A B Distance Key to diagrams b and c
1 CBD (central business district)
Retail 2 Zone in transition/light
Office Residential
manufacturing
ii 3 Low-class residential
Offer prices of retail, office and residential 4 Medium-class residential
uses with distance from the city centre: 5 High-class residential
i section across the urban value surface 6 Heavy manufacturing
ii plan of the urban value surface

c Sector model (Hoyt, 1939) d Latin American city structure

Zone of peripheral
squatter settlements
3
Zone of active
6
improvement of
4 housing
CBD

2 Zone of better
residences
3 1 5 (upgraded/self-built)
2
Upper class
4

3
6

▲ Figure 1.73 Bid rent theory and urban land use models
49

A
number of models describe and explain the development of cities in developing countries.
These include several
421363_1.6_IGCSE_OL_Geo_048-[Link] 49 key points: 16/01/18 11:31 AM

» The rich generally live close to the city centre whereas the very poor are more likely to
be found on the periphery.

» Better-quality land is occupied by the wealthy.

» Segregation by wealth, race and ethnicity is evident.

» Manufacturing is scattered throughout the city.

The Central Business District has a number of characteristic features:

» Multistorey development — high land values force buildings to grow upwards, so the
total floor space of the CBD is much greater than the ground space.
» Concentration of retailing — high levels of accessibility attract shops with high range
and threshold characteristics, such as department stores in the most central areas, while
specialist shops are found in less accessible areas.

» Concentration of public transport — there is a convergence of bus routes on the CBD.

» Concentration of offices — centrality favours office development.

» Vertical zoning — shops occupy the lower floors for better accessibility, while offices
occupy upper floors.

» Functional grouping — similar shops and similar functions tend to locate together
(increasing their thresholds).

» Low residential population — high bid rents can only be met by luxury apartments.

» Highest pedestrian flows — due to the attractions of a variety of commercial outlets and
service facilities.

» Traffic restrictions are greatest in the CBD — pedestrianisation has reduced access for
cars since the 1960s.

» The CBD changes over time — there is an assimilation zone (the direction in which the
CBD is expanding) and there is a discard zone (the direction from which it is moving
away).

In most developed countries, as a general rule, residential densities decrease with

distance from the CBD. This is due to a number of reasons:

» Historically, more central areas developed first and supported high population densities.

» Large numbers of workers were densely packed into inner city areas to be close to
manufacturing jobs (Figures 1.77a and b).

» There is greater availability of land with increased distance from the CBD.

» Improvements in transport and technology allow people to live further away from their
place of work in lower-density areas (Figure 1.77c).

» Wealthy households may be able to afford to live in more attractive areas, such as close
to rivers, high ground and open spaces/parks.

» Some communities might desire to live away from other communities — this may be
based on levels of wealth, ethnicity or government policy.

» Some communities may have to locate in areas where building may be difficult (Figure
1.77d).

However, this pattern can be disrupted by:

» low densities in the CBD, as residential land use cannot compete with commercial land
use to meet the high bid rents
 » the location of high-rise peripheral estates, increasing densities at the margins of the
urban area (Figure 1.77e)

» 1.6
‘green-belt’ restrictions, which artificially raise population densities in the suburbs.
URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Core and frame elements of the CBD

Concentration
of banks/businesses Absence of
Multistorey manufacturing
development industry
Multi-let
Transport
residences, often
terminals
old villas

FRAME
Office area, Concentration
Some e.g. solicitors of department
vertical stores, chain
zoning Parking stores, specialist
retail outlets
Small shops,
CORE PLVI
low-grade shops Car
Shops requiring
sales/service
large areas of
Specialist Parking land
services, e.g.
medical
Some derelict
Wholesalers, land
High density of Zo warehouses
ne Area of highest
pedestrians – zones of in
tra Limited light shopping quality
maximum accessibility, nsit
ion manufacturing
often pedestrianised and c
hange
areas and shopping
Low residential Functional zoning – similar
population activities concentrate and
cluster, e.g. banks/shoe shops

PLVI = peak land value intersection: the highest rated, busiest, most accessible part of a CBD

Factors influencing CBD decline

Rise in car ownership leads to
Investors and businesses
increased personal mobility and Planning policies can encourage
are attracted by peripheral
the rise of ‘leisure’ shopping urban expansion and provide
sites that have good access
and environments, and ‘out-of-town’ developments
often lower costs City councils, determined to
Costs of development and attract new industry/inward
upkeep of CBDs are high investment, offer greenfield
Factors influencing
(business rates, rents, and sites for development
CBD decline
land costs) Companies find peripheral
locations cheaper, and nearer
Investment in city centres customers and staff who live
often lack a coordinated plan in the leafy suburbs
Progressive suburbanisation City centres are perceived as
Congestion reduces leads to urban sprawl; the city dirty, unsafe, with an ageing
accessibility of CBDs centre may be many miles away environment and poor
infrastructure
▲ Figure 1.76 The core–frame model

There are a number of industrial zones in most cities in developed countries. These
include:

» traditional inner-city areas close to railways and/or canals

52

» industries needing access to skilled labour, such as medical instruments; those needing
access to the CBD, such as fashion accessories; and those that require an urban market
for distribution, for example newspapers and bakeries — these industries have traditionally
421363_1.6_IGCSE_OL_Geo_048-[Link] 52 16/01/18 11:31 AM

located close to the CBD

» areas that require access to water — for example, where industries such as imports and
exports are located close to docks

» radial transport routes, for example Samsung electronics at Suwon, South Korea

» areas where there is good access and good availability of land, for example the Hyundai
car works at Busan, South Korea

» edge-of-town/greenfield suburban sites close to airports.

Large cities are attractive for industries for many reasons:

» many capital cities, such as Paris and Moscow, are

the major manufacturing centres of their country

» cities are large markets

» port cities have excellent access to overseas

markets and goods

» cities are major centres of innovation, ideas and

fashion

» a variety of labour is already available, including

skilled and unskilled workers, decision makers, politicians and innovators.

There are many pressures on the rural–urban fringe. These include:

» urban sprawl
» more housing
» industrial growth
» recreational pressures for golf courses and sports stadia
» transport
» agricultural developments.
 Internal structure of towns and cities

Table 1.15 Issues in the urban fringe

Land use Positive aspects Negative aspects

Agriculture Some areas have Farms often suffer
well-managed litter, trespass and
farms and vandalism; some land is
smallholdings. left derelict in the hope
that planning permission
for development will be
granted.
Development Some Some developments,
developments such as out-of-town
are well sited and shopping areas, cause
landscaped, such serious pollution.
as business and Many businesses are
science parks. unregulated, e.g. scrap
metal/caravan storage.
Urban services Some, such as Mineral workings, sewage
reservoirs or works, landfill sites and
cemeteries, may Sunday markets (car boot
be attractive. sales) can be unattractive
and polluting.
Transport Some cycleways Motorways destroy
infrastructure improve access countryside, especially
and promote new near junctions.
development.
Recreation and Country parks, Stock car racing and
sport sports fields scrambling erode
and golf courses ecosystems and create
can lead to localised litter and
conservation. pollution.
Landscape Conservation There may be degraded ▲ Figure 1.83 An out-of-town shopping centre in Bandar Seri
and nature areas may be land, e.g. land ruined Begawan, Brunei
conservation included at the by fly-tipping; many
edge of the city. conservation areas are
under threat.

Thechanges
The growthin of out-of-town
retailing have been brought about The by: changes in retailing have been brought about by:
shopping centres » suburbanisation of more affluent households
» suburbanisation of more affluent households » technological change, for example more families
Shopping in many more developed countries has
changed from an industry dominated by small firms own a deep-freezer
» technological change, for example more families» own a deep-freezer
economic change, with higher standards of living,
to one being led by large companies. The retailing
revolution has change,
focused onwith
superstores, hypermarkets especially including car ownership
» economic higher standards of living,
» especially
traffic including
congestion car ownership
and inflated land prices in city
and out-of-town shopping centres (Figure 1.83 and
Table 1.16). These are located on ‘greenfield’ suburban centres
» traffic congestion and inflated land prices in city»centres
social changes, such as more working women.
sites with good accessibility and plenty of space for
parking
» socialand future expansion.
changes, such as The
moreincreasing
workinguse of
women. The initial out-of-town developments came in the
out-of-town shopping centres, and the trend for less late 1960s and early 1970s. Now more than 20 per
frequent shopping, has led to the closure of many cent of shopping expenditure in developed countries
small shops that relied on regular sales of daily items. takes place in out-of-town stores.

A number of problems are associated with the growth of urban areas. These include:

» pollution (air, noise, water, light) 57

421363_1.6_IGCSE_OL_Geo_048-[Link] 57 16/01/18 11
» inequality
» housing issues
» traffic congestion

» conflicts over land-use change.

Provision of enough quality housing is also a major problem in LICs. There are at least
four aspects to the management of housing stock:

» quality of housing — with proper water, sanitation, electricity and space

» quantity of housing — having enough units to meet demand

» availability and affordability of housing

» housing tenure (ownership or rental).

Increased demand for housing is generated by:

» people moving to urban areas in search of work and a higher standard of living

» longer life expectancy

» young people leaving home earlier

» more families splitting up and moving into

separate homes

» more people preferring modern houses with good

Urbanisation is caused by a number of interrelated factors, including:

» migration to urban areas

» higher birth rates in urban areas due to the

youthful age structure

» higher death rates in rural areas due to diseases,

unreliable food supply, famine, natural hazards, decreased standard of living in rural areas,
poor water, hygiene and medication

» rural areas being reclassified as urban areas (this would normally accompany the above
factors).
 of urbanisation. By 2030, Asia and Africa will each in Bangladesh and many cities in India and China.
have more urban dwellers than any other major area Strong economic performance by such cities is the
of the world. Two aspects of this rapid growth have most important factor in explaining this. This growth
been the increase in the number of large cities and the attracts many young migrants, for whom birth rates
historically unprecedented size of the largest cities. are higher in urban areas, and death rates are lower
Mass urbanisation in
there too.
100
most developed nations: Given the association between economic growth
Urban population as % of total population

90 rate of urbanisation
slows but achieves and urbanisation, a steady increase in the level of
80 highest level; most
people now live in towns MEDCs 5 urbanisation in low-income nations is only likely
70
Economic take-off 4 to take place if they also have a steadily growing
60
begins: rapid rural-to- In advanced economies a
fifth phase may be seen
economy.
urban migration leads Cs
50
to an accelerating NI where people begin to move
rate of urbanisation 3 back to semi-rural areas:

The characteristics of
40
counterurbanisation of
30 lifestyle reasons
s
LLEDCs DC
LE
squatter settlements
20 2 Maturing economy: Reverse trend
1 rates of urbanisation for rural % of
10 continue to rise population

0
The rural society
phase: low levels of
urbanisation largely
steadily as towns
develop and enlarge (slums)
rural population of
subsistence farmers
The UN defines a slum household as one or a group
of individuals living under the same roof in an urban
▲ Figure 1.100 The process of urbanisation area, lacking one or more of the following five
amenities:
A megacity is a city with more than 10 million
people. In of
1950 1 durable housing — a permanent structure
Why most thethere weremegacities
world’s only two megacities:
had slower population growth rates during the 1980s
New1990s,
York City andmost
Tokyo. providing protection from extreme climatic
and and ofIn
the2000 there
larger wereare
cities 18 significantly smaller than had been expected:
megacities, 424 cities with a population of 1 to conditions
2 sufficient living space — no more than three
»10Inmillion, and 433
many cities in cities in the 0.5 toworld,
the developing 1 million
slow economic growth (or economic decline)
category. fewer
By 2016, there were 31 cities with a people sharing a room
attracted people. 3 access to improved water — water that is
population over 10 million and, of these, 24 were
sufficient, affordable and can be obtained without
»inThe
developing
capacity countries (Table
of cities 1.21).
outside the very large metropolitan
extremecentres
effort to attract a significant
Most of the world’s megacities had slower
proportion of new investment was limited.
population growth rates during the 1980s and 1990s, 4 access to improved sanitation facilities — a
and most of the larger cities are significantly smaller private toilet or a public one shared with a
» Lower rates of natural increase have occurred, as fertility rates
reasonable haveofcome
number down.
people
than had been expected. For instance, Mexico City
had around 18 million people in 2000 — not the 5 secure tenure — protection against forced
31 million predicted in 1980. Kolkata in India had eviction; most squatter settlements are illegal and
around 13 million inhabitants in 2000, not the have no legal basis.
The UN defines a slum household as one or a group of individuals living under the same
40–50 million people predicted in the 1970s. The totalfive
number of slum dwellers in the world
roofSeveral
in an factors
urban area,
help tolacking
explain one
this:or more of the following amenities:
stood at about 980 million people in 2015.
1»durable
In many housing
cities in the
— adeveloping
permanent world, slow providing
structure This protection
represents about 32 per cent
from extreme of the world’s
climatic
economic growth (or economic decline) attracted
conditions urban population, but 78.2 per cent of the urban
fewer people. population is in LICs. Slums are typically located
» The capacity of cities outside the very large
2 sufficient living space — no more than three people on land that a
sharing planners
room do not want: steep slopes,
metropolitan centres to attract a significant floodplains, edge-of-town locations and/or close to
proportion
3 access of new investment
to improved water —was limited.
water major industrial complexes.
that is sufficient, affordable and can be obtained
» Lower rates of
without extreme effortnatural increase have occurred, as Despite the success of the United Nation’s
fertility rates have come down. Millennium Development Goal 1 (MDG 1), ‘Reduce
4However,
accessthere
to improved extreme
toiletpoverty by half’, more than 200
withmillion people
were somesanitation
large citiesfacilities
whose — a private or a public one shared a
in sub-Saharan Africa and more than 190 million in
reasonable number
population growth of remained
rates people high from the
south and east Asia still live in slums (Table 1.22).
1980s through to the 2010s, for example Dhaka
5 secure tenure — protection against forced eviction; most squatter settlements are illegal
and have no legal basis. 71

The 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) include one specifically for urban
421363_1.7_IGCSE_OL_Geo_070-[Link] 71 17/01/18

areas: SDG 11 — ‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable’. Target 11.1 states: ‘By 2030, ensure access for all to adequate, safe and
affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums’. Other relevant SDGs include:
 greenhouse gases and other pollutants. It may lead
used, and has become derelict. It has to be made
to frustration and ‘road rage’, and it can have a
safe before it can be used for housing or other
development (Figure 1.92). negative impact on people’s health (stress and poor
air quality). In 2013 the World Health Organization
announced that air pollution could cause cancer.
Diesel fumes are carcinogenic, and air pollution has
» SDG 1 — End poverty in all its forms everywhere
a causal link with respiratory diseases.

Conflicts
» SDG 6 — Ensure availability and sustainable management overofland-use change for
water and sanitation
all. The Dharavi slum in Mumbai is a prime site for
development. The Indian property developer Mukesh
Mehta wants to develop Dharavi into an international
business destination. However, to do this would
Provision of enough quality housing is anotherdisplace a major up problem
to 1 millioninpeople
developing countries.
to the edge of the
city,
There are at least four aspects to the management of housing stock: in places that offer few economic prospects.
Dharavi is home to thousands of small-scale, informal
industries,
» quality of housing — with proper water, sanitation, electricity which generate
andaround
space $650 million annually.
(Figures 1.101
For many people, working in Dharavi is a means of
and 1.102) escaping poverty. The informal economy accounts for
▲ Figure 1.92 A brownfield site: Stratford, London before the the overwhelming majority of India’s economic growth
» quantity
2012 of housing — having enough units and
Olympic Games to meet
as muchdemand
as 90 per cent of employment.

Table 1.19 Greenfield and brownfield sites compared

Greenfield sites Brownfield sites

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Land may be accessible Habitat destruction Redevelopment of Land may be contaminated
disused land
Cheaper land Reduction in biodiversity Widespread air and water
Does not harm the pollution
People prefer more space and Increased pollution
environment
pleasant environments Congestion
Increased impermeability leads to
Creates jobs locally
Allows planners a free rein flooding Overcrowding
Provides a boost to
Easier to plan for Increased traffic on the roads and Land is expensive
local economies
infrastructural developments cross-city commuting
May use existing
infrastructure

» availability and affordability of housing

» housing tenure (ownership or rental).

There are a variety of possible solutions to the housing problem:

»66government support for low-income, self-built housing

» subsidies for home building

421363_1.6_IGCSE_OL_Geo_048-[Link] 66 16/01/18 11:32 AM
» flexible loans to help shanty town dwellers

» slum upgrading in central areas

» improved private and public rental housing

» support for the informal sector/small businesses

operating at home

» site and service schemes

» encouragement of community schemes

» construction of health and educational services.

 of the city’s population. In Addis Ababa dwellers can » Development occurs through the participation of
save between 10 and 20 per cent of their income citizens (bottom-up development) rather than
through urban cultivation. It also diversifies the top-down development (centralised planning).
sources of food, resulting in a more secure supply N
(Table 1.26). BRAZIL

Table 1.26 Urban agriculture issues

PARAGUAY São Paulo
Rio de
Advantages Concerns Paraná Janeiro
Vital or useful supplement Conflict over water supply, Curitiba
to food procurement particularly in arid or semi-arid
Atlantic Ocean
strategies areas
Various environmental Health concerns, particularly A 0 400
NTIN
benefits from use of contaminated wastes GE km
AR URUGUAY
Employment creation for Conflicting urban land issues National borders
the jobless Provincial boundaries
Provides a survival strategy Focus on the urban cultivation
for low-income urban activities rather than in relation ▲ Figure 1.108 Location of Curitiba in Brazil
residents to broader urban management
issues Table 1.27 Sustainable solutions to flooding in Curitiba

Urban agriculture makes Urban agriculture can benefit Problems (1950s/60s) Solutions (late 1960s
use of urban wastes only the wealthier city dwellers onwards)
in some cases Many streams had been covered Natural drainage was
to form underground canals preserved — these natural
which restricted water flow floodplains are used as parks
Activitiesof developing countries are unable toHouses
Governments solveand their
otherhousing problems.
buildings had The best
Certain low-lying areas are
that they could be expected to do in an been
environment of built too close
general to riversis tooff-limits
poverty improve living
1 Describe the environmental problems shown in
New buildings were built on Parks have been extensively
conditions. They could try to:
Figure 1.107.
2 a Outline the causes of environmental problems in poorly drained land on the planted with trees; existing
cities. periphery of the city buildings have been
» reduce the number of people living at densities of more than 1.5 individuals in each
converted into new sports
b Suggest why these problems might be increasing.
roomc Suggest reasons why the potential solutions might and leisure facilities
not work. An increase in roads and Bus routes and cycle paths
» increase access to electricity and drinking waterconcrete surfaces accelerated integrate the parks into the
runoff urban life of the city

» improve sanitation
» prevent families from moving into areas that are physically unsafe
» encourage households to improve the quality of their accommodation.

79

Environmental issues that most cities have to deal with include:

» water quality
421363_1.7_IGCSE_OL_Geo_070-[Link] 79 17/01/18 9

» dereliction
» air quality
» noise

» environmental health of the population.

The greatest concentration of environmental problems occurs in cities experiencing rapid

growth (Figure 1.107). This concentration of problems is referred to as the Brown
Agenda. It has two main components:

» issues caused by limited availability of land, water and services

» problems such as toxic hazardous waste, pollution of water, air and soil, and industrial
‘accidents’ such as that at Bhopal in 1985.
 1.6 URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Table 1.16 The advantages and disadvantages of out-of-town shopping centres

Advantages Disadvantages
There is plenty of free parking They destroy large amounts of undeveloped greenfield sites
There is lots of space, so shops are not cramped They destroy valuable habitats
They are new developments, so are usually quite attractive They lead to pollution and environmental problems at the edge
of town
They are easily accessible by car An increase in impermeable surfaces (shops, car parks, roads
etc.) may lead to an increase in flooding and a decrease in water
quality
Being large means the shops can sell large volumes of goods They only help those with cars (or those lucky enough to live
and often at slightly lower prices on the route of a courtesy bus) — people who do not benefit
might include the elderly and those without a car or who
cannot drive
Individual shops are larger, so can offer a greater range of Successful out-of-town developments may take trade away from
goods than smaller shops city centres and lead to a decline in sales in the CBD
Being on the edge of town means the land price is lower, so Small businesses and family firms may not be able to compete
the cost of development is kept down with the large multinational companies that dominate out-
of-town developments — there may be a loss of the ‘personal
touch’
Developments on the edge of town reduce the environmental They cause congestion in out-of-town areas
pressures and problems in city centres
Many new jobs may be created both in the short term Many of the jobs created are unskilled
(construction industry) and in the long term (retail industry
and linked industries such as transport, warehousing,
storage, catering etc.)

Curitiba, a city in southwest Brazil (Figure 1.108), is an excellent model for sustainable
Activities
urban development. It has experienced rapid population growth, from 300,000 in 1950 to
Study Figure 1.84.
over 2.1 million in 1990, but has managed to avoid all the problems normally associated
1 What are the
with it. This advantages
success isoflargely
this site for
duetheto innovative planning:
supermarket?
2 Which population groups benefit from out-of-town
» Public transport
developments is the
such as preferred
one shownover
in the private cars.
photograph? Give reasons for your choice.
» The environment is used rather than changed.
3 Describe the land uses shown in Figure 1.85a–d, which
» Cheap, low-technology
show contrasting solutions
areas in Bandar are used rather than high-technology ones.
Seri Begawan,
» Development occurs
Brunei. Identify each of thethrough the and
main land uses participation
their of citizens (bottom-up development) rather
likely location in the city.
than top-down development (centralised planning).

Figure 1.84 An out-of-town shopping centre near

Transport in Curitiba is highly integrated. The road
Oxford,network
UK and public transport system
have structural axes. These allow the city to expand but keep shops, workplaces and
homes closely linked. There are five main axes to the three parallel roadways:

» express routes — a central road with two express bus lanes

» direct routes

» local roads.
58

Everything is geared towards the speed of the journey and convenience of passengers:

» A single fare allows transfer from express routes to interdistrict and local buses.
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» Extra-wide doors allow passengers to crowd on quickly.

» Double- and triple-length buses allow for rush hour loads.

 economic development progresses. The greatest deal with air quality focus on vehicles (Table 1.25),
concentration of environmental problems occurs in although there is some evidence of factories being
cities experiencing rapid growth (Figure 1.107). This relocated to improve air quality, such as before the
concentration of problems is referred to as the Brown Beijing Olympic Games in 2008.
Agenda. It has two main components:
Table 1.23 Environmental problems in urban areas
Problems (and examples) Causes Possible solutions
Waste products and waste • Solids from paper, packaging and toxic waste • Improved public awareness: recycling, landfill
disposal — 25 per cent of all increase as numbers and living standards rise sites, incineration plants
urban dwellers in developing • Liquid sewage and industrial waste both
1.7 URBANISATION • Development of effective sanitation systems
countries have no adequate increase exponentially and treatment plants, including recycling of
sanitation and no means of
• Contamination and health hazards from poor brown water for industrial use
sewage disposal
systems of disposal, e.g. rat infestation and • Rubbish management
a waterborne diseases b

Air pollution — air in Mexico • Traffic, factories, waste incinerators and • Closure of old factories and importation of
City is ‘acceptable’ on fewer power plants produce pollutants clean technology, e.g. filters
than 20 days annually • Use of cleaner fuels
• Some specialist chemical pollution
• Issues of acid deposition • Re-siting of industrial plants, e.g. oil
refineries in areas downwind of settlements
Water pollution (untreated • Leaking sewers, landfill and industrial waste • Control of sources of pollution at source by
sewage into the Ganges • In some developing countries, agricultural regulation and fining; development of mains
from cities such as Varanasi) pollution from fertilisers and manure is a drainage systems and sewers
problem • Removal of contaminated land sites
Water supply (overuse • Aquifer depletion, ground subsidence and low • Construction of reservoirs, pipeline
of groundwater led to flow of rivers construction from long-distance catchment,
subsidence and flooding in desalination of salt water
Bangkok) • Water conservation strategies
Transport-related issues • Rising vehicle ownership leads to congestion, • Introduction of cleaner car technology
(average speed of traffic in noise pollution, accidents and ill-health due (unleaded petrol and catalytic converters);
São Paulo is 3 km/hour) to release of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide monitoring and guidelines for various
and, indirectly, low-level ozone pollution levels; movement from private cars
• Photochemical smog formation closely to public transport; green transport planning
▲ Figure 1.107 Environmental problems: (a) Seoul — a city experiencing rapid economic growth; (b) Castries — a city in a
developing country related to urban sprawl • Creation of compact and more sustainable cities

77
Table 1.24 Traffic problems in cities
Developed world Developing world
Increased number of motor vehicles Private car ownership is lower
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Increased dependence on cars as public transport declines Less dependence on the car, but growing
Major concentration of economic activities in CBDs Many cars are poorly maintained and are heavy polluters
Inadequate provision of roads and parking Growing centralisation and development of CBDs increases
traffic in urban areas
Frequent roadworks
Heavy reliance on affordable public transport
Roads overwhelmed by sheer volume of traffic
Journeys are shorter but getting longer
Urban sprawl results in low-density built-up areas, and
increasingly long journeys to work Rapid growth has led to enormous urban sprawl and longer
journeys
Development of out-of-town retail and employment leads to
cross-city commuting Out-of-town developments are beginning as economic
development occurs, e.g. Bogota, Colombia

Table 1.25 Attempts to manage the transport issue

‘Carrots’ ‘Sticks’
Park-and-ride schemes — parking at the terminal for a major High car parking charges in city centres, e.g. Copenhagen
bus or train route, e.g. Oxford (UK), Brisbane (Australia) (Denmark), London
Subsidised public transport systems, e.g. Zurich (Switzerland), Restricted city-centre parking, e.g. Copenhagen
Brisbane
Road tolls and road pricing: congestion charges, e.g. Bergen
Modern electronic bus systems with consumer information (Norway) and central London, so that people have to pay to
on frequency, e.g. Curitiba (Brazil); rapid transit systems — drive through congested areas of the city centre
supertrams on dedicated tracks, e.g. Zurich, or underground
trains, e.g. Cairo (Egypt)
Providing bus lanes to speed up buses, e.g. Oxford, London

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ated wastes G km
AR URUGUAY
d issues National borders
Provincial boundaries
ultivation
in relation ▲ Figure 1.108 Location of Curitiba in Brazil
nagement
Table 1.27 Sustainable solutions to flooding in Curitiba

n benefit Problems (1950s/60s) Solutions (late 1960s

y dwellers onwards)
Many streams had been covered Natural drainage was
to form underground canals preserved — these natural
which restricted water flow floodplains are used as parks
Houses and other buildings had Certain low-lying areas are
been built too close to rivers off-limits
n in
New buildings were built on Parks have been extensively
ems in poorly drained land on the planted with trees; existing
periphery of the city buildings have been
reasing. converted into new sports
ns might and leisure facilities
An increase in roads and Bus routes and cycle paths
concrete surfaces accelerated integrate the parks into the
runoff urban life of the city

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