Medieval History
Lecture 02: Post Gupta Period (Part 2)
Harsha's Administration:
● Harsha administeredhisempireonthesamelineasGuptadidexceptthatadministration
under Harsha had become more feudal and decentralized. The leading feudatories of
Harshawere:
○ Bhaskaravarmana of Kamarupa
○ Dhruvabhatta of Vallabhi
○ Purnavarman of Magadha and
○ Udita of Jalandhara.
● Harsha personally supervised the
administration.ItissaidthatHarshahad
1,00,000 horses and 60,000 elephants.
○ However, Mauryas who ruled over
practically the whole country had
only 30,000 horses and 9000
elephants. Horses were mostly
imported fromCentral Asia.
○ Such a large strengthofHarsha’s
armywaspossibleonlywheneveryfeudatorycontributedhisquotaoffootsoldiers
and horses to the imperial army.
● Contributoryforcessupplementedhisimperialarmyfromfeudatoriesintimesofneed.The
armyconsistedofinfantry,cavalry,chariotsandelephants. Thepowershiftedtomilitary
campsknown asskandhavaras.
Land Grants:
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● Land grants to priests instead of their special services continued in his administration.
Land grants to officersbychartersinlieuoftheirsalaryprobablybeganwithHarsha.
The evidence for this is that Harsha issued fewer coins in his time.
● These grants contained the sameprivilegesasthoseenjoyedbyBrahmadeyalands.There
were three types of land grants:Brahmadeya - Devadana - and Agrahara.
○ Brahmadeya:Land grants to religious institutions(i.e., donated to Brahmins)
○ Devadana:Land donated to Gods
○ Agrahara:Settlement of priests.
● Land grants to religious institutions were called Brahmadeya, (i.e. donated toBrahmins)
Devadana (donated to Gods), and Agrahara (Settlement - of priests).
● These lands donated to the temples and monasteries apart from being used as normal
tenancy also carried a right vested with the temple authorities to call for unpaid labor
(called Vishti)as a religious service to the templefrom the tillers on the donated lands.
Taxation/Revenue:
● Bhaga, Hiranya, andBaliwerethethreekindsoftaxes.Bhagawasthelandtaxpaidin
kind whichaccountedforone-sixthoftheproducecollectedaslandrevenue.Hiranyawas
paid by farmers and merchants in cash. There is no reference to the tax in Bali.
● Hsuan Tsang states that people were taxed lightly. The revenues were divided intofour
parts:
○ One part for theking
○ The second part is reserved forscholars
○ The third part is for the endowments ofofficials and public servants
○ The fourth part is forreligious purposes.
Harshavardhana's Diplomacy:
● HehaddiplomaticrelationswiththeChineseashiscontemporaryT'angEmperorsentthree
embassiestohiscourt.Thelastofthese,underWang-Hsuan-Tse,cametoIndiain647CE
when Harsha was no longer alive.
Harsha’s Daily Routine:
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● Harsha personallysupervisedtheadministration.AccordingtotherecordsofHsuanTsang,
he divided his day into three parts:
○ Attending toadministrative dutiesduring the first
○ Devoting himself toreligious workduring the other two.
○ Work relating to Law and order: He used to have frequent tours of inspection
aroundhiskingdom.However,lawandorderconditionswerenotgood.HsuanTsang
testifies to this by stating that he was robbed during his reign.
Laws of the Land:
● Thelawsofthelandweresevere.Generally,robberywasconsideredsecondonlytotreason,
for which the right hand of the robber was amputated. But later it appears under the
influence of Buddhism, the severity of punishment was mitigated and criminals were
punished for life.
Army:
● It is said that Harsha had 1,00,000 horses and 60,000 elephants. However, Mauryaswho
ruledoverpracticallythewholecountryhadonly30,000horsesand9000elephants.Sucha
large strength of Harsha's army was possible only when every feudatory contributed his
quota of foot soldiers and horses to the imperialarmy.Contributoryforcessupplemented
his imperial army from feudatories in times of need.
● The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants. || imported horses.
Ordinary soldiers were called Chatas and Bhatas. The power shifted to military camps
known as skandhavaras. Hsuan Tsang mentioned 4 divisions of chaturanga- Described
strength, recruitment system, and payment.
● Important Officials:
○ Maha Sandhi Vigraha:Officer to decide about war and peace
○ Mahabaladhikrit:Highest official of the Army
○ Baladhikrit/Mahabaladhkrit:The commander
○ Vrihadeshwawar:Head of Cavalry
○ Ayuktak:Ordinary officer
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○ Katuk:Head of the elephant brigade
○ Doot Rajastharuya:Foreign Minister
○ Uparik Maharaj:Provincial head
○ Vanapalas:The forest guards
○ Sarva-palli-patti:The chief of all villages
Religious Patronage of Harsha through the Eyes of Hsuan Tsang:
● HsuanTsangwasaChinesepilgrimwhovisitedIndiaduring629-644CE.HevisitedIndia
duringthereignofHarshatostudyattheBuddhistUniversityofNalanda,Bihar,andto
collect Buddhist texts from India.
● He was known as the “Prince of Travellers”. He authored
‘Si-Yu-Ki’ which means ‘My Experiences’. It is also called
Records of the Western World. He spent many years inHarsha’s
court and traveled widely in India.
● Under his influence, Harsha became a great supporter of
Buddhism and made generous endowments. He earned Harsha's
friendship and left a vivid account of the beauty, grandeur, and
prosperity of Kannauj.
● Hsuan Tsang gives a detailed account of agrandassemblyheld
atKannaujin643CE.Itwasattendedbytherepresentativesof
Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, in which Hsuan Tsang along
with othersgave discourses on Mahayana doctrines.
○ It was also attended by various subordinate kings includingthoseofVallabhiand
Assam. A huge tower with a golden statueoftheBuddhawasconstructedfor
the occasion, which was later worshiped by Harsha himself.
○ He also used to celebrate a festival at Prayagattheendofeveryfiveyearsand
organized the Maha Moksha Parishad at Prayag to uplift the spiritual life of
people.
● The images of the Buddha, the Sun, and Shiva were worshiped and gifts of valuable
articles and clothing were distributed in charity. Hsuan Tsang's visit is important as he
shed light upon the socio-economic condition prevalent during Harsha’sera.Hisaccounts
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highlightthatPataliputraandVaishaliwereinastateofdeclinewhereasbothKannaujand
Prayag had become very important
○ Hsuan Tsang Reports:
➢ Brahmins and Kshatriyas led a simple life,
➢ The nobles and priests led a luxurious life.
➢ The majority of people who were Brahmins and Kshatriyas had taken up
agriculture as trade was on the constant decline which ultimately led to
increased unemployment.
➢ HsuanTsangcalledShudrasasagriculturistswhichissignificantasthere
was constant tribal assimilation so the ritual purity of the sudras surely
improved. Earlier texts represented them as serving the three varnas.
➢ He also mentions untouchables suchasscavengers,executioners,etc.They
lived outside the village. They used toannouncetheirentryintothetown
by shouting so that the people might keep away from them.
○ His other Observations:
➢ He wasamazedattheProsperityofIndia,peoplehadahighstandardof
living, and Pataliputra was replaced by Kannauj as the major city.
➢ The caste system prevailed in the Hindu society.
➢ In food, onion & garlic were rarely used.
➢ Satiwas prevalent during this time.
➢ He left a detailed account ofNalanda University.
➢ Also wrote about various kinds of cloth manufactured in India at that time.
➢ Minansakas were present to dispense justice and the criminal laws that
were practiced were stricterthan it was during theGupta era.
➢ Themostcommonpunishmentswereexileandbodypartamputations.Life
in prison was the penalty for breaking the law and forconspiringagainst
the king, and trial by ordeal was frequently used.
● Harshabuiltcharitableinstitutionsforthestayofthetravelers,andtocareforthesick
andthepoor.AccordingtoHsuanTsang,theoccupationsofthefourdivisionsofsociety
continuedtobeinpracticeasintheprevioustimes,however,therewasnosocialconflict
among the various sections of the society.
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○ Women wore purdah. However, the purdah system was not followed among the
higher class.
○ Dutiesweretobepaidattradebarrierswithoutfail.Itwasasourceofincome
for the kingdom.
From the Lecture:
● The cities had thick walls and inner gates with narrow streets. There were both
residential and public buildings. The former had wooden buildings coated with lime mortar
and the floors were wiped with cow dung. The public buildings were big mansions mostly
multi-storeyed made from red sandstone, marble, and burnt bricks. Buddhist monasteries
(stupas and viharas) too were built within the cities.
Why did Pataliputra Lose its Relevance?
● Pataliputra owed its power and importancetotradeandcommerce,andthewidespread
use of money. Tolls could be collectedfromthetraderswhocametothecityfromthe
east, west, north, and south across four rivers. However, once trade declined, money
became scarce, and officers and soldiers werepaidthroughlandgrants,thecitylostits
importance.
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● Power shifted tomilitarycamps(skandhavaras),andplacesofstrategicimportancethat
dominated long stretches of land. Fortification of places in the plains was far more
difficult, but Kannauj was situated on an elevated area which was easily fortifiable.
Therefore, to exercise control over the eastern and western wings of the doab, soldiers
could be moved by both land and water routes.
Religion under Harsha:
● Harsha had constructed several stupas, viharas, and monasteries along the banks of Ganga.
● He believed in freedom ofreligion,gavelandgrantstoBrahmins,andopenedcharitable
institutes for travellers and sick persons along with several hospitals.
Buddhism in the Harsha Era:
● The Buddhists were divided into 18 sects during Harsha’s period. The most famous
Buddhist center at that time was Nalanda headed by Shailabhadra from Assam at this
timewhichhostedagreatBuddhistuniversitymeantforBuddhistmonks.Ithadasmany
as 10,000 students.
● They were taughtBuddhist philosophyrelating to theMahayana school. According to
Hsuan Tsang, the monastery at Nalanda was supported by the revenue of 100 villages.
Harsha was himself a Shaiva in his early years. Gradually he became a patron of Buddhism.
● AsadevoutBuddhist,HarshaconvenedagrandassemblyatKannaujtowidelypublicize
thedoctrineofMahayana.ApartfromHsuanTsangandtheKamaruparuler,theassembly
was attended by the Kings of 20 countries and several thousand priests belonging to
different sects.
Kannauj Assembly 643 CE//23 days:
● Hsuan Tsang gives a detailed account of a grand assembly held at Kannauj in 643 CE
attended by the representatives of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, in which Hsuan
Tsang along with others gave discourses on Mahayana doctrines.
● ItwasalsoattendedbyvarioussubordinatekingsincludingtherulerofKamarupa,Vallabhi,
and kings from twenty countries. A huge towerwithagoldenstatueoftheBuddhawas
constructed for the occasion, which was later worshipped by Harsha himself.
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● A famous historical incident took place at this assembly:
○ Here HsuanTsangdictatedthevirtuesofMahayanaBuddhismandchallengedthe
audience to refute his argument.
○ No one came forward for 5 days and then his rivals conspired to take his life.
○ Harsha threatened to assassinateanybodycausingtheleasthurttoHsuanTsang.
Suddenlythegreattowerestablishedinthemiddleoftheassemblycaughtfireand
an attempt to assassinate Harsha was made.
○ Harshathenarrested500Brahminsandexecutedsomeofthem.Kannaujassembly
was held in the Honour of Hsuan-Tsang to popularize the Mahayana sect of
Buddhism.
○ The Prayaga assembly was held at the beginning of theKumbh fair.
Prayag Assembly:
● HealsousedtocelebrateafestivalatPrayagattheendofeveryfiveyearsheldtheMaha
Moksha Parishad at Prayag to uplift the spiritual life of people.
● The images of the Buddha the Sun and Shiva were worshipped and gifts of valuable
articles and clothing were distributed in charity.
● Harsha held another grand assembly at Prayag, attended by tributary princes, ministers,
nobles, etc. The Buddha's image was worshipped, and discourses were given by Hsuan
Tsang.
● Harsha made significant charitable donations at the end of the assembly, giving away
almost everything except his clothing.
Relations with China:
● HarshahadaverycordialrelationshipwithChinaunderthecontemporaryT'angemperor
TaiTsung.Healsosentthreeembassiestohiscourt.Onesuchembassywassenttohis
court in 643 and again in 647 CE.
● The last ofthese,underWang-Hiuen-Tse,cametoIndiain647CEwhenHarshawasno
longeralive.In647CEwhenHarshahadrecentlydied,thethronehadbeenusurpedbyan
undeserving king, Chinese ambassadors rushed to Nepal and Assam to raise a force to
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dislodgetheusurper.Later,thekingwhohadusurpedthethronewastakentoChinaasa
prisoner.
I-Tsing/Yijing (635-713 CE):
● HetraveledalongthesearoutebetweenChinaandIndia,especiallySrivijayainIndonesia.
In 671 CE he started travelling from Canton reached Tamralipti and joined Nalanda
University.
● HetranslatedmanyBuddhisttextsfromSanskritandPaliintoChineseandlaterreceived
a grand welcome back from Empress Wu Zetian in China.
● His best travel diaries include:
○ Record of Buddhism sent from the South Seas
○ Buddhist Monk's Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty
○ Hetranslatedmorethan60textslikeMulasarvastivadaVinaya,GoldenLightSutra,
Diamond Sutra, the sutra of the Original Vows of the Medicine Buddha of Lapis
Lazuli Radiance, and the Seven Past Buddhas, Avadanas into Chinese.
I-Tsing Observations of Nalanda Monastery:
● AChinesetravelerI-TsingvisitedIndiain670CEandlivedfortenyearsattheNalanda
monastery.He describes that Nalanda was supportedby the revenues of 200 villages.
● Therewerearound3000studentsonitsrollsatNalandaUniversity.NalandaUniversityhad
an observatory and a great library. Nalanda University attracted scholars from various
parts of the world.
Harsha as a Patron of Arts:
● Harsha was very talented himself and he wrote three dramas:
○ Priyadarshika(Romantic comedy)
○ Ratnavali(Romantic comedy)
○ Nagananda(based on Bodhisattva Jimutavahana).
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● HealsohastohiscreditaworkongrammarandtwoSutraworks.Hecomposedthetext
of the two inscriptions Madhuban and Banskhera (both inUP)*.Thesetwoinscriptions
contain hissignature and exhibit his calligraphicskills.
● AccordingtoBanabhatta,hewasalsoanaccomplishedfluteplayer.Hemaintainedalarge
monastery at Nalanda.
● Some medieval scholars doubted the authorship of these dramas, suggesting they were
composed by a person namedDhavakain Harsha's namefor some consideration.
● The practice of attributing various achievements, including literary works, to a king to
enhance his image was common in ancient and medieval India.
● Harsha’s Court Poets:
○ Banabhatta: He was the author of Harshacharita, Kadambari, and Parvathi
Parinayam,
○ Mayura:He was the author ofMayura Satakam
○ Grammarian Bhartrihari: He was the author ofVakyapadiya.
○ Matanga Divakara
After Harsha:
● ThedeathofHarshawasfollowedbyaperiodofpoliticalconfusionthatcontinuedupto
the8thcenturywhentheGurjara-PratiharasandtheRajputrulersemergedasabigforce
in northern India.
● Harshavardhana united his kingdom with that of his widowed sister Rajayashri and
shifted his capital to Kannauj who is described as the Lord of the North
(S
akalauttarapathanatha). He brought Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar, andOrissa
under his control.
● HarshawantedtoextendhispowerintheDeccan.ButhewasdefeatedbyPulakesinII,
the Chalukya ruler, on the banksofriverNarmada.Theriverthusbecamethesouthern
boundary of his kingdom.
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