GRADE 8
BIRLA PUBLIC SCHOOL, DOHA-QATAR
2025-26
Class VIII Science
Ch-2 The Invisible Living World: Beyond Our Naked Eye
Reference Notes
Microscope
A microscope makes tiny things appear much bigger and reveals details not seen by
the naked eye.
Robert Hooke (1665):
Published the book Micrographia, with detailed drawings of tiny living things as seen
under a microscope.
Used a microscope that made objects appear 200–300 times bigger.
Observed thin slices of cork and saw small, empty compartments. Called these
compartments cells (the first use of the word in science).
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1660s):
Improved the lenses and built better microscopes.
First to clearly observe and describe living cells like bacteria and blood cells.
Known as the Father of Microbiology for his discoveries of the invisible living world.
Cell
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living beings—plants, animals, and even
humans.
Cells cannot always be seen with the naked eye. We observe them using a
microscope.
Observing Plant and Animal Cells
[Link] Onion Peel Cells (Plant Cell)
An onion bulb has a thin, transparent layer called the onion peel. Staining (with red
safranin) helps make cells visible. Under the microscope, onion peel cells appear
rectangular and are packed closely together.
These cells have:
A cell wall (extra outer layer). Cell wall gives strength and rigidity to plant cells.
Cell membrane (inside the cell wall, outer lining of cell)
Cytoplasm (jelly-like substance filling the cell)
Nucleus (round structure in the center)
2. Studying Cheek Cells (Animal Cell)
Scraping the inside of your cheek gives cheek cells. These are stained with
methylene blue to make them easier to see. Cheek cells are polygon-shaped
(irregular), flat, and have:
Cell membrane (outer boundary)
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Animal cells do NOT have a cell wall.
Main Parts and Structure of a Cell
All cells have three basic parts:
1. Cell Membrane: Thin, flexible layer forming the boundary of the cell.
Separates one cell from another.
Porous, allowing certain materials to enter or exit; keeps harmful substances out and
retains useful molecules.
2. Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling most of the cell inside the membrane.
Contains dissolved nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and mineral salts.
Most cellular life processes occur here.
3. Nucleus: Spherical or oval structure, usually located centrally.
Controls all cell activities, including growth and division.
Surrounded by its own thin membrane.
Plant cells have extra parts:
1. Cell Wall (in plants only):
A tough, outer layer surrounding the cell membrane.
Provides rigidity, strength, and protection to plant cells.
Makes cells appear firm and compactly arranged.
2. Plastids (including chloroplasts, in plants only):
Tiny rod-shaped structures within plant cells.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and enable photosynthesis.
Other plastids help store food and substances.
3. Vacuole:
Large, clear cavity in plant cells; smaller or absent in animal cells. Stores nutrients,
waste, and helps maintain cell shape and turgidity.
Variation in Shape and Structure of Cells
Cells within living organisms can have different shapes, sizes, and structures,
depending on their role and location.
Muscle cells: Spindle-shaped (tapered ends), designed for contracting and relaxing
to enable movement.
Nerve cells (neurons): Long and branched, suitable for carrying messages quickly
across the body.
Cheek cells: Thin and flat, forming a protective lining.
Plant cells/ Onion Cells: May be rectangular, elongated, oval, or tube-shaped; some
form long tubes for transporting water.
Why Do Cells Differ in Shape and Structure?
The unique shape and size of each cell type help it perform specific functions for the
organism.
Nerve cells must reach distant parts, so they are long and extended.
Muscle cells contract and relax, so their spindle shape helps this motion.
Plant tube cells transport water, so they are elongated and tube-like.
Role of Different Cells in Body Functions
In humans, muscle cells in the digestive tract move food by contracting in waves.
The stomach contains muscle cells for churning food and specialized cells for
producing digestive juices and acids.
In plants, tube-like cells help move water and nutrients up the stem and into leaves.
Levels of Organisation in the Body of a Living Organism
1. Cell – The Basic Unit of Life The cell is the smallest, most fundamental unit of
all living beings.
2. Tissue – Group of Similar Cells A tissue is a group of similar cells that work
together to perform a specific function.
3. Organ – Structure Formed by Different Tissues An organ is formed when different
types of tissues combine and work together to perform a particular function.
4. Organ System – Group of Organs for Major Functions An organ system is a
group of organs that work together to perform a major life function.
5. Organism – Complete Living Being All the organ systems together make up a
complete, multicellular organism—like a plant, animal, or human.
Microorganisms
Living beings made up of just one cell (unicellular) or only a few cells.
They are so tiny that we cannot see them without the aid of a microscope.
The word "microorganism" comes from "micro" (very small) and "organism" (living
being).
Cellularity: Some (like bacteria and Amoeba) are unicellular (single-celled).
Others (like some fungi and algae) can be multicellular (made of many cells) but
still remain extremely small.
Everywhere: In water, soil, air, on and inside our bodies, and in extreme places too
Where Do We Find Microorganisms?
In Water: Lakes, rivers, oceans, ponds, even in a drop of water!
In Soil: The earth is full of bacteria, fungi, and protozoa.
In Air: Some float in the atmosphere.
Inside Living Beings: Many live in our intestines or on our skin—helping or
sometimes causing illness.
On food: Responsible for spoilage and rotting (mouldy bread, spoiled fruits).
On plant surfaces: Leaves, stems, and roots all have microbial residents.
In water, soil, and air: Microbes thrive in ponds, rivers, soil, and even float in the air.
Inside living beings: The human body (especially the intestine) is home to many
bacteria that help with vital functions like digestion.
Extreme environments: Some microbes live in very hot springs, icy cold zones, or
salty lakes—showing their incredible adaptability and diversity.
Key Players in Cleaning the Environment
Microbes, especially bacteria and fungi, break down dead plant and animal matter,
turning it into simpler substances (decomposition).
This process is what turns fallen leaves and fruit peels into manure (compost),
enriching the soil for healthy plant growth.
Manure Formation
When organic waste (like fruit and vegetable peels) is left in moist soil for a few
weeks, microbes decompose it, forming dark-coloured, nutrient-rich manure.
Preservation with Salt and Sugar:
Pickles and murabbas are made with high concentrations of salt or sugar.
These act as preservatives and prevent the growth of microbes, so the food
does not spoil easily.
Microbes as a Source of Biogas
Some bacteria and fungi can grow in places where there is no oxygen (anaerobic
conditions). These microbes decompose plant and animal waste, releasing gases
mainly methane and carbon dioxide.
Methane (biogas) is an important renewable fuel used for cooking, heating,
electricity, and even running vehicles.
Real-Life Example: Dr. Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty developed a special bacterium
that can break down oil spills (patented in 1980), showing how microbes can help
solve real-world pollution problems.
Microorganisms in Food Preparation
Fermentation and Rising of Dough
Yeast (a fungus) is used to make dough rise for breads, cakes, and some Indian
foods:
When mixed with flour and warm water, yeast ferments sugars, releasing carbon
dioxide (which forms bubbles, making the dough soft and fluffy) and a little alcohol
(which adds to the smell).
Bowl experiment: Dough with yeast becomes fluffy and airy; without yeast, it stays
dense.
Formation of Curd and Other Fermented Foods
Lactobacillus (a type of bacteria) is used in curd formation:
Added to warm milk, it multiplies and converts sugars (lactose) into lactic acid,
making the milk sour and thick (curd).
This needs a warm environment to work well. Warm milk forms curd quickly; cold
milk does not.
Bacteria like Lactobacillus and yeast help in fermentation for foods like idli, dosa, and
bhatura.
All these organisms make our food tastier, more nutritious, and sometimes easier to
digest.
Nitrogen Fixation
Rhizobium bacteria live in the root nodules of legumes (peas, beans).
These bacteria convert nitrogen from the air into forms plants can use, improving
soil fertility naturally (without chemical fertilizers).
This is why farmers grow legumes in crop rotation.
Amazing Microalgae:
Tiny Helpers in Water Microalgae are microscopic, plant-like organisms found in
water, soil, air, and even on tree bark.
They perform photosynthesis (making food from sunlight) and release oxygen—more
than half of the Earth’s oxygen comes from microbes like these.
They are a major food source for aquatic animals. Some, like Spirulina, Chlorella,
and Diatoms, are used as dietary supplements and medicines for humans.
Other Benefits
Microalgae help in cleaning water and are being developed as a source of biofuel
(clean energy).
However, they are threatened by pollution, climate change, and loss of habitat.
Conserving microalgae is important for maintaining oxygen supply, food security, and
the health of aquatic ecosystems.
Example: Spirulina
Known as a "superfood" because it is rich in protein (over 60%) and vitamin B12,
while being low in fat and sugar.
Spirulina can be easily farmed in tanks with pond water, moderate temperature, and
sunlight.
Spirulina farming is a growing livelihood option for communities.
Cell Considered the Basic Unit of Life
The cell is called the basic unit of life because it is the smallest structure that can
carry out all the functions necessary for survival.
All living organisms—plants, animals, and microorganisms—are made up of cells.
Multicellular organisms (plants and animals): The bodies of all plants and animals
are made up of many cells so, they are called Multicellular organisms.
Examples of multicellular organisms are: Plants, animals, humans.
Unicellular organisms (bacteria, protozoa, some fungi and algae):
They are made up of only one single cell.
This single cell performs all life processes—nutrition, movement, reproduction,
growth, and response to the environment.
Examples of unicellular organisms are: Bacteria, amoeba, yeast.
Examples of Microbial Organization
Bacteria and protozoa are usually unicellular (single-celled).
Some algae and fungi can be unicellular or multicellular:
Yeast: A unicellular fungus (lives as single cells).
Moulds: Multicellular fungi (made of many cells).
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