Map Reading

SVP National Police Academy

Hyderabad-500052
 Map Reading

Written and Compiled by

Rakesh Aggarwal
Assistant Director (Outdoor)

SVP National Police Academy

Hyderabad-500052
 Introduction

Map Reading is a compulsory subject in the Outdoor curriculum

of IPS (Probationers).

The objectives of Map Reading are:

ƒ To be able to understand the topography of any area with

the help of a map
ƒ To be able to navigate to an area with the help of a map
ƒ Map as a source of intelligence gathering concerning
adversary area
ƒ Operational planning
ƒ Field sketching in prescribed manner and hence
knowledge management
ƒ As a source of confidence while conducting operations

With the naxalites’ problem affecting more than half of the

states, Map Reading has become more relevant than ever
before.
GPS (Global Positioning System) has now become a really
affordable technology, which has greatly enhanced the
navigational ability of troops. Hence GPS is also included in this
publication along with the ubiquitous and time-tested Service
Prismatic Compass, which still remains an essential part of the
equipment of a soldier.
It is hoped that this publication will afford self-reading and
imbibing of concepts at one’s own pace and thus enhance the
understanding of the subject.

July 2005 (Rakesh Aggarwal)

AD (OD)

Map Reading Course

 Contents

SN Chapter Page
1 What is a Map? 1
2 Scale 7
3 Conventional Signs 11
4 Map Marginal Information 21
5 Directions and Degrees 24
6 Finding North Direction 26
7 Bearings 36
8 Prismatic Compass and Navigation 44
9 Contours and Section 55

Contents
10 Slopes 65
11 Intervisibility 72
12 Setting a Map 77
13 Finding Own Position on Map 82
14 Map to Ground 84
15 Ground to Map 86
16 Measuring Ground Distances 88
17 Referencing 90
18 Index to Map Sheets 97
19 Field Sketching, Eye Sketches and 111
Enlargement
20 Sand Models 115
21 GPS 121
22 Garmin GPS 12 XL 136
23 Technical Terms Used in Map 143
Reading

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Chapter 1
What is a Map?
What is a Map?

The origin of the word ‘Map’ can be traced to the latin term
‘MAPPA’ which means a small sheet of cloth.

Definition

A map may be defined as a selective, symbolized,

conventional and generalized picture in plan view on a

What is a Map
reduced scale of some spatial distribution of a large area,
usually the earth’s surface.

Points to Remember

™ Only selective details as relevant for the purpose for which

map is being drawn are shown as opposed to an aerial
picture.
™ Predefined Conventional Signs and Symbols are used to
represent features on a map to lend brevity to the map.
™ The details visible on the map are as they would appear in
plan view (i.e. when observed from a great height). The
height of the feature is shown by Contours.
™ A map is generally drawn to a scale. However this does not
mean that all conventional signs should also be translated to
the map scale. For example, in the conventional sign of a
road, the width of conventional sign does not represent the
width of the road, although length does represent the length
of road.

Limitations of Maps
™ Outdated Information: Information in a Map is correct as on
date of survey. It might have undergone changes over a

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period of time. For example, a stream may dry up,
population may migrate, etc.
™ Inaccuracy: Information in a map may not be totally accurate
for the sake of brevity. For example, if the contour value is 20
meters and there is raised ground of 10 meters height, the
raised ground will not be shown on the map.
™ Incompleteness: Certain relevant information may not be
there. For example, trees at a place may obstruct visibility if
they were more than a certain height. However, the height of
trees may not be mentioned in maps.

Reliability of Maps
™ Maps show plan view of the details of the ground on the date
of survey. However, since the physical features such as
coastlines, river courses and demography etc. keep on
changing, the reliability of data on map keeps on decreasing
with time elapsed since date of survey.
™ A survey is done for a given scale of map. Any enlargements
etc. produced from the original survey based on smaller scale
are likely to be prone to inaccuracies.
™ Reliability of a map also depends upon as to who has published
the map. Maps published by Survey of India are more reliable
than those published by say a municipal corporation.
™ Larger the scale of map (for survey), more is the reliability of
the map as it shows more details accurately.

Care of Maps
Maps are very precious resources, which must be handled
carefully not only to increase their longitivity but also to prevent
their falling in the hands of enemy.
™ Maps must be protected from:
o Dampness
o Dirt
o Wrinkles/ Folds
o Open air/ too much restricted space such as a
vehicle
™ Try to have a cloth lining behind the map.

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™ Keep maps wrapped in cellulite transparent sheets and
fold them in such a manner that often used portion can be
accessible without fully unfolding the map.
™ All writings etc. must never be done on map sheets but on
the transparent sheets and that too with soft pencils.
™ Do not open maps in strong winds, or open them on
uneven grounds.
™ Folding of Maps
o Maps are folded in such a manner that in majority of
circumstances, the area of interest can be accessed
without fully opening the map. This ensures that
wrinkles etc. would not result.
o The Method: First fold the map in half down its
longest length with the map showing outwards. Then
fold across the other way, concertina fashion, as
illustrated. The number of folds will depend upon
the size of the map. The aim is to reduce it to a
convenient size for carrying and at the same time
ensure that there is a reasonably large area for
studying when two folds are opened like a book.

How to Fold a Map

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Types of Maps

Maps can be classified in a variety of ways such as:

1. On the Basis of Scale

‰ Small Scale Maps: Maps in which scales are 1:5,00,000 or

smaller.
‰ Medium Scale Maps: Maps in which scales are between
1:5,00,000 and 1:1,00,000.
‰ Large Scale Maps: Maps in which scales are 1:1,00,000 or
bigger i.e., 1:63,360 (British Units), 1:50,000, 1:25,000 etc.

Note: The classification is NOT universal.

2. On the Basis of Aim

‰ Complete Information Maps: These are very large scale

maps. Example: plan of an airport layout, air photographs.
‰ Relative Information Maps: These maps incorporate only
those details which fulfill the intended aim. Examples:
Guide Maps; Road and Rail Maps; Relief Maps (which are
solid maps showing elevated features in slightly raised
form); Educational maps such as those showing climate,
minerals, soil etc; Outline/political maps etc.
‰ Limited Information Maps: These maps neither show all
the details nor fulfill any narrow specific object but
concentrate on depicting important topographical features:
These types of maps can further be classified into:

¾ Atlas Maps: Very small scale maps such as those

showing entire continents etc.
¾ Tactical Maps: Secrete maps depicting location of
troops, attack / defense plans, deployment of weapons
etc.
¾ Topographical Maps: These maps depict all important
topographical features – natural as well as man made –
leaving out unimportant details. These maps extensively
use contours to show heights of features/shape of

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ground & conventional signs. These maps are prepared
by Survey of India. These are the maps which are most
important for a soldier. In the subject of map reading,
we are always referring to Topographical Maps.

Size of a Topographical Sheet

The typical size of a typical topographical sheet produced by

Survey of India is 56.5 cm X 58 cm (map area).

Procurement of Maps

Survey of India (established in 1767) is the agency of Govt. of

India under Ministry of Science and Technology, which has the
responsibility of preparing and supplying topographical maps.
Survey of India has mapped the whole of India on a scale of
1:50,000 whereas some of area has also been mapped on
1:25,000 scale. Digital versions of these maps are also available
@ Rs. 20,000/- per sheet. Besides the topographical maps, the
Survey of India publishes District maps and tourist maps also,
which may be useful for police officers.

Procedure: Generally, at the State and CPO level, Gridded maps

are procured at PHQ/ Directorate level. However, if the need
arises to procure a particular map(s) by SPs, they may approach
Survey of India. Survey of India supplies maps to consignees
through their regional offices, with each regional office having a
geographical jurisdiction. The address and telephone nos. of
relevant regional office may be known from the website or
contacting the office of Surveyor General of India:

Survey of India
Website: [Link]

Address: SURVEYOR GENERAL'S OFFICE

Post Box No. 37, Dehra Dun - 248001
Fax: 0135-744064 E-mail: sgo@[Link]

For procuring the Gridded topographical maps, a relevant form

has to be filled up and details of Map Sheet no., GSGS No.,

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Survey Year, No. of copies need to be filled up and cost of maps
remitted.
Cost of a map sheet as per 2004 rates is Rs. 33/- approximately).
An end user certificate is also to be provided by the consignee.

Gridded maps are classified maps as the enemy can misuse

them. Hence procurement procedure, as outlined above, is
more cumbersome than the procedure for ungridded maps,
which can be procured off the shelf.

Safety:
Since maps contain a lot of classified information, which must
not pass into enemy hands, the consignee is required to submit a
certificate every year to the Regional Office of Survey of India
that maps are safe with them. By corollary, if any map is
misplaced, it should be immediately intimated to Survey of India
as well as to the superior office.

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Chapter 2
Scale
What is Scale in Map Craft?

The ratio of distance between two points on the map to the

horizontal equivalent distance between the same two points on
ground is known as scale of a map.

It is important to remember that the distance on ground is

horizontal distance and not sloping or undulating distance.

Methods of Representing Scale

1. By Words: In this method, a certain distance on a map is

written to equal a unitary (km., mile, etc.) distance on
ground.

Scale
Examples:
a) 1 inch=1 mile
b) 2 cm = 1 km
c) 1 cm = 2 Kms would be wrong because distance on
ground is not unitary. Correct representation would be
½ cm = 1 km

2. By Representative Fraction (RF): In this method, scale is

represented in the format 1: x, where x represents the no. of
units of ground distance represented by a single unit on map.
Examples a) and b) supra would be represented thus in RF:
a) 1: 63360 [I mile equals 63360 inches]
b) 1:50,000 [1 Km equals 100,000 cms., therefore RF would
be 2: 1,00,000 which in format 1:x would equal 1:50,000]

3. By Scale Lines: In this method, we draw a scale line of 9 to

15 cms (or 4 to 6 inches) on map and calibrate it by writing
distances that it represents on ground. Hence, with the help
of a scale line, we can directly read the horizontal ground
distance represented by a certain length on map with the
help of a divider. Scale Lines are of two types:

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a) Full Divided Scale Line: Scale Line starts from Zero on
the left. Each of the Primary Divisions (1000 Yards in the
example shown) is further divided into secondary
divisions on 200 yards each.

1”= I Mile (Scale in Words)

1:63360 (Scale in RF)

b) Open Divided Scale Line: The Scale Line’s Zero starts

after the first Primary division, which only is subdivided
into Secondary Divisions. This is the most commonly used
scale line having the advantage of brevity without loss of
any functionality as the secondary division can still be
read on left of zero. In practice, the length is measured
on the map with the help of a divider and right leg of
divider kept on that primary division which will ensure
that left leg falls somewhere on the first Primary
Division to the left of Zero.

1”= I Mile (Scale in Words)

1:63360 (Scale in RF)

On a typical Topographical map Sheet, Scale is written in all

three formats, i.e. Words, RF and Scale Line.

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Double Scale Line:

RF: 1:50,000, 2 cm. = 1 Km

RF: 1:63,360, 1 inch = 1 mile

This type of scale line is divided on both sides- on one side in

Metric divisions and on the other side in British Units.

Common Scales Used in Topographical Maps:

Following scales are commonly used in topographical maps:
‰ 1:100,000 (1 cm = 1 km)

‰ 1:63360 (1”=1 Mile)

‰ 1:50,000 (Most commonly available map)

‰ 1:25,000 (Being published, whole of India not yet covered)

Conversion of Scales
A. Word Scale to RF: Convert both the sides of equation to same
units.

Example 1: Convert 1 inch = I mile scale to RF scale

1 mile = 1760 (yards/mile) x36 (inches/yard) = 63360 inches
Hence, scale in words is 1 inch (on map) = 63360 inches (on ground)
Hence, RF scale is 1:63360

Example 2: Convert 1:126720 scale into words scale

1 inch (on map)=126720 inches (on ground)= 2 miles (on ground)
Hence scale in words is 1 inch=2 miles
B. Metric to British System and Vice Versa: First convert the
given Scale in words to RF since RF remains the same
irrespective of units used.

Example: Convert 2 cm=1 km scale into inch-mile scale

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RF of 2 cm=1 km scale is 2: 100000 or 1:50000 (1 km=100000
cms.)
Hence for inch-mile scale, this means, 1 inch (on map)=50000
inches (on ground)
Hence inch-mile scale in words is 1 inch=0.7891 miles
(50000/63360)

Points to Remember

‰ Scale Lines on Topographical Maps are between 4 to 6

inches (10 to 15 cms.) long.
‰ By nomenclature
o ½ inch map sheet means scale of ½ inch=I mile,
o 1 inch map sheet means scale of 1 inch = 1 mile,
o 50000 map sheet means scale of 1: 50000 or 2 cm=
1 km on that map sheet and so on.
‰ Typical features (by convention) of some common map
sheets
o Area covered by 1:50,000 map sheet = 15’x 15’ (15
minutes X 15 minutes)
o Area covered by 1:25,000 map sheet = 7 ½’ x 7 ½’
o Contour Interval on a 1: 50,000 map = 20 meters
o Contour Interval on a 1: 25,000 map = 20 meters
o Physical area covered by a typical 1: 50,000 SoI
Map sheet: 23.6 X 23.6 Kms.
‰ Datum followed by Survey of India: Everest Datum
‰ India is covered by 9 Grids, Hyderabad is in Grid IIIA

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Chapter 3
Conventional Signs
What Are Conventional Signs
On a topographical map (or any map), there is not enough space
to depict various features in their actual shape along with their
names. This difficulty is overcome by using predefined signs to
depict various features. This helps us to depict various features
on a map in a legible way. For topographical maps, Survey of
India fixes these signs. For defense purpose, certain
conventional signs are fixed by Defense Forces also.

Conventional Signs
Types of Conventional Signs
There are two types of conventional signs:
1. Survey Signs: Fixed by SoI
2. Military Symbols: Fixed by Defense Head Quarters, they
are Secret. They are used to depict deployment of troops,
provisions, fortifications, arms, ammunition etc.

Method of making Conventional Signs

Diagrams By Diagrams By Using

with Names Colours

1. In Plane: As features appear

Examples: from above. Example: Road,
Railway Line, Canal, Lake, Examples:
Chimney, Water (Blue),
Monument, PO Pond, Village etc.
2. In Elevation: As features Irrigation
(Post Office), (Yellow),
PS (Police appear from front. Example
Church, Tomb, Temple etc. Forest (Green),
Station, CG Hospital (Red +)
(Camping 3. In General: Represented in a
Ground) etc. general sense to represent the
meaning. Example
Embankment, Tunnel, Cutting

Refer the end of chapter for list of common conventional signs.

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Conventional Signs on the basis of Scale

According to Map Larger than Map

Scale Scale
These features are so
Example:
small that if shown as
Village, City,
per scale, they will not
River (length)
be visible on map.
etc. Hence they are shown
bigger than map scale.
Example: Lone house,
Well, Bridge, Road
(width) etc.

Size of Conventional Signs

Most of the conventional signs are shown in the size 4mm X 4

mm. Some conventional signs that depict longitudinal features
(such as roads, river etc.) are shown 2 mm thick.

Do you need to remember all Conventional Signs?

NO; since all conventional signs used in a map are shown on the
bottom of the map sheet. However, for speedier reading of map
and for field sketching, it is important that we remember and
recognize commonly used conventional signs.

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Conventional Signs-1

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Conventional Signs-2

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Conventional Signs-3

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Conventional Signs-4

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Conventional Signs-5

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Conventional Signs-6

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Conventional Signs-7

RESTRICTED

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Conventional Signs-8

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Chapter 4
Map Marginal Information
A typical Topographical Map published by Survey of India has
very useful information above and below the main body of
map.
1. Name of State
2. Districts/ Area Covered
18 3. Year of Survey
4. Name of Country

Map Marginal Information

6
2 3 1 7 5. REG No. (Can also be for
8 ordering Map from SoI)
6. Edition
7. Map Sheet Number
8. Information about Norths
Main 9. Publishing Authority
10. Legend of Conventional
Body Signs
Of 11. Index of Map Sheets
12. Scale
Map 13. Contour Interval
14. References, special
instructions, compilation
index
15. Administrative Index
5 9 19 16. Copyright
10 11 17. Cost of Map
12 15 10 18. Gridded or not, Scale,
20 13 Edition, Map Sheet No.
16
18 19. Printed at
14 17 20. Information about earlier
4
21 editions
21. Grid specifications

The map user should have a clear understanding of the meaning

and position of each of these pieces of information.

Important: Important pieces of information are repeated (i.e.

both at the top as well as bottom) of main body so that even if a
part of map is torn, the information is still available. Example:
Item at SN 18 is both at the bottom as well as the top.

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Important Terms Explained:

1. Name of State: area of which is covered by map.

2. Districts: area of which is covered by map.
3. Year of Survey: The year in which survey was carried out
by Survey of India for preparing the map. The later the year
of survey, the more accurate the map would be.
4. Name of Country: area of which is covered by map.
5. GSGS No. (for ordering Map from SoI): Geographical Section
of General Staff no: required for procuring those maps
which are maintained by the Army.
6. Edition: This indicates the Edition of map, which is
analogous to edition no. of a book.
7. Map Sheet Number: What is the map sheet no. as per Asian
Survey Index to map sheets.
8. Information about Norths: Gives the information about
inclination of Grid and Magnetic North to the True North
and annual average rate of change of Magnetic Variation.
9. Publishing Authority: Under whose authority has the map
been published? It is generally the Surveyor General of
India.
10. Legend of Conventional Signs: Gives a directory of all the
Conventional Signs used in the Map
[Link] of Map Sheets
12. Scale: The Scale used in the map in indicated in words,
fraction and Scale Line.
13. Contour Interval: Indicates the contour interval in meters/
feet
14. References: Special instructions about colouring, relative
heights, triangulated heights, boundaries etc. for
interpretation of map, if the map is compiled from survey
done for a larger/ smaller scale, details of the same.
15. Administrative Index: Just an outline map of the area from
administration point of view, e.g. district outline
16. Copyright: Who owns the copyright for the map?

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17. Cost of Map: Cost of map in Rupees.
18. Gridded or not: Indicates whether the map is Gridded or
not? Remember, Gridded maps are classified maps.
19. Printed At: Where is the map printed?
20. Information about earlier Editions: Which were the earlier
editions of the current map?
21. Grid specifications: What grid has been used (Example Grid
IIIA for Hyderabad region) and how is the Grid marked?

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Chapter 5
Directions and Degrees
In Map Reading, we are often concerned with directions.
Hence, we must know the nomenclature used and their
relative angles w.r.t. a given reference.

Directions and Degrees

Cardinal Points: Four; bearings are as follows:
North (N): 00 or 3600 by convention
East (E): 900 to North
South (S): 1800 to North
West (W): 2700 to North

Intermediate Points: Four (One between each of two Cardinal

points. They are designated by writing North/South followed by
East/West, depending on which two cardinal points are on either
side of intermediate points. Bearings are as follows:

North East (NE): 450

South East (SE): 1350 to North
South West (SW): 2250 to North
North West (W): 3150 to North

Sub-Intermediate Points: Eight (One between each Cardinal

and Intermediate point. They are designated by writing first
the Cardinal Point and then the Intermediate Point that
surround the Sub-Intermediate point. For example, Sub-

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Intermediate Point between E and SE will be written as ESE
(East-South East). Bearings are as follows:

North-North East (NNE): 22 ½ 0

East-North East (ENE): 67 ½ 0 to North
East-South East (ESE): 112 ½ 0 to North
South-South East (SSE): 157 ½ 0 to North
South-South West (SSW): 202 ½ 0 to North
West-South West (WSW): 247 ½ 0 to North
West-North West (WNW): 302 ½ 0 to North
North-North West (NNW): 347 ½ 0 to North

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Chapter 6
Finding North Direction
Why do we need to know North Direction?

We need to know the directions on earth for aligning map with

ground details. Secondly, directions are frequently used for
referencing also. For example, we may say, the hideout is west
of the tekri. Since all directions bear a definite and known
spatial relationship with each other, once one of the directions

Finding North Direction

is known, the others are automatically known. Therefore, we
must know how to find the North direction, as among all other
directions, North is the easiest to find and, therefore, is the
reference direction in any map.

Types of directions:

The earth spins on its axis, which passes through the North and
South poles. The North Pole is geographical North, or True
North. Meridians are lines drawn from North Pole to South Pole,
and are true North-South lines. On a map, these lines are shown
in BLACK colour. The True North direction is fixed in space and
time, i.e. it neither varies from place to place nor from time to
time.

Lines of a Grid, which are imposed on the map for referencing,

do not lie in true North and South direction except along one
standard meridian (00) and elsewhere they make an angle with
the true North-South line. Since the grid lines are all parallel,
and since they are drawn on the map, it is very convenient to
use them for drawing or measuring bearings. The direction of
the North-South grid lines is therefore recognized as Grid
North. On the map, they are shown in PURPLE colour. Grid
North and Grid Lines are also fixed in space as well as time i.e.
their relative position w.r.t. True North and True North-South
lines remains the same at a given place although they may be
inclined at different angles at different places. Their inclination
w.r.t. True North-South lines also do not change with time.

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When we say that a magnetic compass always points towards
North, strictly speaking, that is only partially true because a
compass needle does not point to the North Pole. It points to a
place in the far North of Canada, which is known as the Magnetic
Pole. The direction in which a compass needle points is known as
Magnetic North. There are only a few places at which it coincides
with the True North. Magnetic North is also inclined to True
North at different angles at different places and this inclination
varies with time, i.e. angle between True North and Magnetic
North changes w.r.t. time. Therefore, Magnetic North lines are
not shown on topographic maps.

There are thus three Norths: -

(a) True North-the direction of the North Pole.
(b) Magnetic North-the direction in which a compass needle
points.
(c) Grid North-the direction of the North-South lines of a grid.

It is most important that when North is referred to, other than as

a vague general direction, there should be no doubt which north
is being referred to, i.e. True, Magnetic or Grid. Similarly, when
bearings are given, it must be clear whether they are true,
magnetic or grid bearings, that is, measured w.r.t. True,
Magnetic or Grid North.

Bearings that are not otherwise described are always

understood to be grid bearings if mentioned in connection
with map reading.

The marginal information on a map shows True, Magnetic and

Grid Norths, and the angles they make with each other.

Magnetic Variation (or Declination) and Annual Change:

The angle between the Magnetic North line and the True North
line at any place is the Magnetic Variation for that place.
Magnetic variation may also be called Magnetic Declination.

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The position of the Magnetic pole is not fixed; it moves slightly

from year to year. In consequence, the direction of Magnetic
North, and therefore the Magnetic Variation, also changes by a
small amount each year. Though this change is not constant it
can be forecast with sufficient accuracy over a number of years.
Details of the annual change are given in the map marginal
information.
Thus on a certain sheet, Magnetic North is shown as 10° 45' West
of True North on 1 January 1947. The annual change is given as
10' East. By March 1952, i.e. more than five years later, and
Magnetic North has moved 5 x 10' = 50' East. Magnetic North in
March 1952 is therefore 100 45'-50' = 90 55' west. Note carefully
whether the annual change has to be added or subtracted. If the
annual change is the same direction as the magnetic variation it
must be added; if they are opposite directions, the annual
change must be subtracted.
Lines of equal magnetic variation:
On some sm3.11 scale maps there are slanting lines across the
sheet, each marked with the figures of an angle in degrees and
minutes. These are lines of equal magnetic variation, called
Isogonals. They are put there because on a small-scale map,
covering a wide area, the magnetic variation differs appreciably
in different parts. To find the magnetic variation at any point on
such a map, note the magnetic variation of the isogonals on each
side of the point and from this estimate the magnetic variation at
the point. Then apply the annual increase or decrease as
explained above.
Isogonals do not, as is sometimes supposed, themselves point
in the direction of Magnetic North.

Local Magnetic Attraction:

A compass points north when it is free from outside
interference. Lay a compass on the table and then bring a piece
of iron up to it. The needle will swing away from north towards
the piece of iron. When using a compass, therefore, always be
sure that it is not being upset by the presence of iron nearby. In
addition, the Local Magnetic Attraction due to presence of
unduly large ferrous material nearby may also affect the

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compass. This attraction is found by experiments and in high
precision work, correction due to local magnetic attraction must
be applied correctly.

1. Finding True North by Sun

1.1 The Shadow Tip

Find a straight stick

about a meter long and
locate a level spot on
which a shadow will be
cast. Place the stick in
the ground and mark the E
shadow's tip. Wait 10-15 W
minutes until the shadow
tip moves a few E
centimeters and mark
the shadow tip's new
position. Then draw a
line through the two
marks to obtain an approximate east-west line. The first mark
will always be west. Stand with the first mark (west) to your left
and the second mark to your right. You are now facing north.

1.2 Using a Watch

If you have a watch with hands, it can help

you find your way. The direction will be
accurate if you are using a true local time.
Also, the further you are from the equator,
the more accurate this method will be. In the
northern hemisphere, hold the watch
horizontal and point the hour hand at the sun.
Bisect the angle between the hour hand and
the 12:00 mark to get a north - south line. For
deciding which end of the line is north,
remember that the sun rises in the east and
sets in the west. It is due south at noon, east
before noon, and west after noon.

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2. The Night Sky

The position of North Star, or Polaris, is relatively fixed (within

10 of North Pole) with respect to earth
whereas all other stars appear to move
(because of earth’s rotation). This is so
because; the North Star is located
approximately above the North Pole along
the axis of spin of earth. Hence the
perpendicular from the North Star to the
earth is taken to point in the True North
direction. Therefore, for finding the True
North direction, the problem reduces to
that of locating the North Star. To locate the North Star in the
Northern Hemisphere, the Big Dipper (Ursa Major) and Cassiopeia
are helpful, because neither of these constellations ever sets and
thus are always visible on a clear night. After finding the North
Star, imagine a line drawn from the North Star perpendicular to
the earth. The point at which the line reaches the horizon is
north.

2.1 The Ursa Major or Big Dipper (Saptarishi or Great Bear

Constellation): Pole Star can be
found by locating the Big Dipper
(Ursa Major or Big Bear - the stars
shown in blue) in the sky. The Big
Dipper is a cluster of stars
consisting of 7 bright stars,
forming a dipper, a small pot
with a long handle. Astronomers
name it "Ursa Major," Latin for
"the big bear." The piture shows
how the shape of Big Dipper looks
like (7 blue stars on left in the
picture), so that you can locate
that in the sky. Once you locate the Big Dipper, imagine a line
connecting the two stars at the front of the "dipper" (last 2
stars), continue a line from those 2 stars to the side where the
dipper is "open" to a distance 5 times that between the 2 stars,
and you will arrive at (or very close to) the "POLE STAR" which is
a faint star. Its altitude (the angle it makes with the horizon) is
always equal to the latitude of the observer. Since the altitude of
the Pole star is always equal to the observer's latitude, if you

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know your latitude, that's how high from the horizon the pole
star will be. So, if you are at Equator, the Pole Star will be zero
degrees above horizon.

2.2 Cassiopeia:
Cassiopeia has five
stars that form a
shape like a "W." One
side of the "W"
appears flattened or
wider. The North
Star can be found by
bisecting the angle
formed on the wider
V. Extend this line
about five times the
distance between
the bottom of the
"W" and the top. The North Star is located between Cassiopeia
and the Ursa Major (Big Dipper).

2.3 Southern Cross:

Because there is no
single star bright
enough to be easily
recognized near the
south celestial pole,
you can use a
constellation known
as the Southern
Cross. You can use it
as a signpost to the
South. The Southern
Cross or Crux has
five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross. The two stars that
make up the Cross's long axis are used as a guideline. To
determine south, imagine a distance four-and-one-half to five
times the distance between these stars and the horizon. The
pointer stars to the left of the Southern Cross serve two
purposes. First, they provide an additional cue toward south by
imagining a line from the stars toward the ground. Second, the
pointer stars help accurately identify the true Southern Cross
from the False Cross. The intersection of the Southern Cross and

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the two pointer stars is very dark and devoid of stars. This area is
called the coal sac. Look down to the horizon from this imaginary
point and you will be seeing in approximately the South
direction.

Approximate Methods

3. Moon-You can use the moon to determine a rough east - west

direction. If the moon rises before the sun sets, the illuminated
side will be west. If the moon rises after midnight, the
illuminated side will be east.

4. Moss- Moss growth is more vigorous and lush on the side of the
tree facing the equator.

5. Graveyard: A muslim is buried in such a manner that the head

of the deceased is towards the North. A big stone is also placed
towards the head and a small stone towards the feet of the
deceased. If we stand facing the big stone, we will be facing the
North.

6. Mosque: In mosques in India, we find a big wall with two

minarets and a dome with niche. If we stand with our back to the
wall, we will be facing West.

7. Shivalaya: In shivalayas, the egress of water from the

shivlinga is towards North, signifying Mt. Kailash, the abode of
Shiva.

8. Ripeness of fruits: Due to more sunshine, the fruits/leaves on

Eastern side will be riper as compared to Western side.

9. Shadow at Noon: In the Northern hemisphere, the shadow at

exact Noon points towards North direction.

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Chapter 7
Bearings
From elementary geometry we know that X and Y co-ordinates
can be used to specify a point in a plane in a given reference
system. In the same way, the angle w.r.t. a given direction and
distance from the given point can also be used to exactly
specify a point on ground. The system of representing this
direction is through specifying Bearings.

For the purpose of Bearings, the given direction (reference

direction) is either TRUE, or GRID or MAGNETIC NORTH and the
angle is always measured clockwise from the reference
direction.

Bearing
Bearing of a point B w.r.t. A is the clockwise angle formed

Bearings
between ‘North’ passing through A and imaginary line from A to
B. If the reference North is
1. True North (or Geographical North), then Bearing is called
True Bearing.
2. Grid North, then Bearing is called Grid Bearing. Bearings
read on map (unless otherwise specified are Grid
Bearings)
3. Magnetic North, then Bearing is called Magnetic Bearing.

Procedure for finding Bearing of point B w.r.t. A:

a) Mark point A on Map (which can be a given point in terms
of Grid Reference or can be own position)
b) Depending on type of Bearing to be found, draw the
respective North line (True, Grid or Magnetic) through
point A. This line will be parallel (for all practical
purposes) to other North lines of same type in the vicinity.
c) Mark point B on map.
d) Draw a line from A to B.
e) Measure the clockwise angle from North line to the line
from A to B.
f) This angle will be Bearing of B w.r.t. A.

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The figure below shows the Bearings of B w.r.t. A in three
different situations.

Notes:

• The angle is always

measured
clockwise.
• The two rays
constituting the
angle are: One-
from reference
point to the
selected North
direction and
second- from
reference point to
the point whose
bearings are being
found out.
• The Bearings can be measured on map (Grid or True Bearing)
or with Compass (Magnetic Bearing).

Back Bearing

Back Bearing of a
point B w.r.t. A is the
Bearing (Forward
Bearing) of A as
observed from B. The
concept of Back
Bearing is used for
resection method
which is used for
finding own position,
as we will learn later.

As can be seen from

the figure, Back
Bearing can also be
derived
mathematically from Forward Bearing:

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Derivation of Back Bearing (BB) from Forward Bearing (FB) and

Vice Versa

If FB is Less than 1800, BB = FB + 1800

If FB is More than 1800, then BB = FB - 1800

Types of Norths

As we have already discussed, there are three types of North

directions:

(a) True North-00 longitude, the direction of the North Pole.

(b) Magnetic North-the direction in which a compass needle
points.
(c) Grid North-the direction of the north-south lines of a grid.
The spatial relationship of the three Norths is indicated in Map
marginal Information with the help of three angles:

Angle of Convergence: This is the angle formed between True

North and Grid North (or Mean Grid North) and remains fixed over
a period of a time for the area. It is generally specified whether
Grid North is East or West of True north. In some cases, the
words East or West are written after the angle. For example AOC
50 East should be read as Grid north is 50 East of True North.
Refer figure on next page.

Magnetic Variation: This is the angle formed between True North

and Magnetic North. It is generally specified whether Magnetic
North is East or West of True North. In some cases, the words
East or West are written after the angle. For example MV 50 East
should be read as Magnetic North is 50 East of True North. MV is
specified for the Year of Survey in the Map Marginal Information
as the direction of Magnetic North changes with time. Therefore,
the average annual rate of increase or decrease of MV in East or
West Direction (or movement of Magnetic North in East or West
Direction) is also specified in Map Marginal Information, which
can be used to find out the current MV. Refer figure on next
page.

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Local Variation: This is the angle formed between Grid North and
Magnetic North. It is generally specified whether Magnetic North
is East or West of Grid north. In some cases the words East or
West are written after the angle. For example, MV 50 East should
be read as Magnetic North is 50 East of Grid North. LV is specified
for a particular year, as the direction of Magnetic North changes
with time. Therefore, the average annual rate of movement of
Magnetic North in East or West Direction can be used to find out
the current LV. Refer figure below.

MN TN GN MN
TN GN

0 60 70
5

Angle of Convergence Magnetic Variation Local Variation

AOC is 50 East or Grid MV is 60 West or MV is 70 East or
North is 50 East of Magnetic North is 60 Magnetic North is 70
True North. West of True North. East of Grid North.

Need for Conversion of Bearings

While the True Bearings of a of a point can be read directly from

a map and Service Protractor, for marching with compass, we
need the corresponding Magnetic Bearing. Similarly, on ground,
we can easily read the Magnetic Bearing of a point with the help
of a Compass but since there are no Magnetic North lines on map,
to represent that point on map, we need to convert them to
either True or Grid Bearing. Hence there is need to convert one
Bearing to another, if AOC or MV or LV is known.

Factors affecting Magnetic Bearing:

1. Local Magnetic Attraction (LMA):

A compass points north when it is free from outside

interference. Lay a compass on the table and then bring a piece
of iron up to it. The needle will swing away from North towards
the piece of iron. When using a compass, therefore, always be

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sure that it is not being upset by the presence of iron nearby. In
addition, the Local Magnetic Attraction (LMA) due to presence of
unduly large ferrous material nearby may also affect the
compass. This attraction is found by experiments and in high
precision work, correction due to LMA must be applied
accordingly. If the LMA is towards East, the Magnetic Bearing
given by the Compass will be lesser than the Magnetic Bearing
without LMA. Hence in such a situation, the correct Magnetic
Bearing can be found by adding the degrees of LMA to the read
bearing and vice-versa. LMA for an area at a given point of time
is found by experiments and remains the same irrespective of the
compass used.

Correct Magnetic Bearing in Case of LMA

In case LMA is East, ADD to the Read Bearing.

In case LMA is West, SUBTRACT from Read Bearing.

2. Individual Compass Error (ICE):

The Compass is a mechanical piece of equipment and hence it

can have Zero Error, similar to the weighing machine error. This
error varies from compass to compass but remains fixed for a
given compass. It is independent of the place at which the
compass is used and found out by experimentation. If the ICE is
towards East, the Magnetic Bearing given by the Compass will be
lesser than the Magnetic Bearing without Individual Compass
Error. Hence in such a situation, the correct Magnetic Bearing
can be found by adding the degrees of ICE to the read bearing
and vice- versa.

Correct Magnetic Bearing in Case of ICE

In case ICE is East, ADD to the Read Bearing.

In case ICE is West, SUBTRACT from Read Bearing.

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Exercises on Conversion of Bearings

1. From a point A, the Bearing of a house was read as 700 on

the map (taking Grid North as reference). At that place, Angle
of Convergence is 0049’ (West). Find out the Back (Grid
Bearing) and True Bearings?

Refer figure on the right.

Grid Bearing = 700
Therefore True Bearing = x0, i.e. 700-
0049’ = 69011’
Back Grid Bearing = 1800-700= 1100 (since
forward Bearing is <1800)

2. At a given place, Local variation is 1030’ (West). If the

Bearing of a point A read with the Compass is 2300, find out
Grid Bearing of A?

Refer figure on the right.

Magnetic Bearing (measured by Compass)
= 2300
Therefore Grid Bearing = x0, i.e. 2300-
1030’=228030’

3. At a given place, AOC is 1030’ (East)

and MV is 2030’ (West). If the Bearing
of a point A read with compass is 3100,
find out all three bearings?

Refer figure on the right.

Bearing read with compass is Magnetic Bearing.
Hence, Magnetic Bearing = 3100
True Bearing = x0, i.e. 3100-2030’ = 307030’
Grid Bearing = y0, i.e. 3100-2300-1030’ =
3060

4. At a given place, the MV is 1025’

(East) and AOC is 250’ (West). If the
Bearing of a point A read with the
compass is 85, find out all other
Bearings? The Local Magnetic Attraction
at that place is 250’.

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In such kind of problems involving LMA or ICE, the first step is

to get the Correct Magnetic Bearing by applying the necessary
correction to read compass Bearing. Thereafter, make a
sketch in the usual way.

Read Compass Bearing = 850

LMA = 2050’ (West)
Therefore correct compass bearing =
850-2050’ = 82010’ (Remember, if
LMA is West, it has to be subtracted
from read Bearing)
Therefore Magnetic Bearing = 82010’

Now draw a sketch. Refer the figure

on the Right.
True Bearing = x0, 82010’ + 1025’ = 83035’
Grid Bearing = y0, 82010’ + 1025’ + 2050’ = 86025’

5. An enemy has fired at us at a Bearing of 2900 as measured

by him with Compass. At our location, the AOC is 49’ (East)
and MV is 48’ (West). Find out all the Bearings of the enemy?

Refer figure to the Right.

Since enemy has measured Bearing
to our position with Compass,
therefore, this is the Back
Magnetic Bearing of the enemy
from our location. Therefore
Forward Magnetic Bearing of
enemy = 2900 – 1800 = 1100
[Remember for BB. 1800, we
subtract 1800 from BB to get FB]

True Bearing = x0 = 1100- 48’ = 109012’

Magnetic Bearing = y0 = 1100- 48’ – 49’ = 108023’

6. GN is 3010’ East of TN. In 1960, MV was 2020’ (East) which

is increasing @ 2’ per year. In year 1960 the MB of a point A
was is read as 1000. Find out all the Bearings today (year
2004)?

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Here we will have to make 2 figures, one for position in 1960 and
the other for position in 1994.

Position in 1960: Refer Figure 1

MB = 1000
TB = x0 = 1000 + 2020’ = 102020’
GB = y0 = TB- 3010’ = 99010’

Position in 2004: Refer Figure 2

Since TN and GN remain fixed in space
w.r.t. time, therefore, there position
would remain the same as was in year
1960. Therefore TB and GB would also
remain the same.

Since MV is increasing @ 2’ per year, in 44

[2004-1960], it would be 2020’ + (2X44’) =
2020’ + 88’ = 2020’ + 1028’ = 3048’

Therefore, w.r.t. Figure 2, the MB (x0) = TB

– MV= 102020’ – 3048’ = 98032’

7. On a map, in 1962, AOC was 30 (East) and MV was 2040’

(West), which was decreasing @ 5’ per year. If a compass
having Individual Compass Error of 50 East read a Bearing of
a point as 1700 in 1982, find out all the Bearings of 1982?

The True Magnetic Bearing in 1982

would be 1700 + 50 = 1750 [Remember,
add the ICE East error to read Magnetic
Bearing to get Correct Magnetic
Bearing]

Now, Refer to Fig for position in 1982.

MV will decrease by 5’ X {1982-1962} = 100’ = 1040’ by 1982.
Therefore the MV in 1982 would be 2040’ – 1040’ = 10
MB = 1750
TB = x = 1750 – 10 = 1740
GB = y = 1750 –10- 30 = 1710

8. At a certain place, in 1962 AOC was 20 East and MV was 30

West, which was decreasing @ 4’ per year. In 1982, a

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Compass with ICE of 30 East read the Bearing of a point A as
1200, whereas the LMA that point was 20 West. Find out all
the Bearings in 1982?

First of all, find the Corrected

Magnetic Bearing by applying the
corrections for ICE and LMA.
Corrected Magnetic Bearing =
1200+30(East error)–20(West error)=
1210
Magnetic variation in 1982= 30 – [4’ X
{1982-1962}] = 1040’
Refer to Figure.
TB = x = 1210-1040’=119020’
GB = y = 1210-1040’-20=117020’

Test Yourself

1. On a map GN is 30 East of TN. If GB of point A was measured

as 1045, what is TB of A? [TB=1480]
2. Given AOC= 20 and TB=2800. Find out GB? [2820]
3. Given Local Variation = 2030’ East. If MB = 450, find GB?
[47030’]
4. Given MV=1045’ West. The Bearing measured with Compass is
1600. Find out TB? [158015’]

5. On a map, GN and TN are respectively 20 West and 30 West

from MN. If the Bearing of point A measured with compass is
3100, find all other Bearings? [GB=3120, TB=3130]

6. On a map, MV=1040’ East, AOC=1020’ W, and LMA=2015’ W. If

the Bearing read with compass is 1100, find out all other
Bearings? [MB=107045’, TB=109025’, GB=110045’]

7. An enemy has fired from a Bearing of 2700 w.r.t. his location.

AOC=2045’ W & MV=1015’ E. Find out all the Bearings of
enemy post? [MB=900, TB=91015’, GB=940]

8. The MB of post B from post A is 1000. MV=1045’ West &

AOC=1015’ East. Find out all the Bearings of A w.r.t. B?
[MB=2800, TB=278015’, GB=2770]

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9. On a map, MV=2015’ East & AOC=2045’. A compass with ICE

of 20 East read the Bearing of a point A to be 920. Find out
all the Bearings? [MB=940, GB=93030’, TB=96015’]

10. On a map in 1962, AOC=1015’ E & MV was 2045’ W which was

decreasing @ 6’ per year. In 1982, a compass with ICE of
30W was used to read the Bearing of a point A as 1100. If
LMA in the area is 20W, find out all the bearings in 1982?
[MB=1050, TB=104015’, GB=1030]

11. On a map, MV=1020’ West & AOC=1020’ East. If the Grid

Bearing of a point A was read as 1700, find out the Compass
Bearing, MB, & TB if ICE=50 East & LMA=10 East? [GB=1700,
CB=166070’, MB=172040’ TB=171020’]

12. In 1962, the MB of enemy position was 1900. If in 1962,

MV=1045’ East which is decreasing @ 3’ per year, &
AOC=1030’ East, find out all the Bearings in 1982? [MB=1910,
TB=191045’, GB=190015’]

13. On a map, AOC=2030’ East & MV=1030’ East If the Bearing of

a point read with a compass with ICE =30 West is 2500, find
out all the Bearings? [MB=2470, TB=248030’, GB=2460]

14. On a map, in 1967, GN is 1020’ East of TN & MV=20 West,

which is increasing @ 1’ per year. If GB of a point A in 1967
was 1200, find out all the Bearings in 1982? Find out
Magnetic Back Bearing also? [GB=1200, TB=121020’,
MB=123025’ MBB=303035’]

15. On a map, AOC=30 West. MV in 1970 was 20 West, which was

decreasing @ 4’ per year. Find out all the Bearings of an
enemy picket whose GB was measured to be 2400 in 1970?
Also find out the Bearing, which a compass with ICE of 20 East
will read if LMA at that place is 30 West? [GB=2400,
MB=238012’, TB=2370, Compass Bearing=239012’]

16. An O.P. reads the Bearing of an enemy position with a

correct compass in 1982 as 330. Find out all the Bearings in
1982 if AOC=2010’ West and MV=1040’ East in 1975, which
was increasing @ 3’ per year? Also find out Compass Bearing

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with a compass if ICE=20 East & LMA=10 West? [MB=330,
TB=3501’, GB=37011’, Compass Bearing=320]

17. On a map, AOC=2015’ East. In 1969, MV was 1040’ East,

which was increasing @ 5’ per annum. If Bearing of a point A
was read to be 1080 in 1969 by a compass having ICE=20 West,
find out all the Bearings of A in 1982? Also find out the LMA
in the area, if a correct Compass had read the Bearing as
1100 in 1982? [MB=104055’, TB=107040’, GB=105025’,
LMA=505’ West]

18. On a map, AOC=2005’W. In 1964, MV=1010’East, which was

decreasing @ 5’ per year. In 1964, a compass with an ICE of
20 East read the Bearings of A as 720. Find out all the
Bearings of A in 1982? If a correct compass reads the Bearing
of A in 1982 as 740, what will be LMA? [GB=77015’,
TB=75010’, MB=75030’, LMA=1030’E]

19. Grid Bearing of B from A is 3050. In 1970, AOC=49’ East &

MV=10 West, which was decreasing @ 1’ per year. A compass
having ICE of 30 West reads the Bearing in 1983 as 3080. Find
out LMA? [1036’E]

20. In 1982, from Map Reading Room, we read the Bearing of

Black Hill as 2150, where the LMA was 20 West. When we read
the Bearing (GB) on map, we found it to be 2100. On this
map, in 1969 MV was 10 West, which was decreasing @ 1’ per
year and AOC was 49’. Find out all the Bearings in 1982? Also
find out the ICE of the Compass? [GB=2100, TB=210049’,
MB=211036’ and ICE=1024’ West]
21. From point A, Bearing of B was measured as 30 with the help
of a service protractor (GB). AOC = 49’ East and MV in 1969
was 10 West, which was decreasing @ 1’ per year. Find out
the Bearing of B read from A read with a compass having ICE
of 20 West, if LMA in the area is 20 West? [8036’]

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Chapter 8
Prismatic Compass and
Navigation

Prismatic Compass and Navigation

Principle:

Earth can be considered a large spheroid with a large bar

magnet passing through its center, thus giving rise to Magnetic
North and Magnetic South of earth. Opposite poles of magnets
attract each other and if unhindered by outside forces, a North
Pole will attract South Pole and vice versa. A magnetic Compass
is an instrument in which the magnetized needle’s South
(Arrow) always points to Magnetic North of earth irrespective of
the location of the compass.

Applications:
A Magnetic Compass is a very useful instrument in Map Craft. It
is extremely useful for:
™ Finding Directions, i.e. the needle always points towards
Magnetic North
™ Reading Bearings of a point
™ Navigation by guiding in the direction of known bearing
™ Orienteering or Setting of map
There are various types of magnetic compasses in market for
different uses, such as surveying, engineering applications,
hiking etc. The compass that is used in police and army is
‘Service Prismatic Liquid Compass Mark III’. To learn about the
prismatic compass quickly and easily, you should read this
chapter with that compass in your hand and refer directly to
the compass for understanding the text. In case this is not
possible, figures have been included. The photograph on the
next page is of the compass in position for reading a bearing
without the use of prism. If your compass is not exactly of the
same pattern as that described, the diagrams will enable you to
understand the principles and apply them to your own compass.

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The Prismatic Compass-Description

The compass shown

alongside is a Service
Service Prismatic Compass Mark III
Prismatic Compass, oil-
filled, Mark III. When Tongue
closed, it is a circular box Notch
of brass, lacquered black. In Tongue
the lid is a circular glass
window protected by two
metal bars, and engraved
with a hairline. The
compass card can be seen
through the window. The Hairline
compass is never used Glass
closed except to get a very Window
rough indication of north. Metal
Bars
To open the box, press
upwards on the tongue that
extends from the lid, Direction
Mark
opposite the hinge.
Clamping
The body of the box has a Screw
double glass cover and
Lubber
below it can be seen the Line
compass card. The North
Point on the card is marked Compass
by a luminous white card
North
triangle, and East, South Arrow
and West by engraved Milled
letters. Vane
The Compass Card is of
mother of pearl and the Prism
compass itself is fixed to Case Thumb
Ring
it’s under side, out of sight. Prism
The card is engraved with Eyehol Tongue
an inner and outer circle of Notch
degrees. The inner circle
reads clockwise from 00 to
3600, starting at the North
point, each small division being 5°. The numbers in the outer
circle are written straight. The outer circle reads clockwise from

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0° to 360°, starting at the South point, each small division being
10°. The numbers in the inner circle are written upside-down.
The card swings on a pointed pivot working in a jewelled boss.
The box is filled with liquid to dampen the movement of the card
so that it swings gently and comes to rest quickly.
A Bubble Trap is incorporated in the box to prevent small bubbles
in the liquid interfering with the compass card. These bubbles
may be trapped by turning the compass over so that its base is
uppermost and then slowly and gently turning it back again.
The upper glass cover is marked with black figures, which show
up against a while ring, between the two covers. The figures read
0 to 36, clockwise, each division being 10°. Between the lines
opposite the figures are dots representing 5°. Opposite the figure
36 is a luminous strip called Direction Mark. This upper glass
cover is held in a brass ring with a milled edge and can be turned
to any desired position. It can be clamped in position by the
Clamping Screw on the outside of the box, just to the right of the
hinge. There is a deep groove in the outer milled edge, opposite
the figure 36 and the luminous strip.
On the white ring below the upper glass cover, by the hinge, is a
black line on a luminous patch. It therefore shows up in the dark.
It is extended by a hairline on the lower glass cover, reaching to
the inner circle on the compass card. This is called the Lubber
Line. Inside the lid, the lubber line is further extended by the
hairline on the glass and a luminous white line reaching to the
end of the tongue, where there is a Tongue Notch. On the
outside of the ring attached to the bottom of the box, opposite
the hinge, is another notch, Ring Notch. When the compass is
opened out flat, all these lines and the two notches are in a
straight line passing through the pivot and mark the axis of the
compass.
At each end of the engraved hair line in the lid are two small
holes, to allow a hair or thread to be fixed as a substitute should
the glass get broken.
Opposite the hinge, and covered by the tongue on the lid when
the box is closed, is a small triangular metal block hinged to the
side of the box. This contains the magnifying Prism. When the
box is open, it can be turned over the glass into the reading
position. This reveals the Prism Eyehole and the Sighting Slit
above it. When you look through the eyehole, you see the
figures, magnified on the outer circle of the compass card. On

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the bottom of the box inside, directly below the prism, is a
luminous patch against which the markings on the compass card
can be read at night.
Round the outside of the box, the points of the compass are
engraved, in reverse order, and painted white. North is opposite
the lubber line, West to the right of North, and East to the left.
Each quadrant has sixteen sub-divisions. These markings can be
used for rough setting of the compass in case markings on the
dial have disappeared.
Fixed under the base is a rubber ring to prevent the box from
slipping on a smooth surface.

Observing With the Prismatic Compass

To Take a Bearing Prismatic Compass; Opened For

Hold the compass in both Sighting Through Prism
hands, with a thumb
through the ring. The exact
method of holding it is not
Tongue
important; find for yourself
the best way to hold it
steady. The lid must be Hairline
vertical and the prism
Sighting
turned over the reading Slit
position. Take care to hold
the compass level; if it is Eyehole
much tilted, the card
touches the glass and will Body
not swing freely. Markings

Look through the sighting

slit and line up the hairline
in the lid with the object on which the bearing is to be taken. At
the same time, through the eyehole, observe the readings on the
card. When the card comes to rest, read off the bearing against
the hairline. A bearing to the nearest degree can be read without
difficulty. With practice and a steady hand, a bearing can be
read to a half or even a quarter of a degree. It helps if the hands,
or elbows, can be rested on a convenient wall.
To read the back bearing, tilt the compass slightly towards your
own side and look through the eyehole. You will be seeing

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readings written upside-down. This is the Back Bearing of the
point being observed.

To Find the Direction of a Given Bearing

First, look through the eyehole and turn the compass until the
hair line cuts the required bearing. Then note some distant
object that is in the line with the hairline. This object will be on
the required bearing.
Alternatively, to set out a bearing, a man with a long stick should
be sent to a distance of about 100 yards, and directed to move
right or left until the stick planted in the ground, is on the
correct bearing. The position from which the observation was
made must also be marked.

Using the Compass without the Prism

Either of the above operations can be carried out without using
the prism, but with much less accuracy. To take a bearing, open
the compass out flat and line it up so that the axis (Ring Notch-
Hairline-Lubber Line- Tongue Notch) is directly in line with the
object. The Forward Bearing is read from the Inner Circle of
degrees (written straight) on the compass card against the lubber
line. The Back Bearing is read on the Outer Circle of degrees i.e.
figures written upside down.
Conversely, to find the direction of a bearing, turn the compass
until the inner ring below the lubber line reads the correct
number of degrees, and sight along the axis. Be careful to read
with your eye vertically over the lubber line or you may make
unnecessary errors.

To Set the Compass at a given Baring

Loosen the clamping screw. Move the milled vane and set the
required degrees. Tighten the clamping screw. The compass is
set.
If the compass is now aligned in such a manner that the Direction
Mark coincides with the Arrow, the tongue notch points in the
direction of the set bearing.

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Use of Compass for Navigation
1. Chart out a route on a map from starting point to destination
a. The route should consist of a number of bounds (points)
so that line of sight can be maintained from one bound
to the next.
b. The route should be navigable- i.e. should avoid steep
hills, water bodies etc.
c. Route should be tactically justified i.e. should fulfil the
requirements of speed, cover, etc.
2. Calculate the bearing and distance of each of the bounds from
its preceding bound.
3. Set the bearings on as many compasses as the no. of bounds.
4. For marching from bound1 to bound 2,
a. Take the relevant compass with the relevant bearing set
on it
b. Find out the correct direction of marching as explained
above
c. Choose a visible feature in the correct direction and
march to that feature
d. Repeat steps a to c till you reach bound 2.
5. Note: Compass will point to the correct direction, provided
the direction is maintained. If you digress from the correct
direction while marching, you will not reach the
destination. Hence if digression is unavoidable, the amount
of digression should be carefully calculated and adjusted
immediately after the obstacle to come to the correct
direction.

Night Marching With Compass

‰ The objective of night marching in tactics is to move stealthily

to infiltrate the enemy area so as to gather intelligence,
conduct an operation against enemy, dominating him or
escaping from enemy area. Night marching is required because
the darkness provides an automatic cover against our
detection by enemy. Darkness also provides protection against
aimed fire. However, the same darkness also creates problems
in marching because landmarks are not visible. In addition,

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any sound created by us/ our movement also travels far off,
thus revealing our position. It is not easy under any
circumstances to hold to a constant course in the dark. Every
precaution should be taken. Plenty of practice is needed
before it can be done with confidence.
‰ First, find the bearing on which you have to march, either by
measurement from the map or by observation during the day
with the compass. The latter is best.
‰ To set the compass, turn the glass cover until the reading of
the graduations against the lubber line shows the required
bearing. Clamp the cover in this position. The axis of the
compass will now be in the required bearing when the north
point on the card coincides with the Direction Mark luminous
strip on the glass cover.
‰ The compass can be set rather more accurately by laying it on
the required bearing, using the prism, and then turning the
cover until the luminous strip coincides with the north point.
Check the bearing before clamping the cover. When this
method is used, the compass must be laid on a table for
setting or it will move off the bearing while the cover is being
turned.
‰ If more than one compass bearing is needed for the march,
have a compass ready set for each bearing. Mark the
compasses unmistakably, to ensure that they are used in the
right order. The compass can be set in the dark, as the
bearings can be read through the prism against the luminous
patch in the bottom of the box but it is not easy and should
not be attempted unless it is absolutely necessary.
General
‰ The normal way to maintain direction on a night march across
country is to use the prismatic compass. The methods are
described below.
‰ Before any night march, the bearings should be worked out
and the compass set, by day. As much as possible of the route
should be reconnoitred by day, even if only from a distance.
The ground should be studied from air photographs, if they
can be obtained. Conspicuous features, which would be visible
at night, roads, hedges etc. which have to be crossed, should
be carefully noted as a check on distance and direction.

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Night not very dark
‰ Even at night it is often possible to distinguish objects at some
distance, particularly against a skyline. On moonlight nights
they may be seen from a considerable way off. When things
can be seen in this way, the best method is to pick out an
object on the required bearings, as far distance as can be
clearly seen, and march to it. Then select another object,
march on that and so on.
‰ To find an object on the right bearing, open the compass out
flat and turn it until the north point on the card coincides with
the luminous strip on the glass cover. The axis is then on the
required bearing. Sight along the axis and select an object to
march on. It need not be directly on the bearing; you can
estimate how much right or left of it to move.
Using Stars
This method is similar to that above but the object selected is a
star. This is convenient, as the star can be followed over a much
longer distance, but some precautions must be observed:
a) Choose a star that is conspicuous and easily identified. You
cannot march far without taking your eyes off it. You must
be able to pick up the right star easily and quickly each
time you look up to it.
b) Choose a star not too high in the sky, nor too low. If the
star is more than about 30° above the horizon you will have
to march with your head in the air, which is inconvenient,
particularly in the dark, across country. Near the horizon,
stars lose their brightness and are more difficult to pick up.
Choose one so that you can keep it and the ground in your
vision at the same time. You will have to take your eyes off
it now and then to look at your feet.
c) Stars move. A star fairly low down may move about 50
sideways in twenty minutes. An error of 50 is about 150
yards in a mile of march. The length of time you can march
on a star will depend on how accurately you need to hit
your destination. Generally you will have to choose a new
star every fifteen or twenty minutes.
Dark nights-no stars

Often the night win be dark and cloudy and neither of the above
methods win do. On such a night, the method is to send a man

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ahead on the bearing, as far as you can see him, follow up to him
and send him ahead again.
a) When there is no necessity for silence the man can be sent
ahead, called to a halt before he disappears and then told
to move right or left until he is dead on the bearing.
b) When silence is essential, work like this. Before starting,
find out how far forward the man can go and still be seen
sufficiently well, say 20 paces. Use a stick to give the man
a good direction and ten him to go forward twenty paces
each time, keeping as straight as he can, and then halt.
Judge how far he has gone to the right or left, and move up
into the correct position.
c) The man can be seen at a greater distance if he wears a
square of white paper/luminous strip or cardboard tied on
his back. Longer bounds can then be made and progress will
be quicker. There is obviously a greater liability to error by
this method than by the other two. The longer each bound
can be made the less the error will be.

Distance
a) Pacing: We know that for an average man, 1330 paces
equals one km.
b) However, on a night march you tend to imagine that you
have gone much further than you really have and you may
think you have missed your objective when you are in fact
far short of it. Unless there are frequent landmarks to help
you it is always wise to arrange a check on your distance.
Sometimes you may have to move a certain distance on a
specified bearing, with no obvious feature to mark your
destination.
c) Detail two men to carry a tape of specified length, say 50
yards. At the start, stands still, B moves forward with you
with the other end of the tape. When the tape tightens, B
halts and signals to A to come on by jerking on the tape. A
moves on past B, comes up to you, halts in his turn as the
tape tightens and signals B to come in. Every time A halts
you have gone a hundred yards, every time B halts you add
fifty. Be sure to have some simple means of totting up the
hundreds. It is easy to miscount if you rely on memory. A
and B will usually be able to move fast enough to keep up
with you, carrying the compass. If there is much rough

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ground, or many obstacles, have a third man to help with
the tape and keep it clear of snags.

Navigation Party
1. Guide: He has a luminous stick, and set compass being used.
He leads the party.
2. Assistant Guide: He has a luminous strip on his back and a
stick for judging depths of water etc.
3. Recorder: Has other set compasses, marching chart, measuring
tape for distance, pebbles for counting paces, blacked out
torch, blanket for covering torch light in darkness for reading
compass.
4. Pacer (Optional); Counts paces, caries measuring tape, lime
for marking route for rear party
5. Scouts (Optional): For security of navigation party

Preparation for Night March

Following preparation would be needed before setting on a
night march:
1. Recce to select bounds
a. Either on ground- not always possible; or
b. On map
2. Selection of route
a. Low possibility of encounter with enemy enroute
b. Easy and short
c. Tactically safe
i. Flow, depth, terrain-marshy or stable
ii. Drill to clear obstacles
iii. Likely points of ambush
3. Night March Chart: Suppose for the night march, from the
starting point, a route through a Fort (distance 120 meters
from Fort), Mosque (distance 600 meters from Fort), Tomb
(distance 200 meters from Mosque) and Road Junction
(distance 130 meters from Tomb) has been selected.

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Starting Conventional
Bearing Distance Objective
Point Sign
Bearing
Conventi
from Distance
onal Sign
starting between Description Conventional
of
point of Starting of End Sign of End
starting
section Point ad Point of Point of
point of
to end End Point Section section
the
point of of section
section
section
Starting 120
350 Fort
Point meters
600

Mosque, Tomb
Fort 20 Mosque

Signs of Fort,
Conventional
meters

Respective
200

Junction.
and Road
Mosque 50 Tomb
meters
130 Road
Tomb 120
meters Junction

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Chapter 9
Contours and Sections
The Importance of the Shape of the Ground (Relief)

Man-made features, such as towns, roads and railways, are

incidents on the surface of the ground. Their details change
quite rapidly. The shape of the ground itself -of hill and valley-
is permanent and determines the nature of the life lived on it,
of the things men build on it, the positions of towns and the
direction of the communications. Until the shape of the ground

Contours and Sections

can be read from a map, it is only possible to learn very
elementary things about the country. Tactically, the
importance of the shape of the ground is obvious. It decides
what positions may be suitable for defence; which points give
good observation; which routes are hidden from ground
observation; what ground is good for cross-country movement;
and so on.

To be able to read the shape of the ground from a map is the

most important part of map reading as well as the most
fascinating. A map with no representation of relief (shape of
the ground) is a very dull affair.

Methods of Showing Relief

The ways of showing
relief on a map are:-
(a) Hachures

Hachures Hill Shading

(b) Hill shading.
(c) Spot heights
(d) Contours
(e) Layer tints
(f) Form lines

Spot Heights
Layer Tints

However, in topographical maps, the contours are the preferred

method of representing relief.

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What are Contours?

Contour lines connect a series of points of equal elevation and

are used to illustrate topography, or relief, on a map. They show
the height of ground above Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.) in either feet
or meters and can be drawn at any desired interval, which is
called Contour Interval, which is specified for a given map. For
example, numerous contour lines that are close together indicate
hilly or mountainous terrain; when far apart, they represent a
gentle slope.

Rules about Contours

1. Contour Lines connect points of equal height.

2. Contour lines never cross each other.
3. Contour Interval is the elevation between two adjacent
contours.
4. Shape of the ground is similar to the contour shape.
Concentric closed contours indicate hills.
5. Closely spaced contours indicate steep slopes.
6. When contour lines cross rivers, they bend upstream into Vs.
7. Contour Value and Contour Interval is shown in meters on
metric scale maps and in feet on inch scale maps. CI is
generally 20 meters on 1:50,000 maps.

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Creating Topographic Profiles
A very useful exercise for understanding what a topographic map
represent is the construction of a topographic profile. A
topographic profile is a cross-sectional view along a line drawn
through a portion of a topographic map. In other words, if you
could slice through a portion of the earth, pull away one half,
and look at it from the side, the surface would be a topographic
profile. Not only does constructing a topographic profile aid in
understanding topographic maps, it is very useful for geologists
for analyzing
numerous
problems.

To construct a
topographic
profile, you
must first
decide on a
line that is of
interest to you
(i.e. for finding
intervisibility
etc.). Once you
have
determined
where you
want to draw
your profile,
use the
following
guidelines to
construct your
profile.

1. Pencil the
line of your interest lightly on your map

2. Place a blank piece of paper along the line you have drawn.

3. On both the blank paper and the map, mark clearly the
starting and ending points of your line of section. Below these

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marks, write down the elevation of the starting and ending
points of your section.

4. Make a tic mark wherever the paper crosses a contour line on

the map, making larger tics for the index contours and smaller
tics for the intermediate contours. Write the elevation of the
index contours below their tics on your paper.

5. Make a note of the highest and lowest points on the profile for
use later. Be sure to keep track of the number of
intermediate contours between the major contours; if there
are more than four intermediate contours it means that there
has been a change in slope and you need to check to see if you
crossed a hill or a valley.

6. Once you are certain that you have all of the appropriate tic
marks and elevations, remove your paper from the map. Get
a piece of graph paper that is at least as long as your line of
section. Place your paper with the tic marks on the graph
paper and mark the starting and ending points of your line of
section on the graph paper.

7. Draw vertical lines above your starting and ending points,

these will be the boundaries of your profile. Use the
maximum and minimum elevations along your line of section
to determine how long to draw these lines. For example, if
your minimum elevation is 4320 ft and your maximum
elevation is 6280 ft, you will want your vertical line to be at
least two inches long. Remember that one-inch equals 2000
feet on a 1:24,000 scale map. The difference between 6280
feet and 4320 feet is less than 200 feet, so it would be
possible to draw your profile in just one inch. However, it is

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much easier to construct a profile if your lowest elevation is a
multiple of 2000, so you would want to start at 4000 feet and
go to 8000 feet (two inches).

8. Beginning with your starting elevation, go directly above the

tic mark on your paper and make a small dot on the graph
paper at the corresponding elevation (if your graph paper has
one inch squares divided into tenths, each smaller square will
represent 2000 feet of elevation change; each index contour
should lie along a horizontal grid line). Make a small dot for
each tic mark on your paper.

9. Connect the dots on the graph paper, and you have a

topographic profile.

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In a similar manner, a section along any given line (not necessary
linear, for example a proposed road) on a map can be drawn as is
clear from the following figure, where a section has been drawn
along the road ACDB:

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Vertical Exaggeration
Vertical exaggeration simply means that your vertical scale is
larger than your horizontal scale (in the example you could use
one inch is equal to 1000 ft. for your vertical scale, while keeping
the horizontal scale the same). Vertical exaggeration is often
used if you want to discern subtle topographic features or if the
profile covers a large horizontal distance (miles) relative to the
relief (feet). Depending on why you are creating your
topographic profile, you may want to use vertical exaggeration
when constructing it.

If the vertical scale is one 1"=1000’ and the horizontal scale is

1"=2000’, the vertical exaggeration is 2x (2000’/1000’).

Calculating Slopes
Determining the average slope of a hill using a topographic map
is fairly simple. Slope can be given in two different ways, a
percent gradient and an angle of the slope. The initial steps for
calculating slope either way are the same.

1) Decide on an area for which you want to calculate the slope

(note, it should be an area where the slope direction does not
change; do not cross the top of a hill or the bottom of a valley).

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2) Once you have decided on an area of interest, draw a straight
line perpendicular to the contours on the slope. For the most
accuracy, start and end your line on, rather than between,
contours on the map.

3) Measure the length of the line you drew and, using the scale of
the map, convert that distance to feet.

4) Determine the total elevation change along the line you drew
(subtract the elevation of the lowest contour used from the
elevation of the highest contour used). You do not need to do
any conversions on this measurement, as it is a real-world
elevation change.

To calculate a percent slope, simply divide the elevation change

in feet by the distance of the line you drew (after converting it

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to feet). Multiply the resulting number by 100 to get a
percentage value equal to the percent slope of the hill. If the
value you calculate is, for example, 20, what this means is that
for every 100 feet you cover in a horizontal direction, you will
gain (or lose) 20 feet in elevation.

To calculate the angle of the slope, divide the elevation change

in feet by the distance of the line you drew (after converting it
to feet). This is the tangent value for the angle of the slope.
Multiply it by 60 (for rough calculations to get slope in degrees).
Using the example above, a hill with a 20% slope is equivalent to
a 12° slope.

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Test Yourself
Identify the features represented by following contours:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

(i) (j) (k)

Answers:
(a) A coastal plain backed by a line of cliffs (b) A cone shaped hill
(c) A carter shaped lake (d) A land sloping evenly upwards
towards North East (e) Flat or gently sloping land (f) Steep sided
flat topped hill (g) A river flowing towards the SW (h) A river
flowing towards the NE (i) A hill with a steep Western Slope (j) A
river flowing towards NE (k) A river flowing towards SW

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Chapter 10
Slopes
The topography of any ground is not a level flat but undulating.
Tactically, it is important to understand the ground in terms of
slopes – i.e. what type of slope the ground has- whether
ascending or descending, gentle or steep, uniform or
undulating, concave or convex etc. as it affects many tactical
decisions such as: -

‰ Deployment of troops
‰ Time taken to reach a distance
‰ Deployment of weaponry
‰ Selection of site for attack, withdrawal, defense,
observation post etc.

Types of Slopes

Slopes

1. Regular Slopes: The ascent or descent remains uniform

sloping- gentle or steep. The contour lines representing these
slopes are nearly equidistant. While the contour lines are far off
from each other in Uniform Gentle Slopes, they are dense in
case of Uniform Steep Slopes.

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Uniform
Gentle Slope

Uniform Steep
Slopes

2. Half Regular Slopes: On these types of slopes, the slope

gradually changes as one ascends or descends. If the slope is
gentle to begin with and gets steeper and steeper as one climbs,
it is called as Concave Slope. These slopes are sunken in the
middle. Contour Lines get nearer to each other as one ascends.
On the other hand, if the slope is very steep to begin with but
gets easier as one ascends, it is called Convex Slope. These
slopes give the appearance of a hunk in the middle. The Contour
lines get farther from each other as one ascends.

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Tactical Importance of Concave and Convex Slopes:

Concave Slopes Convex Slopes

Intervisibility is good Intervisibility is poor
Good for defense positions Good for attack and withdrawal
Good for establishing OP Bad for establishing OP

3. Irregular Slopes: These slopes do not follow any fixed pattern

of increase or decrease of slopes. These type of slopes are gentle
and steep intermittently. If these slopes follow a pattern of
stairs, these are called Undulating Slopes. These types of slopes
are used for step irrigation in hills. Those slopes that do not
follow any pattern at all are called Rugged Slopes.

Methods of Representing of Slopes

1. Section Method: By drawing section, as discussed in the

chapter on Contours, the exact elevation of the ground can be
known, from which slopes can be easily estimated. In addition,
after drawing the elevation through section drawing, whether

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any point is visible from the other point or not can also be easily
known.

2. Gradient: Gradient of a slope is defined as the ratio of

Vertical Height gained to the Horizontal Distance traveled.
Remember, we are talking about the
Horizontal Distance traveled and not
the actual distance traveled. In the
adjoining figure, for finding Slope at
a point A, we are talking about ratio
of cb (or x) w.r.t. ab (or y) and not
ac. In this case, ac is the actual
distance traveled and ab (or y) is
the Horizontal Distance traveled. This distance can be directly
measured on maps, as distances of maps are horizontal distances,
a map being a representation of ground in Plan view.

Vertical Height Difference

Gradient = Horizontal Distance

Remember:
‰ Units of measurement of both these distances must be

same.
‰ By convention, the Gradient is always expressed as 1:x; i.e.

it will be wrong to represent a Gradient as 2:9, the correct

way would be 1:4.5.

The method of calculating slopes from contour lines has already

been discussed in chapter on Contours. Following examples
illustrate the principles:

1. On a map, the horizontal distance between two points is 1200

meters whereas Vertical Height difference is 200 meters. What
is the Gradient of Slope between the two points?

Gradient = Vertical distance (200 meters)/Horizontal Distance

(1200 meters) = 1/6

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2. On a map of scale 1:50000, we want to deploy guns on a
hillock. It is not possible to negotiate a Gradient of more than
1:10 for deployment of those guns. Calculate the minimum
distance between the two contour lines representing the hillock
on the map?

Remember, on a map of 1:50000 scale, Contour Interval = 20

meters.
Therefore, if the minimum distance between two Contour lines
representing the hillock is x meters, the maximum Gradient
would be 20/x.
Hence as given in the question statement 20/x can not be greater
than 1/10. Therefore, x cannot be < than 200 meters.
On a map of scale 1:50000, 200 meters equals 2/5 = 0.4 Cms.
Hence, the distance between two Contour Lines on the map
should not be less than 0.4 Cms.

3. On a slope of Gradient 1/30, if the Vertical Height difference

is 100 feet, find out the Horizontal Distance between the two?

Gr. = VH/HD. Therefore, 1/30 = 100/x i.e. x = 3000 feet = 1000

yards [1 yard = 3 feet]

3. Tangent: By this method, the slope is represented in degrees

of angle. If we
draw a 10 angle of
a right-angled
triangle, with right
angle side as 1
Cm., we will find
that the base of this triangle would be 57.3 Cms. Hence for a
slope of 1:57.3 Gradient, the angle of slope would be 10. This
model can be used to represent slopes, where hypotenuse of the
triangle would represent the sloping surface. Hence, degree of a
slope can be measured conveniently by multiplying Gradient by
57.3. More correctly, 1/57.3 is Tan of angle and not the angle
itself, but for simple calculations, can be considered as angle for
angles < 280. For even simpler approximations, 60 can be used
instead of 57.3.

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Slope (in Degrees) = Gradient (VI/HD) X 57.3 (or 60)

The following examples would clarify how slopes are represented

in degrees.

1. If on a slope, Vertical Interval between two points is 40

meters, and horizontal distance between the same two points is
600 meters, find out the slope in degrees?
Gradient of Slope = 40/600 = 1/15
Therefore, Slope in Degrees = 1/15 X 60 = 40

2. What will be distance between two adjacent contour lines

depicting a Slope of 10 on a map of scale 1:50000?
Slope 10 = Gradient X 60
Therefore, Gradient = 1/60
Vertical Interval (height difference between two adjacent
contour lines) on a 1:50000 map = 20 meters
Therefore, Gradient = 1/60 = 20/x
Therefore, x = 20 X 60 = 1200 meters = 2.4 Cms. on a 1:50000
map.

3. If on a map, a slope of 160 is shown by Contour Lines of CI = 20

meters drawn at a distance of 6 millimeters, find out the scale
of the map?
Slope = Gradient X 60
Therefore, Gradient = Slope/60 = 16/60 = VI/HD = 20/HD
Therefore, HD = (20X60)/16 = 75 meters
Scale of map = Distance on map: Distance on ground
= 6 millimeters: 75 X 1000 (millimeters)
= 1:12500

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Implications of Slopes
Gradient Slope Implication
0
1/40 1½ Vehicle can climb, but not train
1/12 50 Army vehicles (3-tonner) can climb
1/10 60 Bicycle can climb with difficulty
1/5 120 Light Vehicles such as Jeeps can climb
1/3 200 Foot patrol can climb with difficulty
1/2 300 Foot patrol can climb only with assistance of
hands

Test Yourself

1. Two hills having a vertical height difference of 300 meters

have a gradient of 1/6 between them. What is the horizontal
distance between the two hills? [1800 meters].
2. On a map of scale 1:50000, what will be the minimum distance
between Contour lines of a feature on which a vehicle which
can negotiate a maximum gradient of 1/40? [1.6 Cms.]
3. If the degree of a slope is 60 and on that slope, the Horizontal
Distance between two points is 600 meters, what will be the
Vertical Height Difference between the two points? [60
meters]
4. If between two points A and B, the Horizontal Equivalent is
1200 meters and Vertical Interval is 200 meters, what is
degree of slope? [100]
5. You have a map on which a Scale Line is missing. On this map,
a feature having a slope of 3 is shown by contour lines at a
distance of 4 mm. Contour Interval is 10 meters. Find out the
Scale of the map? [1:50000]

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Chapter 11
Intervisibility

What Is Intervisibility?

The visibility of one point from the other is called

‘Íntervisibility’. From a tactical point of view, intervisibility is
important because of the following reasons:
1. Communication and control
2. Observation of surrounding area
3. Finalizing of fire plan
4. Deployment of troops in defence
5. Recce of area to get enemy intelligence

Intervisibility
6. Showing field signals to own troops

Factors Affecting Intervisibility:

Helpers in Intervisibility Obstructers in Intervisibility

Points on either side of a Big houses, Sand dunes,
stream/nulla hillocks, trees, jungles,
embankments
Points on a Concave or Points on a Convex Slope and
Regular Slopes, either side those points whose exact
of Re-entrant, points in a height is not known because of
plain, fixed interval of contours.

However, the judgment of Intervisibility by looking at the map

is only an approximation and final decision can be taken only
after visiting the ground. This is due to the limitation of the
maps such as uncertainty about exact height of embankments,
change in features on ground since map was made, inability to
show features whose height is intermediate between two
contour lines, etc. A broad guideline that can be followed is
that if two points are not Intervisible on the map, they will
not be Intervisible on the ground also. However, if two
points are Intervisible on the map their Intervisibility is not

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assured and final decision can be taken only after visiting
the ground.

Methods of Finding Intervisibility

1. By Investigation: Whether one point on ground is visible from
another point on ground is best assessed on ground itself by
standing at observation point. However this may be infeasible in
the enemy area.
1. By Drawing Section: The method of drawing section has
already been discussed in the chapter on contours. For finding
out whether point A is visible from point B, we draw a section
along AB and on the elevation, we can easily find out whether
point B is visible or not from A? For example, in the following
figure, after Section Drawing, we see that whereas point B is
visible from point A, point D is not, because of intervening
feature at C.

For Intervisibility purposes, the full section drawing need not be

drawn. Generally a rough sketch (called Hasty Drawing), where
key heights on the map along the section are plotted in
elevation, would suffice.
2. By Finding Gradient of Slopes: If there are three points A, B
and C in such a manner that B is somewhere in between A and C,
then C would be visible from A if Gradient of AB is less than BC or
AC and vice versa. The following example would make it clear.
A, B and C are three points on a map such that horizontal
distances between A and B is 1000 meters and between B and C is

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1000 meters. If height of A, B and C from mean sea level is 1000,
1700 and 2000 meters respectively, find out whether C is visible
from A or not?

C
B

A
1700 m 2000 m
1000 m

A 1000 m B 1000 m C

Gradient between A and B = (Vertical Height Difference)/

(Horizontal Distance) = (1700-1000)/(1000)= 7/10
Gradient between B and C = (Vertical Height Difference)/
(Horizontal Distance) = (2000-1700)/(1000)= 3/10
Gradient between A and C = (Vertical Height Difference)/
(Horizontal Distance) = (2000-1000)/(1000+1000)= ½
Since Slope of AB (=7/10) is > Slope of BC (=3/10) or AC (=1/2),
therefore C is not visible from A.
This example also clarifies that it is not necessary that if height
of intermediate point is lesser than height of feature whose
visibility is being assessed, then Intervisibility is assured. In fact,
it all depends upon where is intermediate feature located in
between the two other features. In the example below,
although, both B and C are equal in height and lesser in height
than D, whereas C obstructs the visibility, D does not, because C
is located closer to observation point.

A B C D

Therefore, Intervisibility must be assessed either by Section

Drawing or calculation and not taken for granted because height
of Intermediate feature is lesser than point being observed.

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3. By Calculating Proportions: This is another mathematical way

to find intervisibility, just like Gradient method. In this method,
a fictitious height of the point, which would just be visible, is
calculated by taking proportion of Horizontal Distances and
multiplying by the NET height of intermediate point. If the actual
height of feature were less than this calculated height, the
feature would not be visible and vice versa. Let us take the
example above to clarify the point:

ƒ Ratio of Horizontal Distances AB and AC = 1000:2000 = 1:2

ƒ Net height of feature B from feature A = 1700-1000= 700
meters
ƒ Critical NET (w.r.t. feature A) height of a ‘visible’ feature
at C = 700 * ratio = 700 X 2 = 1400 meters
ƒ Actual height of a visible feature at C = Net height + height
of A = 1400 + 1000 = 2400 meters
ƒ Since actual height of existent feature at C is only 1700
meters, it would not be visible.

4. Unitary Method: This is another mathematical way to find

intervisibility, just like Gradient method. Returning to the same
example, the following calculations will make it clear:
ƒ Elevation of AC (Vertical Height Difference)/ (Horizontal
Distance) = (2000-1000)/ (1000 + 1000) = ½, i.e. for every
2 meters of horizontal distance, we have to look up 1
meter to see the feature at C. Therefore, at the location
of feature B i.e. horizontal distance from A of 1000
meters, we will have to look up by 500 meters in order to
see the feature at C.
ƒ Therefore, critical NET (w.r.t. A) height of feature at B =
500 meters
ƒ Actual critical height of feature at B = 1000 + 500 = 1500
meters
ƒ Since height of feature at B is 1700 meters (more than
1500 meters), feature at B is obstructing visibility.

Visibility Diagrams

This is a diagram, which depicts invisible features on the

topographical map or an enlargement, as seen from the
Observation Post.

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TEST YOURSELF

1. A, B and C are three hills, located in a straight line, of heights

600, 800 and 1000 meters height. Distance between A and C is
2000 meters and that between B and C is 1000 meters. Is C
visible from A?
[Answer: Yes]

2. A, B and C are three hills, located in a straight line, of heights

300, 500 and 650 meters height. Distance between A and C is
1200 meters and that between A and B is 600 meters. Is C visible
from A? If invisible, how much of B should be cut to make C
visible?
[Answer: Invisible; 25 meters]

3. A and C are two hills of heights 3388 and 1110 meters height
respectively located at a distance of 10251 meters. What would
be the minimum height of a hill at B located at 1125 meters from
C between A and B, which will obstruct visibility of C from A?

[Answer: More than 1360 meters]

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Chapter 12
Setting a Map
What Does ‘Setting a Map’ Mean?

Setting a map means to position the map in such a way that

w.r.t. the user of the map, position of features on ground is
visually correlated with the corresponding details in the map.
When the map is set, the features visible on the right hand
side, left hand side and in the front on the ground will be seen
towards the right, left and center respectively on the map.
When the map is set, the True North of the map completely
coincides with the True North (on ground).
‘Setting a map’ is also called ‘Orienting a map’.

Setting a Map
Methods of Setting a Map

In order to set a map, the principle objective is to ensure that

the True North of the map completely coincides with the True
North (on ground). There are three main methods to set the
map:

1. By compass
a. By Drawing Magnetic North
i. Note down the Magnetic Variation (MV) by
referring to Map Marginal Information.
ii. From any point on a True North line, draw a
Magnetic North line at MV.
iii. Open the compass fully, keeping it on the
drawn magnetic north line in such a manner
that the tongue and ring notch are on the line
and the lid is towards the heading of the map.
iv. Without moving the compass, orient the map
in such a manner that the compass needle
comes under Lubber Line.
v. In such a situation, MN of map coincides with
MN on ground. The map is, therefore, set.

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b. By True North Line

i. Set the MV (from Map Marginal Information) on

the compass. For East MV, set it to the right of
figure 36 on milled vane and vice versa.
ii. Open the compass fully, keeping it on any True
North line in such a manner that the tongue
and ring notch are on the line and the lid is
towards the heading of the map.
iii. Without moving the compass, orient the map
in such a manner that the compass needle
comes under the Direction Mark.
iv. In such a situation, TN of map coincides with
TN on ground. The map is, therefore, set.
c. By Grid North Line

i. Set the Local Variation (from Map Marginal

Information) on the compass. For East LV, set
it to the right of figure 36 on milled vane and
vice versa.
ii. Open the compass fully, keeping it on any Grid
North line in such a manner that the tongue
and ring notch are on the line and the lid is
towards the heading of the map.
iii. Without moving the compass, orient the map
in such a manner that the compass needle
comes under the Direction Mark.
iv. In such a situation, GN of map coincides with
GN on ground. The map is, therefore, set

d. By Reading of Ground Details

i. When Own Position (O) is Known on Map

1. Read the bearing (a0) of such a feature

(A) on ground, which is visible on map
also.
2. Draw a line on map between O and A
3. Set the compass at a0

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4. Open and place the compass on the line
OA in such a manner that ring notch is
towards own position O and tongue notch
towards A.
5. Without moving the compass, orient the
map in such a manner that the compass
needle comes under the Direction Mark.
6. The map is set.

ii. When Own Position is Unknown on Map

1. Choose two such points A and B on

ground that are visible on map also.
2. Join the two points on map by a line AB
3. Go to A on ground and by using a
compass, read the bearing of B. Say it is
a0
4. Since A becomes own position now,
proceed as in case ‘when own position in
known’.
Points to Remember:
a) For approximate setting, MV and LV can be ignored
being of small magnitude in India.
b) While using the compass, do take into account the
Individual Compass Error and the Local Magnetic
Variation as they can significantly affect the results.

2. By Means of Finding North

a. Find out the North direction by any of means

explained in the chapter ‘Finding North Direction’.
Align the True North of the map with this direction.

b. By Drawing Difference Line On Map

i. We know that at 12 o’clock local time, in India

(Northern Hemisphere), the shadow of an
object points in True North direction. This
shadow moves at the rate of 150 per hour
towards West in the forenoon and towards East
in the afternoon.
ii. Fix a pin on the map on any longitude line.

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iii. Find out the local time and its difference from
12 o’clock.
iv. Multiply the difference by 15 and find out the
difference degrees (a0)
v. Draw a line at a0 to the longitude line on map
at the point where pin was fixed. The line
should be drawn to the East, of the local time
is past 12 noon and to the East if the local
time is before 12 noon.
vi. Orient the map till the shadow falls on the
drawn line.
3. By Shape of Objects on Earth: There are two methods:

When Own Position (O) is Known:

i) Find a feature A, which is visible on map as well as

ground.
ii) Join O with A on map.
iii) Keep a foot rule on its edge on this line OA.
iv) Look over the foot rule and orient the map (without
disturbing the relative positions of map and foot
rule), till the time you see the feature A on ground
while looking over the foot rule.
v) The map is set.
vi) Choose another point B similar to A and repeat steps
ii) and iii). Look over the line OB. If the map is set,
you should be able to see B o ground. Otherwise make
minor adjustments.

When Own Position is NOT Known:

i) With the help of elongated horizontal objects: One

can choose elongated features such as rivers, railway
lines etc. on ground and align the map parallel to
these elongated features. Thereafter, with the help
of other features, one can correct the alignment,
especially if there is upside down misalignment.
ii) By objects only on one side: If one can find two or
more features in one line on map as well as ground,
he can set the map by aligning these two imaginary
lines parallel to each other.

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iii) By approximation: If the features which can be seen
on the map as well as the ground are dispersed, then
one can set the map by approximation so that all the
dispersed features are correctly aligned when seen on
map as well as the ground.

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Chapter 13
Finding Own Position on Map
It may not be as easy to find one’s own exact position on a map
as it appears, especially if one is located in an unknown area, in
a thick jungle or a large plain area. Unless we find our own
position on the map, it would be impossible to understand all

on Map
the ground details and make full use of the map. Therefore,
finding own position on a map is as important as setting a map.

Methods of Finding Own Position

Position
1. By idea

If one is good at identifying the details that are depicted on

Position
map on to the ground or the area has a number of
identifiable prominent features and the area is known, one
can very easily and reliably find own position by
commonsense.
The prominent features used for this purpose are: forests,

Own
road intersections, railway lines, rivers/ streams, hillocks
etc. For example, if a road junction is in the vicinity of own

Own
position and the road junction is visible on the map also, it
becomes easy to find one’s own location.

Find
Alternately, one can (without even setting the map), if
possible
i) Choose two points A and B in one direction, which
are visible on map as well as on ground. Finding
ii) Choose two points C and D in one direction (but
in a different direction than A,B), which are
visible on map as well as on ground.
iii) Draw lines AB and CD on the map.
iv) Point of intersection of AB and CD is one’s own
position.

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2. By Resection Method
In this method, one finds own position by plotting back
bearings of at least two points on the map. This can be done
in two ways:
a. By Plotting Back Bearings
i) Choose 2-3 points, A, B, C that are visible on map
as well as ground. These points should NOT be in
the same direction/ lie on one straight line.
ii) Read Forward Bearing of A, B, C with compass.
iii) Convert the forward bearings into back bearings of
A, B, C. (Add 1800 if Forward Bearing is less than
1800 and subtract 1800 if Forward Bearing is more
than 1800. Alternately, directly read the Back
Bearings of A, B, C.
iv) Convert the Magnetic Back Bearings into Grid Back
Bearings by using Map marginal Information.
v) Plot these Grid Back Bearings on the map from
their respective points with the help of a service
protractor.
vi) The point of intersection of these lines gives one’s
own position.

b. With the Help of Different Points on a Set Map

i) Set the map by using any of the methods covered
in the chapter ‘Seeing a Map’.
ii) Choose 2-3 points, A, B, C that are visible on map
as well as ground. These points should NOT be in
the same direction/ lie on one straight line.
iii) Draw lines on the map joining A on the map with
the position of A on ground. Repeat the process for
B and C also. Ensure that map remains in its set
position all the time.
vii) The point of intersection of these lines gives one’s
own position.

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Chapter 14
Map to Ground
One of the end objectives of Map Reading is to be able to have
a correct idea of the actual terrain at a place by reading the
relevant map and be able to locate corresponding features on
the ground. These would be difficult tasks especially in thick
jungles or mountainous regions, where there are few
distinguishable features, unless the map-reader has understood
the technique for this purpose.

Following techniques can be used for locating a feature (let’s

say A) on Ground, which can be seen on a map:

1) By Bearings & Distances:

Map to Ground
i) Set the map.
ii) Find own position.
iii) Find out the aerial/ horizontal distance ‘d’
between own position & A (measure distance on
the map and use map scale to find aerial/
horizontal distance).
iv) Measure Grid Bearing of A (from own position)
with Service Protractor and convert it into
Magnetic Bearing by applying ‘Magnetic Variation’
as given in Map Marginal Information.
v) Use Service Prismatic Compass to look in the
direction of Magnetic Bearing on ground.
vi) Try to locate A on ground in the located direction
at calculated distance ‘d’, by using fundamentals
of judging distance.
vii) Confirm by matching the features surrounding the
located feature on ground with surrounding
features of A on map.

2) By Directions & Distances:

i) Set the map.
ii) Find own position, ‘O’.
iii) Draw a line connecting ‘O’ & ‘A’.

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iv) Find out aerial/ horizontal distance ‘d’ between
‘O’ & ‘A’ (measure distance between ‘O’ and ‘A’
on map and use map scale to find aerial/
horizontal distance).
v) Look in the direction of drawn line at a distance
‘d’ to locate the feature.
vi) Confirm by matching the features surrounding the
located feature on ground with surrounding
features of A on map.

Problems in Locating Features on Ground:

The distance ‘d’ on ground has to be estimated by one of the

standard methods used in field craft viz division by 2, averaging,
branching, approximation, key range etc. These methods require
a lot of practice and at best give approximate distances only.
In addition, please remember the following factors that lead to
over/under estimation of distances on ground:

Over estimation Under estimation

• Light is poor • Light is bright
• Sun is in front • Sun is behind
• When feature is smaller • When feature is bigger/
compared to surrounding prominent than
features surrounding features
• When looking downhill • When looking uphill
• By standing in the middle • If intervening ground is
of a valley dead ground

Hence, you should keep the above factors in mind while judging
distances and practice various methods of judging distance to get
some perfection.
Modern equipment such a Laser Range Finders can be of great
assistance in judging distance.

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Chapter 15
Ground to Map
One of the objectives of map reading is to utilize the terrain on
ground for operational purpose. For this, it is important to
have the ability to locate any such feature on map, which is
visible on ground. This will help us to know the surrounding
area on map for operational purpose (such as route up to this
point, planning of assault and withdrawal, location of troops,
location of OP etc.) as well as specify its reference to our
operational support wings for assistance.
Following techniques can be used for locating a feature ‘A’
visible on Ground on to the Map:

1) Simple Method (Using Own Position only):

Ground to Map
I. Find out own position ‘O’ on map.
II. Estimate aerial distance of ‘A’ from ‘O’ on ground and
convert it into distance on map‘d’ by using map scale.
III. Read Magnetic Bearing of ‘A’ and convert it into Grid
Bearing by applying Magnetic Variation.
IV. From own position, ‘O’, draw a line at the Grid
Bearing and mark a point ‘B’ at a distance ‘d’.
V. Point ‘A’ should be located approximately near ‘B’.
VI. Confirm by matching adjoining features on map and
ground.

2) Accurate Method (Using two known points):

I. Find out own position ‘O’ on map.
II. Find out another point ‘B’ on map, which is at some
distance from ‘O’ on ground and also visible on map.
III. Read the Magnetic Bearing of ‘A’ from ‘O’ and ‘B’.
Let’s say the respective Magnetic Bearings of A from
these two points ‘O’ and ‘B’ are M10 & M20
respectively.

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IV. Convert M10 & M20 into Grid Bearing G10 & G20 by
applying Magnetic Variation from Map Marginal
Information.
V. Draw two lines at G10 & G20 from the two known points
‘O’ and ‘B’ respectively. Wherever the two lines meet
should be the approximate location of A.
VI. Confirm by matching surrounding on map and ground.

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Chapter 16
Measuring Ground Distances
It is important to be able to find out the distance between two
points on a map (by grid reference or otherwise) along a
selected route for planning route marches, night marches,
patrolling, operations etc.

Remember that a topographical map is a representation of the

Measuring Ground Distances

ground in plan view (i.e. ground as it would appear when looked
from a great height above). Therefore, blind conversion of map
distance by map scale would lead to straight-line ground
distance only, which will be useful only when the intermediate
ground is plain. Otherwise, when the ground is hilly or has
obstructions like nalas, hillocks, water bodies etc., the
distance, so calculated’ would only be a horizontal equivalent,
and not actual distance.

Methods for measuring Ground Distances (actual distance if

points are located on same contour and Horizontal Equivalent
otherwise)

i) If points lie on straight route: Measure distance

with the help of a scale, convert it into ground
distance by using map scale. For example, if the
distance measured is 1 cm on a 1:50,000 map, the
ground distance would be 50,000 cms. or 500
meters.
ii) If route is zig-zag: Spread a thread along the route.
Measure the length of thread and proceed as in i)
above.
iii) If route is along a river or road: Make use of
milestones shown on map.
iv) By Distance Charto Meter: This is a small machine,
with a small wheel. When the wheel is moved over
the selected route on the map, the chartometer
converts it into distance directly.

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Note: Instead of using map scale, one can use Map
Scale Line instead, to arrive at ground distance
directly.

v) By Using Grid References to calculate HE: It will be

clear from the following example:

Example: Find out the HE between two points whose six-

figure grid references are 520310 and 530320 on a 1:50,000
map sheet.

Answer:
ƒ If the two points are A and B, then x and y coordinates
of A and B (refer how grid references are written)
would be
ƒ X-coordinates: A: 520, B: 530
ƒ Y-Coordinates: A: 310,B: 320
ƒ Therefore, HE between A and B (by Pythagorus
Theorem) would be [(520-530) 2 + (310-320) 2] 1/2
ƒ i.e. [(-10) 2 + (-10) 2] 1/2
ƒ i.e. 200] ½ = 14.14
ƒ Since a six-figure grid reference on a 1:50,000 map
sheet depicts a 100 meter X 100 meter square,
therefore, the HE would be 14.14 X 100 meters =
1414 meters.

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Chapter 17
Referencing
The ability to pinpoint a location in such a manner that
everyone unambiguously understands it, is vital for any tactical
operation. In a city, it is quite simple to find a location; the
streets are named and the buildings have numbers. The only
thing needed is the address. However, finding locations in
undeveloped areas or in unfamiliar parts of the world can be a
problem. To cope with this problem, a uniform and precise
system of referencing is needed.

Geographical Coordinates
One of the oldest systematic methods of location is based upon

Referencing
the geographic coordinate system. By drawing a set of east-
west rings around the globe (parallel to the equator), and a set
of north-south rings crossing the equator at right angles and
converging at the poles, a network of reference lines is formed
from which any point on the earth's surface can be located.

The distance of a point north or south of the equator is known

as its latitude. The rings around the earth parallel to the
equator are called parallels of latitude or simply parallels. Lines
of latitude run east-west but north-south distances are
measured between them.

A second set of rings

around the globe at right
angles to lines of latitude
and passing through the
poles is known as
meridians of longitude or
simply meridians. One
meridian is designated as
the prime meridian. The
prime meridian of the
system we use, runs
through Greenwich, England and is known as the Greenwich
meridian. The distance east or west of a prime meridian to a

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point is known as its longitude. Lines of longitude (meridians)
run north-south but east-west distances are measured between
them.

The network of latitudes and longitudes drawn across the surface

of the earth is known as Graticule.

Geographic coordinates are expressed in angular measurement.

Each circle is divided into
360 degrees, each degree
into 60 minutes, and each
minute into 60 seconds.
The degree is symbolized
by 0, the minute by ’, and
the second by”. Starting
with 00 at the equator,
the parallels of latitude
are numbered up to 900
both north and south. The
extremities are the North
Pole at 900 N latitude and the South Pole at 900 S latitude.
Latitude can have the same numerical value north or south of the
equator, so the direction N or S must always be given. Starting
with 00 at the prime meridian, longitude is measured both East
and West around the world. Lines East of the prime meridian are
numbered to 1800 and identified as East longitude; lines West of
the prime meridian are
numbered to 1800 and
identified as West
longitude. The direction E
or W must always be given.
The line directly opposite
the prime meridian, 180°,
may be referred to as
either East or West
longitude. The values of
geographic coordinates,
being in units of angular
measurement, will mean more if they are compared with units of
measurement with which we are more familiar. At any point on
the earth, the ground distance covered by 10 of latitude is about
111 kilometers (69 miles) and one second is equal to about 30

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meters (100 feet). The ground distance covered by 10 of
longitude at the Equator is also about 111 kilometers, but
decreases as one moves north or south, until it becomes zero at
the poles. For example, 1” of longitude represents about 30
meters (100 feet) at the equator; but at the latitude of
Washington, DC, one second of longitude is about 24 meters (78
feet). Latitude and longitude are illustrated in figures on the
previous page.

This system of latitude and longitude referencing can be used to

indicate the location of any point on earth by assuming the 10 x 10
quadrangle as a square and subdividing it into minutes X minutes
squares or seconds X seconds squares, as per the accuracy needs.

Datum
Earth is not a true
spheroid. In fact, it is
not even a true
ellipsoid. In order to
draw maps to scale, it
is necessary that
earth’s surface is first
approximated to a true
geometrical surface, so that various mathematical formulae can
be applied for survey by triangulation. Various countries have
applied different spheroids/ ellipsoids with different centers and
radii/ different major-minor axis to achieve best fit between the
earth’s actual surface in that country and the mathematical
surface.

A datum defines how a coordinate system is seated over the

ellipsoid.

Survey of India maps use Everest 1956 datum that is an ellipsoid

with semi-major axis as 6377301.243 meters and with this datum;
the mathematical ellipsoid closely resembles the true surface of
earth in Indian subcontinent, although at other places, there may
be distortions. USA uses NAD83. WGS-84 (World Geodetic
System) is the universal datum (ellipsoid with semi-major axis as
6378137 meters), which tries to achieve the best fit between the
mathematical surface and the actual surface for the whole earth.

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Obviously, the position of the Graticule (latitudes and longitudes)
would not be the same in different datums, although they will
differ by a very small amount. For example, the latitude co-
ordinates of a point may be 77018’ in Everest datum whereas in
WGS-84 system, they may be 77019’. Software exists which can
do this conversion and GPS receivers widely employ this
software.

Projections
Even a mathematical surface like an ellipsoid is a three
dimensional figure and projecting the same on a two dimensional
figure like a map surface would lead to distortions of distances,
area or shape. If you try to spread an orange peel on a plane
surface, you will notice that it is not possible to do so without
the peel getting torn at various places.

In order to represent the surface of the earth on a flat piece of

paper, the map area is projected onto
the paper. In order to achieve a
compromise between distortions in
distances, shape and area, different
systems of projections are used for
projecting a 3-d figure onto a 2-d figure.
There are many different types of
projections, each with its own strengths
and weaknesses. The simplest (and easiest to visualize) example
of a projection is a planar projection. To understand this type of
projection, imagine inserting a piece of paper through the earth
along the equator. Now imagine that the earth is semi-
transparent and you could shine a flashlight oriented along the
(geographic) polar axis through the earth. The resulting outline
on the paper would be a map created using this type of
projection (known as a transverse azimuthal or planar
projection). This is used for maps of areas > 700 N or S latitude.

The other main types are cylindrical and conical projections.

These three types of projections can be further modified by the
way the 'paper' is oriented when it is inserted into the earth. In
the example above, the plane was oriented along the equator,
known as a transverse orientation (hence the 'transverse
azimuthal' projection). Projections may also be equatorial

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(oriented perpendicular to the plane of
the equator) or oblique (oriented at
some angle that is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the plane of the
equator.

Cylindrical projections are used for maps

of areas between 350 N and 350 S
latitudes.

For area between 350 N and 700 N and

350 S and 700 S, conical projections are
used for drawing maps. Survey of India
uses a polyconic projection for
topographical maps (1: 250,000, 1: 50,000, 1:25,000). However,
the maps that one sees in Geography atlases, which have scales
in the region of 1: million), employ Lambert Conformal Conical
Projection.

UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) Geographical Co-ordinate

System is the emerging world standard, which preserves shape.
There are 60 UTM zones and co-ordinates of a place need to be
specified with the relevant UTM zone.

Summary: How Maps are made?

Earth

Mathematical Surface-Datum

Plane Projection Surface- Projection System

Method of easier referencing and calculations-Grid

Grid System
The system of specifying a point by its geographical coordinates
suffers from two problems:

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a) The system is very cumbersome (latitude-degrees,
minutes, seconds, longitude- degrees, minutes, seconds),
especially for a semi literate soldier.

b) The system does not afford any calculation ability as the

reference system of latitudes and Longitudes is not
perfectly rectangular and hence not suitable for
calculating bearings, distance between two points, area of
a place etc.

To overcome these difficulties, an artificial rectangular co-

ordinate system (just like x-y co-ordinates) is superimposed on
the Graticule. This artificial rectangular co-ordinate system is
called Grid system.

Grid Lines are shown on the map with purple coloured lines.

Grid system provides a very easy DECIMAL system of specifying

the location of a point, as depicted in figures below:

X co-ordinate: > 91, < 92 Using Service Protractor

Y co-ordinate: > 94, < 95 X co-ordinate: 91.6
Y co-ordinate: 94.4

The Grid Lines drawn on the map in the North-South direction are
called EASTING LINES. They increase as one goes from W to E.

The Grid Lines drawn on the map in the East-West direction are
called NORTHING LINES. They increase as one goes from S to N.

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Principles of Grid Reference (GR)
1. First write WHOLE of Easting reference followed by WHOLE
of Northing Reference. In the figure above, the GR of the
ENTIRE Square in which the point is shown would be 9194 (4
figure GR). If each of the Squares was divided into 100 sub-
squares (by dividing each side into 10 subdivisions), the GR
of the point would be 916944 (6 figure GR, no decimal
points). If further subdivisions were to be made, we can
have 8-figure GR and so on.
2. NO DECIMAL PLACES are used when writing Easting and
Northing reference. In the example above, although the co-
ordinate is 91.6, the Easting reference is 916 in a 6-figure
GR.
3. The GR consists of EVEN NO. OF FIGURES- the first half
depicting Easting reference and the second half depicting
Northing reference. The first two digits of each half denote
the main division (if main division no. consists of a single
digit, prefix zero) and should be read together and the
following digits should be read separately. For example,
the GR 91659442 is an 8-figure GR in which 9165 denote
Easting reference and 9442 denote Northing reference. It
should be read as- ninety-one, six, five, ninety-four, four
two.
4. Subdivisions are not marked on map but are read with the
help of service protractor as shown in figure above.
5. In Survey of India topographical maps, each Grid Square
denotes an area of 1 km. X 1 km.

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Chapter 18
Index to Map Sheets
International Series and Index to Map Sheet
There has always been a need to devise a system so as to give
reference of a point on Earth, which can be easily and
unambiguously understood by everyone. The early Geographers
devised the system of latitudes and longitudes for this purpose.
Since this system gets cumbersome in giving reference of a
small area on Earth and the difficulty (such as calculation of
distances by simple mathematics) arising out of spherical
system of this referencing. A number of other means were
devised for giving references.

Referencing
Methods of Index to Map
A. Graticule Map Index: In this system, the whole earth is
divided into two halves i.e. Northern & Southern Hemisphere.
Each of these hemispheres is divided into two halves i.e. East
and West. In this way, the whole Earth is divided into four
halves

a) North East: This covers the Earth from 00 to 1800 East

longitudes and 00 to 900 North latitudes.
b) South East: This covers the Earth from 00 to 1800 East
longitudes and 00 to 900 South latitudes.
c) North West: This covers the Earth from 00 to 1800 West
longitudes and 00 to 900 North latitudes.
d) South West: This covers the Earth from 00 to 1800 West
longitudes and 00 to 900 South latitudes.

Each of these four divisions is divided into sub-divisions of 10 x

10, giving a total of 180 x 90 = 16200 sub-divisions. To give a
reference of any of these sub-divisions, first the name of the
division (NE/NW/SE/SW) is written followed by longitude,
followed by latitude of the sub-division. For example, Graticule
reference of Indore would be NE 7522 i.e. Indore is situated in

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the North East quarter of Earth at 750 longitude and 220
latitude.

This 10 x 10 sub-division can be further divided into (60 x 60) 3600

sub-divisions, each sub-division
occupying an area of 1’x 1’. This
way, the Graticule reference of
Indore Railway Station would be
NE 75522243 meaning thereby that
Indore Railway Station is in the NE
quarter of the Earth at 750 52’ E
longitude at 220 43’ N latitude.

B. Geographical Index to Maps: In

this system, the whole Earth
covering 3600 x 1800 span is
divided into portions of span 150 x
150. In this way, the whole Earth gets divided into 24 (W to E) x
12 (S to N) = 288 divisions. The 24 divisions in the East-West
direction are named from A to Z (leaving out I & O) starting from
West and the 12 sub-divisions in the North South direction are
named from A to N (leaving out I) starting from South as shown in
the figure. For specifying each of these squares, the letter for
longitude is followed by the letter for latitude. Example, Indore
would fall in TH square. For larger scale maps, each of the
squares is divided into 15 x 15 = 225 squares, each covering an
area of 10 x 10. Each of these sub-divisions in the North South
direction are named from A to Q (leaving out I & O) starting from
South and in the East West direction from A to Q (leaving out I &
O) starting from West. For specifying the location, first the
bigger square is referred followed by the smaller square.
Example, Indore City would in the square TH AH as shown in the
figure.

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00

1800

1650

1500

1350

1200

1050

1050

1200

1350

1500

1650

1800
900

750

600

450

300

150

150

300

450

600

750

900
A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
0 0
90 M M 90
750 L L 75
0

600 K K 60
0

450 J J 45
0

0 0
30 H H 30
150 G G 15
0

150 F F 150

300 E E 300

450 D D 450

600 C C 600

750 B B 750

900 A A 900
A B C D E F G H J K L M N P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
1800

1650

1500

1350

1200

1050

900

750

600

450

300

150

150

300

450

600

750

900

1050

1200

1350

1500

1650

1800
00

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Each of these 10 x 10 square can be divided into 60 x 60 = 3600
squares, each covering an area of 1’x 1’. For giving the
reference, first the reference of 10 x 10 square is given as
explained above followed by the minutes of longitude followed
by minutes of latitude. Example, the reference of Indore Railway
Station (whose graticule reference is 750 52’ East and 220 43’
North) would be THAH – 5243. The scheme can further be
extended by further sub-dividing 10 x 10 square into 60 x 60 =
3600 squares, each covering an area of 1”x 1”.

Note: It may be noted that as we go towards North or South from

the equator, the distance between any two longitudes keep on
decreasing and therefore, the squares, as referred above, are not
true geometrical squares.

C. Survey Index to Map: The above two methods of referencing

are very cumbersome, especially for moderately educated
soldiers and that too when the reference upto seconds is to be
given. In order to overcome this difficulty, the survey index to
map system was devised in which only the landmass portion of
the earth is surveyed leaving out the oceans. There are two
types of surveys

a. International Survey Index to Map Sheets

b. Asian Survey Index to Map Sheets

International Survey Index to Map Sheets

In this system, the referencing is done taking into account the
entire 360 longitudes but only 120 latitudes (600 North 600
South). This 3600 x 1200 area is divided into 60 (longitude) x 40
(latitude) portions giving (60 X 30) 1800 divisions. Each of these
divisions covers a map sheet, which is called One Million Map
Sheet. Refer to figure on next page.
The area from 600 North latitude to 880 North latitude and 600
South latitude to 880 South latitude is divided into 120 (longitude)
x 40 (latitude) portions giving a total of (30 X 14) 420 sub-
divisions. Each of these divisions covers a map sheet, which is
called One Million Map Sheet. From 600 to 880 North & South
latitudes, 120 have been

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International Survey Index Million Map Sheets

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taken instead of 60 because as we go away from equator, the
distance between the longitudes keeps on decreasing.
The remaining area of 20 each (from 880 to 900 North & South
latitudes) is covered by One Million Map Sheet each, giving 2
Million map Sheets.
In this way, a total of (1800 + 420 + 2) 2222 Million Map Sheets
are formed covering the entire Earth.
In the International Series and Index to Map Sheets, 60 x 40 sheet
is called Million Map sheet. These sheets are numbered as
follows:

a) Upto 600 N and 600 S on both sides of equator, 15

divisions of 40 latitude each are numbered from A to O.
Numbering starts from the equator.
b) The 3600 longitudes (from 1800 W to 180o E) are divided
into 60 divisions, each of 60. There are numbered from
1 to 60, starting from1800 W.
c) The sheets pertaining to Northern hemisphere are
prefixed N and those pertaining to Southern hemisphere
are prefixed S.

Finding Million Map Sheet on International Index Sheet

a) Latitude: Divide by 4; add 1 to quotient if there is a

remainder; count up to the quotient starting from A.
b) Longitude: Divide by 6. In case of East Longitude, if
there is a remainder, add 31 to quotient. Otherwise,
add 30 to the quotient. In case of West Longitude, if
there is no remainder, subtract quotient from 31.
Otherwise, subtract quotient from 30.
Example1
What is the Million map sheet pertaining to 250 N Latitude
and 860 E Longitude?
Latitude: 25/4 = 6.25 =count 7 ahead of A i.e. G
Longitude: 86/6=14.25=Add 31 to 14 i.e. 45
Therefore, Million Map Sheet = NG – 45.

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Example2
What is the Million Map Sheet pertaining to 460 S Latitude and 920
West Longitude?
Latitude: 46/4 = 11.5 i.e. count 12 ahead of A i.e. L
Longitude: 92/6=15.33 i.e. subtract 16 from 31 i.e. 15
Therefore, Million Map Sheet = SL – 15.

Division of Million Map Sheet into 10 x 10 and ½ 0 x ½ 0 Sheets

For dividing a Million Map Sheet (60 x 40) into 10 x 10 sheets, 24
sheets are created and numbered from A to X, from left to right
and from top to bottom. The scale of these sheets would be ½”
= 1 mile (1: 2,50,000)
For dividing a 10 x 10 sheet into ½ 0 x ½ 0 (or 30’ x 30’) sheets, it
is divided into 4 sheets which are numbered from I to IV from left
to right and top to bottom.

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Asian Index to Map
The biggest scale in International Survey Index is 1: 1,00,000,
which is too small for infantry, artillery and police purposes.
Therefore, Survey of India devised an Asian Index to Map Sheets
in 1905, on the basis of which, it is possible to prepare maps of
scales up to 1: 25000. This survey includes countries of SE Asia –
Iran, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, India, Nepal,
Tibet, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Indo-China etc.

System of Distribution: Part of Asia located between 440 E and

1240 E longitudes and 40 N to 400 N Latitudes is divided into (20 x
9) 180 squares of 40 x 40 each. The squares covering the landmass
only (leaving the oceans) are numbered 1- 136 from top to
bottom and West to East as shown in figure.

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Index to Sheets

a) 10 x 10 (or 1:2,50,000
or ¼”: 1 mile): 16
sheets in a 4o x 4o
sheet, numbered from
A to P from top to
bottom and West to
East.
b) 30’ x 30’ (or 1:
1,00,000 or ½”: 1
mile): 4 sheets in a 1o
x 1o sheet, numbered
as NW, NE, SE and SW.
c) 15’ x 15’ (or 1: 50,000
or 1”: 1 mile): 16
sheets in a 1o x 1o
sheet, numbered from
1 to 16, from top to
bottom and East to
West.
d) 5’ x 5’ (or 1:25,000 or
2 ” = 1 mile): 9 sheets
in a 15’ x 15’ sheet,
numbered from 1 to 9,
from top to bottom
and East to West.
Notes:
1. Whereas in
International Survey
Index, numbering is done
from left to right
followed by top to
bottom, in Asian Index,
the numbering is done
from top to bottom followed by left to right.
2. 1o Longitude covers 110.4 km at equator. Therefore, an
International Survey Million Map Sheet covers 662.4 x 441.6 km
area on ground, a half million map sheet covers 331.2 x 220.8 Km
and so on.

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Map Sheet Index

We often need to find out the Map Sheet nos. of the Map Sheets,
which cover the area around the area covered by a map sheet
that we have. For this purpose, an index is given at the bottom
of a map (in map marginal information). This index is a 3 x 3
grid; each of the 9 squares showing the Map Sheet nos. of maps
in their respective directions. The map sheet number of the
current sheet is written in the center of the grid. Refer to the
figure, which shows an index for a 1.50000 map sheet.

As per the ½” = 1 Mile Map Sheet Index, the area to East of the
current map sheet is covered by 46 K/1.

Grid Index to Map Sheet

The references in terms of Latitudes and Longitudes (Georef)
are too cumbersome for large-scale maps, especially for semi-
literate soldiers. Therefore, the Britishers started a grid
system in 1919.

British Grid System

The whole earth is divided into squares of 50,000 meters x 50,000
meters, starting at 0o longitude and 0o latitude (equator). Each
of these squares is divided into (5 x 5) 25 squares, each one
measuring 10,000 meters x 10,000 meters and numbered from A
to Z (leaving out I). Thus, the same letters were repeated every
50,000 meters. Therefore, this system was suitable for only 1:
50,000 maps (27.6 x 27.6 km) only, as for smaller scale maps,
repetition of same letters left scope for confusion.

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The Modified British Grid System

a) The whole earth is

divided into 4 parts –
NW, NE, SE & SW
b) Each of these 4 parts is
divided into squares of
25 lakh x 25 lakh meters,
starting from 0o longitude
and 0o latitude. Each of
these squares is divided
into (5x5) 25 squares
measuring 5 lakh x 5 lakh
meters, and numbered
from A to Z (leaving out I). These letters are called
MOTHER LETTERS. There are numbered from left to right
and top to bottom.
c) 5 lakh x 5 lakh area covered by a MOTHER LETTER is further
divided into (5x5) 25 squares, each covering 1 lakh x 1 lakh
meters area. These 25 squares are numbered from A to Z
(leaving out the letter I), from left to right and top to
bottom. Each of these letters is called a CAPITAL LETTER.
Syntax: Mother letter followed by capital letter.
Example: QZ = Mother letter is Q, Capital letter is Z.
d) On survey maps, the grid lines showing ‘x’ no. of lakh
meters are drawn thicker than other grid lines and labeled
with the reading of total kms. On crossing every such a
thick grid line, the CAPITAL LETTER changes. However, the
MOTHER LETTER changes after 5 such thick grid lines. On a
1:50,000 map sheet, every 100th grid line is such thick grid
line.
e) Each of the 1 lakh x 1 lakh meter square covered by a
CAPITAL LETTER is divided into 100 squares - each covering
10,000 meters x 10,000 meters. On 1:50,000 map sheets,
every 10th grid line is such a grid line and is drawn
comparatively thicker than other grid lines. Complete
meter reading is shown on each of such a thick grid line
also.
f) Each of the 10,000 x 10,000 meter squares is divided into
1,000 x 1,000 meters squares i.e. 100 squares. The lines

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constituting these squares form the conventional grid lines
on a 1:50,000 or 1:25,000 map. Therefore, distance
between consecutive grid lines on a 1: 50,000 or 1:25,000
map is 1000 meters. As explained before, every 10th grid
line is labeled with complete meter reading. The
numbering of grid lines changes on every 100th grid line
with the change of CAPITAL LETTER. Therefore, Grid Lines
on such maps are numbered from 00 to 99; the 00 Grid Line
showing the complete meter labeling and change of
CAPITAL LETTER.

Exercise: If on a map sheet, the Easting Grid line is labeled

3950000 and Northing Grid line is labeled as 6040000, find
out the MOTHER LETTER and CAPITAL LETTERS?

Solution

Step 1: We will find out the exact square on the 25 lakh Square
Grid in which the given readings lie. Therefore, the relevant
Easting Square would be the one with Easting boundaries
25,00,000 to 50,00,000 and Northing boundaries from 50,00,000
to 75,00,000.

Step 2: MOTHER LETTER: We will now find the exact square on a

5 lakh square Grid in which the given readings lie. As a 5 lakh
Square Grid is 5 X 5 Grid in a 25 lakh Square Grid, numbered from
A to Z (leaving out I), therefore Easting Square is 3rd (1st: 25-30,
2nd: 30-35 and 3rd: 35-40 lakh meters). Similarly, Northing Square
would be 3rd (1st: 50-55, 2nd: 55-60 and 3rd: 60-65 lakh meters).
Since the lettering is done from left to right and top to bottom,
this letter would be N.

Step 3: CAPITAL LETTER: Proceeding exactly as above, the

CAPITAL LETTER would be 5th from left to right (Easting) and 1st
from bottom to top (Northing). As the nos. are increasing from
bottom to top, letter would be Z, as shown in figure.

Therefore, the MOTHER LETTER would be N and CAPITAL LETTER

would be Z.

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MOTHER LETTER CAPITAL LETTER
75,000
A B C D E
70,000
F G H J K Mother Letter
65,000 N
L M N O P
Proceed as in
60,000
Q R S T U case of Mother
55,000
V W X Y Z
L
50,000
25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

45,000

50,000

The 9-Grids Covering India

As we learnt earlier, the Grid system is a rectangular co-ordinate

system, unlike the Graticule of latitudes and longitudes, which is
a spherical co-ordinate system. Grid system is superimposed on
the Graticule system for ease of reference and feasibility of
calculating distances etc. naturally, a rectangular Grid would be
misaligned at differing angles to latitudes and longitudes,
depending upon the location.
However, on a given map, it is desirable if the latitude and
longitude lines are nearly parallel to the Grid lines, as otherwise
it would create a lot of confusion for the user. Therefore, instead
of having only one grid covering the entire map, the survey
authorities use a no. of grids to cover their area of interest.
Survey of India uses 9 Grids- I, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A and 4B to cover
India and adjoining areas. The exact origins of these 9 grids are
kept secret for security reasons. The GR shown as 3A GR by a GPS
receiver is not exact but only a good approximation.
Gridded maps are restricted maps, as they can be used by the
enemy to place their artillery guns in a precise manner and
similar other purposes.

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RESTRICTED

This is a map
of Indian
Subcontinent
showing the
layout of 9
Grids: 1, IIA,
IIB, IIIA, IIIB,
IVA and IV B.

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Chapter 19

Field Sketching, Eye Sketch and Enlargement

Field Sketching, Eye Sketch and
Enlargement
Field Sketching
What is a Field Sketch

A sketch of an area following Conventional Signs and made to or

without Scale defined by the sketcher made either with the
help of an existing survey map or independently by observation
is called a Field Sketch.

Why do we make Field Sketches?

1. The Survey maps may not include ALL the features visible
on ground, which are important to us but may not have
been important to the surveyor.
2. Survey maps may be outdated/ inaccurate.
3. Scale of Survey maps may be too small for our
requirements.
4. Survey maps may not be readily available.
5. May be required to supplement/substitute a field report
for higher officers.
6. For briefing commanders about enemy area.
7. For conducting exercises/ briefing men.

Characteristics of Field Sketches

1. Should be up-to-date
2. Should be reliable about its correctness
3. Should be clear, legible, neat and clean.
4. Should be purposeful.

Method of Making Field Sketches

1. Outline: Make the boundary in which field sketch is to be

made as per the scale decided by you.

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2. Framework
a. Base Line: Make a base line by joining two such
visible artificial/ natural features from where the
whole area of the sketch is visible.
b. Ruling Points: Divide the whole area of the sketch in
4/6/8 areas and choose such a prominent feature for
each part in reference to which other details can be
filled. Accurately plot these points in the sketch. The
accurate position of these points can be found by
estimation, triangulation, and resection etc. w.r.t.
two fixed points of the base line.
3. Fill up details in each part with the help of ruling points.
4. Draw Contours: Measure the height of highest feature and
decide contour interval. Draw form lines (inexact contours)
by observation.
5. Provide finishing touches
a. Conventional signs, labeling
b. Labeling of form lines wherever they meet the
boundary of map.
c. Labeling of nearest city and its distance from the
boundary of map in case of roads ending at map
boundary
d. Direction of flow of river by arrows
e. Position of North
f. Heading
g. Scale used
h. Date

Eye Sketches
What is an Eye Sketch?

A sketch made by observation showing the prominent natural and

manmade landmarks of an area is called an Eye sketch.

Need for Eye Sketches

Eye sketches are made for showing those details, which are not
otherwise shown on topographical maps.
Parts of an Eye Sketch

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1. Heading: Showing area covered by sketch; 6 figure Grid
References of boundaries of sketch (if relevant
Topographical Map is available)
2. Purpose of making the sketch: Examples: Platoon in
defense, training camp, exercises etc.
3. Main body of map: Main details are shown here.
4. Direction: Shown on right side of the boundary. It need
not necessarily be the North direction.
5. Scale: Shown below the sketch, generally in all three
standard forms, viz in words, RF and Scale Line.
6. End (marginal information): Following information may be
included and shown at their standard places as in a
topographical map:
a. CI: Contour Interval
b. Conventional or special signs
c. Place, date, time, weather, method of judging
distances etc.
d. Name and rank of person making the sketch
Eye sketches are made in a similar manner as the field sketches,
the difference being that in the eye sketches, distances and
directions are not accurately measured but filled by observation
and experience.

Enlargement
Meaning:

A portion of map sketched on a larger scale on a paper covering

all the details of the ground and overcoming the deficiencies of
the map is called an enlargement.

However, a 1:25,000 map cannot be called a 10 times

enlargement of a 1:2,50,000 because:

ƒ The area covered is different

ƒ Surveys o the basis of which these two maps are made are
different.
ƒ Enlargements cover specific details required for the
purpose for which the enlargement is made, which may not
be covered on survey maps.

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Need

ƒ Planning/ depicting unit defenses

ƒ Briefing of commanders
ƒ Operational control by commanders
ƒ Operational planning
ƒ Removing shortcomings of maps
ƒ Training exercises
ƒ Making sand models

Making an Enlargement

Before Starting
ƒ Formulate the objective for making the enlargement
ƒ Get the topographical map of the area
ƒ Do ground recce to find important details not shown on
map

Preparation of Enlargement

ƒ Lining: Shortlist the area on the map whose enlargement is

to be made.
ƒ Take a drawing sheet and make the outer boundary of the
enlargement as per decided scale.
ƒ Divide the selected square on the map and corresponding
boundary on drawing sheet into same no. of squares.
ƒ One by one, copy the details of smaller squares on the map
on to the corresponding squares on the enlargement.
ƒ Incorporate the details gathered through personal survey,
recce etc. Avoid irrelevant details.
ƒ Label with important information.
o Map Sheet No.
o All Norths
o Conventional Signs
o Scale of enlargement (how many times bigger)
o Security classification
o Grid Line nos.
o Name and rank of maker

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Chapter 20
Sand Model
Since the map is a two dimensional representation of a selected
area, therefore, it is difficult for the troops to understand the
topography of the area fully by studying the map alone. This is
because a lot of skill and experience is required to interpret
and visualize the contours. This difficulty can be overcome if
important operational features of the selected area are
represented to scale in three dimensions. This is done through
making sand models for briefing the commanders and troops.
Although virtual three dimensional computer aided models
(based on digital maps of the area) are fast replacing the sand
models, sand models still retain their preeminent role in

Sand Model
operational planning because of unavailability of digital maps,
required technology and capital.

Meaning

A three dimensional model of a portion of land, made to scale,

using sand and clay and incorporating details from
enlargement/ field sketch etc.

Necessity of Sand Models

ƒ It is easier to understand scale and relief with the help of

sand models, as compared to topographical maps.
ƒ Important for briefing the commanders, as it is impossible
for commanders to visit all field locations.
ƒ Sand models are extremely useful in making operational
plans, especially involving troops who are not familiar
with the area. They are also useful for evaluating
different tactics and brainstorming about operations and
strategies.
ƒ Sand models are useful for training in making eye
sketches, as trainees can begin with making the eye
sketches of Sand Models before moving to the actual
ground.

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ƒ Sand models are excellent training aids for imparting
training in map reading, operational planning and briefing,
especially so when location of training institute does not
have different types of terrains. Use of sand model in place
of actually going to the field also saves time during
training.

Material Required for Making a Sand Model

ƒ Enlargement and Eye Sketch of the Area

ƒ Bricks or sand model pit
ƒ Fine sand and clay
ƒ Sand colors (red, yellow, green, black etc.)
ƒ Sawdust
ƒ Lime and coal powder
ƒ Pebbles and stones
ƒ Cloth of various colours
ƒ Paint
ƒ Cotton (for depicting leaves)
ƒ Tapes of different colours
ƒ White, thick thread
ƒ Wires (brass)
ƒ Bamboo strips
ƒ Drawing papers for labeling
ƒ Models of standard conventional signs
ƒ Dry branches
ƒ Pins

Actions before Making a Sand Model

ƒ Collect all the required material for making the sand model
ƒ Mark the area on the map
ƒ Make an enlargement by referring to the map and
conducting a survey of the area (if possible) using plain
table sketch, prismatic compass sketch, etc., so that the
enlargement has up-to-date details of the ground
ƒ Fix a scale for the sand model and divide it into convenient
squares for understanding the ground details
ƒ Make a sand model pit

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ƒ Dig the pit upto 30-40 cms.
ƒ Partially fill up the pit with fresh sand and sprinkle water
ƒ Top up with mixture of sand and clay
ƒ Make grid lines on sand model by tying threads

Methods for Preparation of Sand Model

There are two main methods for making a sand mode:

1. With the help of prominent Ruling Points: In this method,
the main features on the enlargement, such as rivers, streams,
roads, railway lines, lakes etc., are first made on the sand
model. Thereafter, smaller details are depicted by taking the
major details as references.
2. By completing individual squares: In this methods, each
square of the enlargement is completely made on sand model
one by one. This way, by moving one square to the next, the
sand model is completed.

Finishing Touches to Sand Models

ƒ The details on sand model should appear to be natural and

accurate.
ƒ Mountains: Snow cover is shown by white paint/ lime, cliffs
are shown by clay/crushed brick, perennial trees on mountains
shown by plastic trees and greenery shown by use of green
colour.
ƒ Hills and Contours: Height is depicted as per contours on map
and scale used on sand model. Care should be taken to depict
the broken ground in its natural shape.
ƒ Rivers and Streams: Origin should be shown narrow and width
should increase as one goes downstream. Blue colour is used
to depict water. Rocky bed should be depicted by using
pebbles.
ƒ Lakes and Ponds: Water is shown by blue colour. Size should
be as per scale.
ƒ Trees: Use plastic trees and green-coloured cotton.
ƒ Grass and Shrubs or Bushes: Use green coloured sawdust.
Shrubs are shown by using small branches of trees.
ƒ Agriculture: Use yellow sawdust.

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ƒ Metalled Roads: Use red tape. Width of tape should be
proportional to road width.
ƒ Unmetalled Roads: Use white tape.
ƒ Cart Tracks and Foot Paths: Use white threads, intermittently
blackened. Otherwise, use powdered coal.
ƒ Railway Lines: Use yellow tape, intermittently blackened to
show sleepers. Show different gauges by using tape of
different widths.
ƒ Telephone Lines: Use brass wires fixed on yellow wooden
sticks.
ƒ Bridge: Use prefabricated plastic models.
ƒ Houses, Villages: Use prefabricated plastic models. Label the
villages with banner.
ƒ Grid Line Nos.: Label on all four sides as per topographical
map.
ƒ Mark the North direction of sand model, which should exactly
coincide with the actual North for the area depicted on the
sand mode.

Points to Remember While Making a Sand Model:

ƒ Sand model should be made to scale

ƒ It should be pertaining to specific area of responsibility
ƒ It should incorporate only essential details
ƒ It should be close to the real situation on ground
ƒ Standard colours should be used
ƒ It should fulfill the objective for which the sand model is
being made

Briefing on Sand Model

The following points in the sequence given below should be

covered while briefing any senior commander or troops on sand
model (The sequence given here is indicative only as the details
are covered in the subject Field Craft & Tactics).

ƒ The area covered by the sand model: North-South and East-

West extent of the area in latitudes and longitudes, the
total area covered by the sand model (Ref. Of
Topographical Map Sheet can also be given)

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ƒ North of the sand model
ƒ Scale of the sand model
ƒ International boundary, line of control, inter-state, inter-
district boundaries
ƒ Topography of the area
o Broad topography of the area i.e. hilly, plain etc
o Main topographical features
o Roads and paths (motorability)
o Rivers, rivulets and streams (perennial or seasonal,
depth of water, mode of crossing, location of bridges
etc)
o Weather
o Population (mix of population, attitudes)
o Main villages and towns
o Any other important feature about the area
ƒ Location of enemy hideouts
ƒ Location of own deployment
ƒ Tactics followed by the enemy
ƒ Operational details of the action against enemy that is
being planned
ƒ The tactics generally being followed by own troops
ƒ Sunrise and sunset time

Refer to next page for sample photograph of a Sand Model.

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Different Views of Sand Model of

Area of SVPNPA, Hyderabad

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Chapter 21

Geographical Positioning System

Introduction
Have you ever been lost and wished there was an easy way to

Geographical Positioning System

find out which way you needed to go How about finding yourself
out trekking and not knowing which direction you should go to
get back to your camp or car? Ever been flying along and
needed to locate the nearest airport or identify the type of
airspace you were in? Maybe you’ve been faced with the fact
that it’s time to pull over and ask someone for directions?
Tactically, the importance of navigation to any area without
any landmarks/ guidance is well known. Situations where
patrolling parties find themselves in an area from where
retreating back to camp may not be easy without guidance are
not uncommon. With a GPS unit in your hand, you could know
where you were located on the planet at all times. GPS
technology is rapidly changing how people find their way around
the Earth.

What is GPS?
GPS stands for Global Positioning System.
GPS is a network of satellites that continuously transmit coded
information, which makes it possible to precisely identify
locations on earth by measuring distance from the satellites.
As stated in the definition above, GPS stands for Global
Positioning System, and refers to a group of U.S. Department of
Defense satellites constantly circling the earth. The satellites
transmit very low power radio signals allowing anyone with a
GPS receiver to determine their location on Earth. This
remarkable system was not cheap to build, costing the U.S.
billions of dollars. Ongoing maintenance, including the launch
of replacement satellites, adds to the cost of the system.
Amazingly, GPS actually predates the introduction of the
personal computer. Its designers may not have foreseen a day
when we would be carrying small portable receivers, weighing
less than a pound, that would not only tell us where we are in

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position coordinates (latitude/longitude), but would even
display our location on an electronic map along with cities,
streets and more. These designers originally had a military
application in mind. GPS receivers would aid navigation, troop
deployment and artillery fire (among other applications).
Fortunately, an executive decree in the 1980s made GPS
available for civilian use also. Now everyone gets to enjoy the
benefits of GPS! The capability is almost unlimited. Sometimes
people ask if they can use the system for free-YES!

Who uses GPS?

GPS has a variety of applications on land, at sea and
in the air. Basically, GPS allows you to record or
create locations of places on the earth and help you
navigate to and from those spots. GPS can be used
everywhere except where it’s impossible to receive
the signal such as inside buildings; in caves, parking
garages, and other subterranean locations; and
underwater. The most common airborne
applications include navigation by general aviation
and commercial aircraft. At sea, GPS is typically
used for navigation by recreational boaters and fishing
enthusiasts. Land-based applications
are more diverse. The scientific
community uses GPS for its precision
timing capability and a myriad of
other applications. Surveyors use
GPS for an increasing portion of
their work. GPS offers an incredible
cost saving by drastically reducing
setup time at the survey site. It also
provides amazing accuracy. Basic
survey units can offer accuracies
down to one meter. More expensive systems can provide
accuracies to within a centimeter! Recreational uses of GPS are
almost as varied as the number of recreational sports available.
GPS is becoming increasingly popular among hikers, hunters,
mountain bikers, and cross- country skiers, just to name a few.
GPS is rapidly becoming commonplace in automobiles as well.
Some basic systems are already in place, providing emergency
roadside assistance at the push of a button (by transmitting your
current position to a dispatch center). More sophisticated

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systems can show the vehicle’s position on an electronic map
display, allowing drivers to keep track of where they are and look
up street addresses, restaurants, hotels and other destinations.
Some systems can even automatically create a route and give
turn-by-turn directions to a designated location.
For us as policemen, the GPS is an instrument that constantly
tells us where we are in terms of our co-ordinates and constantly
tells us the direction of a predefined location from our current
location. Hence it is a navigational tool, same as a compass, but
more efficient than it.
The 3 Segments of GPS
The NAVSTAR system (the acronym for
Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging,
the official U.S. Department of Defense
name for GPS) consists of a space
segment (the satellites), a control
segment (the ground stations), and a user
segment (you and your GPS receiver).
Now let’s take the three parts of the
system and discuss them in more detail.
Then we’ll look more closely at how GPS works.

The Space Segment

The space segment, which consists of at least 24 satellites (21
active plus 3 operating spares) is the heart of the system. The
satellites are in what’s called a “high orbit” about 12,000 miles
above the Earth’s surface. Operating at such a high altitude
allows the signals to cover a greater area. The satellites are

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arranged in their orbits in such a manner so a GPS receiver on
earth can always receive from at least four of them at any
given time. The satellites are traveling at speeds of 7,000 miles
an hour, which allows them to circle the earth once every 12
hours. They are powered by solar energy and are built to last
about 10 years. If the solar energy fails (eclipses, etc.), they
have backup batteries on board to keep them running. They
also have small rocket boosters to keep
them flying in the correct path. The first
GPS satellites were launched into space in
1978. A full constellation of 24 satellites
was achieved in 1994, completing the
system. Money is earmarked in the U.S.
Department of Defense budget to continue
buying new satellites, sending them up to
keep the system running for years to come.
Each satellite transmits low power radio
signals on several frequencies (designated
L1, L2, etc.). Civilian GPS receivers “listen”
on the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz in the
UHF band. The signal travels in “line of
sight”, meaning, it will pass through clouds,
glass and plastic, but will not go through
most solid objects such as buildings and
mountains. To give you some idea of where
the L1 signal is on the radio dial, your
favorite FM radio station broadcasts on a
frequency somewhere between 88 and 108
MHz (and sounds much
better!). The satellite
signals are also very low
power signals, on the
order of 20-50 watts.
Your local FM radio
station is around
100,000 watts. Imagine
trying to listen to a 50-
watt radio station
transmitting from
12,000 miles away! That’s why it’s important to have a clear
view of the sky when using your GPS.

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L1 contains two “pseudorandom” (a complex pattern of digital
code) signals, the Protected (P) code and the Coarse/Acquisition
(C/A) code. Each satellite transmits a unique code, allowing the
GPS receiver to identify the signals. “Anti-spoofing” refers to the
scrambling of the P code in order to prevent its unauthorized
access. The P code is also called the “P (Y)” or “Y” code.
The main purpose of these coded signals is to allow for
calculating the travel time from the satellite to the GPS receiver
on the Earth. This travel time is also called the Time of Arrival.
The travel time multiplied by the speed of light equals the
satellite range (distance from the satellite to the GPS receiver).
The Navigation Message (the information the satellites transmit
to a receiver) contains the satellite orbital and clock information
and general system status messages and an ionospheric delay
model. The satellite signals are timed using highly accurate
atomic clocks.

The Control Segment

The “control” segment does what its name implies — it
“controls” the GPS satellites by tracking them and then providing
them with corrected orbital and clock (time) information. There
are five control stations located around the world — four
unmanned monitoring stations and one “master control station”.
The four unmanned receiving stations constantly receive data
from the satellites and then send that information to the master
control station. The master control station “corrects” the
satellite data and, together with two other antenna sites, sends
(“uplinks”) the information to the GPS satellites.

The User Segment

The user segment simply consists of you and your GPS receiver.
As mentioned previously, the user segment consists of boaters,
pilots, hikers, hunters, the military and anyone else who wants to
know where they are, where they have been or where they are
going.

GPS-How Does it Work?

Location is everything

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The GPS receiver has to know two things if it’s going to do its
job. It has to know WHERE the
satellites are (location) and how FAR
AWAY they are (distance). Let’s first
look at how the GPS receiver knows
where the satellites are located in
space. The GPS receiver picks up two
kinds of coded information from the
satellites. One type of information,
called “almanac” data, contains the
approximate positions (locations) of the
satellites. This data is continuously
transmitted and stored in the memory of the GPS receiver so it
knows the orbits of the satellites and where each satellite is
supposed to be. The almanac data is periodically updated with
new information as the satellites move around. Any satellite can
travel slightly out of orbit, so the ground monitor stations keep
track of the satellite orbits, altitude, location, and speed. The
ground stations send the orbital data to the master control
station, which in turn sends corrected data up to the satellites.
This corrected and exact position data is called the “ephemeris”
(pronounced: i-’fe-me-res) data, which is valid for about four to
six hours, and is transmitted in the coded information to the GPS
receiver. So, having received the almanac and ephemeris data,
the GPS receiver knows the position (location) of the satellites at
all times.
Time is of the Essence
Even though the GPS receiver knows the
precise location of the satellites in
space, it still needs to know how far
away the satellites are (the distance) so
it can determine its position on Earth.
There is a simple formula that tells the
receiver how far it is from each satellite:
Your distance from a given satellite
object equals the velocity of the
transmitted signal multiplied by the time it takes the signal to
reach you (Velocity x Travel Time = Distance). GPS works on the
same principle, called “Time of Arrival”, using the same basic
formula to determine distance.

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The receiver already knows the velocity. It’s the speed of a radio
wave — 1,86,000 miles per second (the speed of light), less any
delay as the signal travels through the Earth’s atmosphere.
Now the GPS receiver needs to determine the time part of the
formula. The answer lies in the coded signals the satellites
transmit. The transmitted code is called “pseudo-random code”
because it looks like a noise signal. When a satellite is generating
the pseudo-random code, the GPS receiver is generating the
same code and tries to match it up to the satellite’s code. The
receiver then compares the two codes to determine how much it
needs to delay (or shift) its code to match the satellite code. This
delay time (shift) is multiplied by the speed of light to get the
distance.
Your GPS receiver clock does not keep the time as precisely as
the satellite clocks. Putting an atomic clock in your GPS receiver
would make it much larger and far too expensive! So each
distance measurement needs to be corrected to account for the
GPS receiver’s internal clock error. For this reason, the range
measurement is referred to as a “pseudo-range”. To determine
position using pseudo-range data, a minimum of four satellites
must be tracked and the four fixes must be recomputed until the
clock error disappears.

Coming Full Circle

Now that we have both satellite
location and distance, the
receiver can determine a
position. Let’s say we are
11,000 miles from one satellite.
Our location would be
somewhere on an imaginary
sphere that has the satellite in
the center with a radius of
11,000 miles. Then let’s say we
are 12,000 miles from another
satellite. The second sphere would intersect the first sphere to
create a common circle. If we add a third satellite, at a distance
of 13,000 miles, we now have two common points where the
three spheres intersect.

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Even though there are two possible positions, they differ greatly
in latitude/longitude position
AND altitude. To determine
which of the two common points
is your actual position, you’ll
need to enter our approximate
altitude into the GPS receiver.
This will allow the receiver to
calculate a two-dimensional
position (latitude, longitude).
However, by adding a fourth
satellite, the receiver can
determine your three-
dimensional position (latitude,
longitude, altitude). Let’s say our distance from a fourth satellite
is 10,000 miles. We now have a fourth sphere intersecting the
first three spheres at one common point.

Almanac Data
The unit stores data about where the satellites are located at any
given time. This data is called the almanac. Sometimes when the
GPS unit is not turned on for a length of time, the almanac can
get outdated or “cold”.
When the GPS receiver is “cold”, it could take longer to acquire
satellites. A receiver is considered “warm” when the data has
been collected from the satellites within the last four to six
hours. When you’re looking for a GPS unit to buy, you may see
“cold” and “warm” acquisition time specifications. If the time it
takes the GPS unit to lock on to the signals and calculate a
position is important to you, be sure to check the acquisition
times.
Once the GPS has locked onto enough satellites to calculate a
position, you are ready to begin navigating! Most units will
display a position page or a page showing your position on a map
(map screen) that will assist you in your navigation.

GPS Receiver Technology

Most modern GPS receivers are a parallel multi-channel design.
Older single-channel designs were once popular, but were limited
in their ability to continuously receive signals in the toughest
environments — such as under heavy tree cover. Parallel

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receivers typically have from between five and 12 receiver
circuits, each devoted to one particular satellite signal, so strong
locks can be maintained on all the satellites at all times.
Parallel-channel receivers are quick to lock onto satellites when
first turned on and they are unequaled in their ability to receive
the satellite signals even in difficult conditions such as dense
foliage or urban settings with tall buildings.
Sources of Errors
Civilian GPS receivers have potential position errors due to the
result of the accumulated errors due primarily to some of the
following sources:
Ionosphere and troposphere delays — The satellite signal slows
as it passes through the atmosphere. The system uses a built-in
model” that calculates an average, but not an exact, amount of
delay.
Signal multi-path —
Occurs when the GPS
signal is reflected off
objects such as tall
buildings or large rock
surfaces before it
reaches the receiver.
This increases the travel
time of the signal,
thereby causing errors.
Receiver clock errors — Since it is not practical to have an
atomic clock in your GPS receiver, the built-in clock can have
very slight timing errors.
Orbital errors — Also known as “ephemeris errors”, these are
inaccuracies of the satellite’s reported location.
Number of satellites visible — The more satellites the receiver
can “see”, the better the accuracy. Buildings, terrain, electronic
interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can block signal
reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading
at all. The clearer the view, the better the reception. GPS units
will not work indoors (typically), underwater, or underground.
Satellite geometry/shading — This refers to the relative position
of the satellites at any given time. Ideal satellite geometry exists
when the satellites are located at wide angles relative to each

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other. Poor geometry results when the satellites are located in a
line or in a tight grouping.
Intentional degradation of the satellite signal — The U.S.
military’s intentional degradation of the signal is known as
“Selective Availability” (SA) and is intended to prevent military
adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS signals. SA
accounts for the majority of the error in the range. SA was
turned off on May 2, 2000, and is currently not active. This
means you can expect typical GPS accuracies in the range of 6-12
meters (about 20-40 feet).
However, accuracy can be improved by combining the GPS
receiver with a Differential GPS (or DGPS) receiver, which can
operate from several possible sources to help reduce some of the
sources of errors described above. The next section explains
DGPS and
how it works.

DGPS-How
does it Work?

Differential
GPS works by
placing a GPS
receiver
(called a
reference
station) at a
known
location.
Since the
reference
station knows its exact location, it can determine the errors in
the satellite signals. It does this by measuring the ranges to each
satellite using the signals received and comparing these
measured ranges to the actual ranges calculated from its known
position. The difference between the measured and calculated
range for each satellite in view becomes a “differential
correction”. The differential corrections for each tracked
satellite are formatted into a correction message and transmitted
to DGPS receivers. These differential corrections are then
applied to the GPS receiver’s calculations, removing many of the
common errors and improving accuracy. The level of accuracy

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obtained is a function of the GPS receiver and the similarity of its
“environment” to that of the reference station, especially its
proximity to the station. The reference station receiver
determines the error components and provides corrections to the
GPS receiver in real time. Corrections can be transmitted over
FM radio frequencies, by satellite, or by beacon transmitters
maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard. Typical DGPS accuracy is 1-5
meters (about 3-16 feet).

Special Features Available in Some GPS Receivers

Non-mapping Units
GPS units with no map detail have a plotter screen that can show
an overhead view of your location relative to any waypoints,
routes, or track logs you have created. The plotter screen will
aid in determining your position in relation to these items. Most
GPS receivers will have the ability to show this basic information.
Base Map Units
A GARMIN unit with a Base Map will typically show interstates,
U.S. and state highways, major thoroughfares in metro areas,
lakes, rivers, railroads, coastlines, cities, airport locations, and
exit information for the federal interstate highway system.
Mapping Units
By stepping up to a unit with the ability to download detailed
map data from CD-ROMs, on-screen information really takes a
leap forward. Map data may include business and residential
streets, restaurants, banks, gas stations, tourist attractions,
marine navigational data, boat ramps, topographic detail, off-
road trails and much, much more. Map data can be incorporated
into the unit either by using a data cartridge or by downloading
the information directly from a CD to the GPS unit.

Navigation: Where Am I Going?

Waypoints
The main purpose of navigation is to be able to get from point A
to point B as easily as possible. A GPS unit can store several
hundred points, or locations, called “waypoints”. Your house,
airport, RV, Bound etc. are just a few examples of the locations
you could store and navigate back to later. If you have never

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been to the spot, but know its coordinates or where it is on a
map? You can even create waypoints of these places by feeding
the coordinates of that point (latitude & longitude or GRs in a
variety of references) and navigate your way (or GOTO) to that
spot.

GOTO
The GOTO feature is as simple as selecting a
destination point and telling your GPS to “go to
it.” The unit will draw a straight line to that
point and guide you there with a pointer arrow,
compass bearing (the direction to the point),
desired course line, or a 3D “highway”
representation. When you are navigating to a
specific place, the GPS always keeps track of where you are,
where you are going, how fast you are going, how far away
you are from your destination, and how long it will take you
to get there!
But what if there is a mountain, island or canyon between you
and your destination and you can’t navigate in a straight line to
your spot? You can tell the unit to go to a series of waypoints in a
certain order called a “route”.

Routes

Imagine that the waypoints you want to go to are the dots and
the route is the line connecting the dots. Since you get to put
your own numbers on the dots, you are basically saying, “I want
to go from here, to here, to here, and so on, in this order!” With
all GPS units, you can also see where you have been, displayed in
the form of a “track log”.

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Track Logs
As you travel along, your GPS unit will automatically record your
journey in a “track log”. Think of a track log as a bread-crumb
trail of where you have been. As you twist and turn along a forest
path, your every movement is being stored in the GPS. If you
want to travel back along the same path you came, you can
simply activate TracBack® feature. When activated, the unit will
look at your track log and automatically create a reverse route
along your same path, taking you back to where you started. You
can even store this information to use over and over again, so
you’ll know that you are heading in the right direction!
True and Magnetic North
With direction in mind, you’ll need to determine if you want to
use true north or magnetic north references. If you are using your
GPS along with a standard compass, you will normally set the GPS
to magnetic north. GPS receivers generally have a built-in model
of the earth’s magnetic variation and can automatically set the
Magnetic Variation for your location anywhere on the planet. You
may also choose to set the variation manually using a user-
defined north setting.

Position Formats and Grids

Your current location can be viewed in the GPS in the form of
coordinates. Since different maps and charts use different
position formats, GPS units allow you to choose the correct
coordinate system for your particular use. The common formats
are latitude and longitude, UTM/UPS metric grids and several
other grids. India 1, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A and 4B are options
available in GPS and for Hyderabad region, India 3A should be
chosen.

Map Datums
Maps and charts are essentially grids created from a starting
reference point called a datum. Most GPS receivers include over
100 available map datums, which allow you to switch to a setting
that matches your map. Indo-Bangladesh Grid which is another
name for British Modified Grid is the one applicable for India.
Using a map datum that does not match the chart you are
using can result in significant differences in position
information. Most good navigational charts and maps will have

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the datum listed, normally somewhere in the smaller, side print
or in the legend. When looking through a unit’s list of datums, be
sure to remember that they are all mathematical models of the
Earth’s shape used to determine a position, not actual maps built
into the unit.

Complementary Navigation Aids

Even with GPS technology becoming better every day, it is still a
good idea to have backup navigation. Having a paper map, a
simple compass, and knowledge of manual navigation is a good,
safe practice of prudent navigators! Remember, GPS is a
complement to navigation and should not be the only
navigational tool you use.

Purchasing Decisions
Trying to decide which GPS unit and accessories to get could be
overwhelming, especially with the number of choices in the
market today.
Since nearly all GPS units can show your position and basic
navigation information, an inexpensive entry-level unit can be a
great way to enter the world of GPS navigation.
Nearly all GPS units have a backlight feature, which will allow
you to use your GPS both during day and night.
Consider these issues when selecting a GPS unit:
Battery Life — If you are going to be using the unit away from an
auxiliary power source, consider the weight of carrying extra
batteries. Units with color displays tend to have a decreased
battery life compared to grayscale displays, requiring more
frequent battery changes.
Size and Weight — GPS units are available in an array of
different sizes and shapes.
Antenna Configuration — Are you going to be using the unit
mainly in the open? How about in a car? Whether you need a unit
with a built-in antenna and the capacity to attach an external
antenna?
DGPS Capability — Do you need the best accuracy possible? If so,
combining a Differential GPS (DGPS) receiver with your GPS unit

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will give you the best accuracy possible. Most GPS units are
DGPS-ready.
Remote Antenna — will a built-in antenna’s view be shaded,
such as in a boat cabin, in the cockpit of an airplane or under the
roof of a car? An external antenna will allow you to use your GPS
in an area where a clear view of the sky may not always be
possible.
External Power Source — Even with the long battery life you get
on most GPS receivers, it’s always nice to save on batteries by
using an AC power source!
Mounts — When you need your hands free, a mount for your GPS
can be useful. Many units come with a mount, and several
additional mounts are available for GPS Recievers.
Software —Map softwares, which are compatible with PC
interface also, are available. These allow you to save your
favorite waypoints or plan a trip, to view color maps on a
personal computer, with zoom and pan functions for easy map
browsing. For those units that accept the map transfer feature,
users can also select individual maps in areas of interest and
download the selected maps to compatible GPS receivers.

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Chapter 22
Garmin GPS 12 XL
This is a common model of GPS receiver (made by Garmin) used by various
security forces. This GPS receiver is also one of the models used for
instructional purpose in the academy.

Turning the GPS On:

To switch the GPS receiver on, hold down the
'on/off' button shown on the diagram to the
right for half a second and see the GPS
'Welcome Screen'.

Garmin GPS 12 XL
In dark conditions you may require
'backlighting'. Press the 'on/off' button
briefly to toggle this on and off, but beware,
backlighting eats batteries!
Turning the GPS Off:
To turn the GPS receiver off, you need to hold
down the same button, showing a light bulb,
for two seconds.
The GPS will show a message saying 'Turning Off 2' and 'Turning Off 1' as
you hold it down. If you release the button before the two seconds are up
the receiver will remain on. This ensures that you do not turn the receiver
off by mistake.
If you continue to hold the button the screen will go blank indicating that
the GPS unit is off.
You can switch the receiver on and off at any time. It will regain its
position if the process of acquiring a signal is followed as described in the
next section when it is turned back on and all the collected data will be
retained even though it is turned off.
Acquiring a Geo-Reference
When the GPS is turned on,
the 'Satellite Page' will
appear as the GPS tries to
get a signal from four or
more orbiting satellites.
This page shows the battery
level, a circle displaying all
of the satellites that are
currently overhead, and
bars that show the strength of signal coming from each 'visible' satellite.

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The GPS uses radio signals that penetrate through thin material and glass,
but not through thick material, stone, such as metal, thick vegetation or
people. So GPS don't work in buildings and can only receive a signal in a car
if they are on the dashboard. The GPS may have trouble receiving a signal if
it is surrounded by buildings or people or under a tree canopy.
Leave the GPS in a clear position, away from trees
and buildings, or hold it at arms length. Allow it to
gain a signal. This should take about 20 seconds.
When it does so, the 'Satellite Page' will be
replaced by the 'Position Page'. This will show your
current location in National Grid coordinates or
latitudes and longitudes.

The Menu Pages on the Garmin™ GPS 12XL

The GPS Receiver has a number of different screens or 'Pages'. These are the
'Satellite Page' and 'Position Page' that we have seen, and additionally, the
'Map Page', 'Compass Page' and 'Menu Page' shown below:

Navigate between these pages by pressing the

PAGE button on the GPS unit. Every time you press
PAGE you will move on to the next page in the order
shown above.
You should spend most of your time on the 'Map Page’,
which is explained more fully in the next section. It
will track you and display your route on the GPS
screen. If you find yourself 'lost' in the menu, press
PAGE until you see the 'Map Page' again.
You will need to set the options in the 'Menu Page'
before you use the GPS for field work. Typically the
settings would include: Metric system, India 3A Grid System, India
Bangladesh Map Datum, Time Zone etc.

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Reference: The Map Page
The map page shows your route as
you move with the GPS receiver.
This page should be the most
appropriate for most of the time
whilst you are using the GPS.
Your current position is shown by a
diamond at the centre of the
screen, and previous positions are
joined by a line showing your
route.

Any locations those are stored as 'waypoints' are shown as symbols on the
map.
To change the scale of the map use the large rocker button with the arrow
symbols to highlight the 'ZM' field at the top left of the 'Map Page'. Press
ENTER to select this field. Use the arrows to change the area shown on the
screen from between 0.5km and 600km, and then press ENTER again to
select this scale.
Marking a Position
Wherever you are, once the GPS receiver has
determined your position, you can save your current
location as what is called a GPS 'waypoint'. These are
specially recorded pairs of (x,y) coordinates that can
be downloaded from the GPS into a computer for use
with other digital map data later.
Waypoints are saved with the MARK button. This is a
very useful feature. So whenever you collect some
information that you would like to geo-reference, or
think that you might want to remember a location,
MARK the position.
To save a position as a waypoint, select the 'Map Page' with the PAGE button
and then press MARK.
The 'Mark Position Page' will appear with a
three-digit name for the waypoint (usually a
number). You can use the rocker switch to
select the waypoint name and map symbol
fields, and change the values by pressing
ENTER to select the field, then using the rocker
switch to change the values, and then
ENTER again to select a value. Highlight the
'Save' field and press the ENTER button to save
the waypoint.

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Using 'GOTO' for Navigation
Once a waypoint has been saved, you can navigate to it by using the
GOTO navigation function.
This is a useful means of navigating in poor visibility
and as we can load waypoints into the GPS from
computer software also, it allows us to plot routes to
be followed in the field using the PC and the
geographic data that we posses.
A GOTO is a straight-line course from your current
location to any selected waypoint.
To select a waypoint, press the GOTO button to reveal
the 'Goto Page’, which lists all of the waypoints,
recorded in the GPS.
Use the arrows on the rocker switch to
highlight the waypoint that you want to
navigate to and then press ENTER to select it.
Continue by pressing PAGE until you see one
of the 'Compass Pages'. These look like either
a road (highway!) or a compass with an arrow.
We want to use the 'Compass Page' rather
than the 'Highway Page'.
If you are seeing the 'Highway View' then press ENTER on
either of these pages to show the menu that displays the two
alternative views.
Use the rocker to select the COMPASS view that you want.
Then press ENTER again to confirm the selection.
The 'Compass View' shows your course over the ground with
an arrow pointing to the waypoint that you have selected as
your GOTO destination.
The bearing and distance to the waypoint are displayed at the top of the
screen, and the bearing and speed of your current track are shown below
the compass.
As you approach the waypoint, the GPS
will beep and ask you to press PAGE,
which will alert you that you are
approaching the waypoint. When you
have arrived, the distance field will
read '0.0'.
Don't forget the GPS is accurate only to
a distance of about 50-100m.
To cancel a GOTO operation, press the GOTO key on the GPS receiver and
use the rocker switch to highlight the CANCEL GOTO field at the bottom of
the page, then press ENTER to confirm.
For more detailed instructions on how to use a GPS, refer to the manual.

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Practice Exercises
Exercise-1: Use of GPS in Navigation-1

In GPS Garmin 12 XL, the [Enter] button works similar to {Enter]

button on computer and [Quit] button works similar to [Escape]
button on computers.

1. Put the GPS ‘On’ and ‘Off’ [Power Button]

Press Red power button and keep it pressed till the GPS is
On/Off.

2. Put the GPS on and find out from how many satellites is
it acquiring signals?
Look at the bars. The no. of bars indicate the no. of
satellites from which signals are being acquired.

3. Scroll through the 5 main pages of GPS

Use [Page Button]. The five pages are
1. Satellite page (default)
2. Position Page
3. Map Page
4. Compass/ Navigation Page
5. Main Menus Page
4. Select Menu page and by selecting Set Up option, set the
following parameters:
Use [Page] and come to Main Menu Page
Select [Set Up] menu option by using scroll.
[Enter]
Select System Option
[Enter]
a. System
i. Offset: +05.30

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Select [Offset] by using scroll and [Enter] and use scroll to
set 0ffset at + 5.30 (IST w.r.t. GMT) and press [Enter]
ii. Hours: 24 (24 hour format)
Select [Hours] by using scroll and [Enter] and use scroll to
set the time format and press [Enter]
b. Navigation
i. Position Format: India IIIA
Press [Page] to again go to [Set Up] menu. Select
[Navigation] and press [Enter]. Select [Position Format],
using scroll and [Enter]. Set position Format to India III A
and [Enter]
ii. Map Datum: India Bangladesh
Similar as Above
iii. Units: Metric
Similar as above
c. Alarms
i. Arrival: Auto
ii. CDI Alarm On 0.0 Km
d. Language
i. English
5. Scroll to Position Page and find out your current location.
Mark this position as Waypoint ‘001’ with Symbol of
‘Flag’ and Display Characteristics as ‘Name with
Symbol’.
[Page]
Come to Position page and note down your current position
GR under the heading POSITION.
To mark this position, press [Mark]

Use [Scroll] and [Enter] for Waypoint name and Symbols.

6. Scroll to Map Page. Set the Scale to 0.3 Km. and observe
the use of Pan feature.
[Page, Scroll, Enter, Quit Buttons]

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7. Walk to Point B and observe the route on map. Use Scale
feature to enlarge or shorten the view and Pan feature to
move the image up, down, left or right.
[Scroll, Enter, Quit Buttons]
8. After reaching B, mark the position as Waypoint ‘BD’
with Symbol ‘Cross’.
[Mark, Scroll, Enter, Quit Buttons]
9. Scroll to Compass Page and navigate to point ‘001’ by
following the compass direction.
[Page, Enter, Go To, Scroll, Quit Buttons].
While navigating, observe the changes in BRG, DST, TRK,
SPD, on Compass Page. Observe the alarm also as you
approach Waypoint ‘001’.
10. Feed the given Bearings (as read by the instructor from a
map into the GPS) into the Waypoint List as Waypoint
‘002’ with Symbol of ‘Home’.
[Page, Scroll, Enter, Quit Buttons].
11. From your current location, feed the bearings of a point
at a Bearing of 2000 and Distance of 2 Kms. And save it as
Waypoint ‘003’with Symbol ‘Tree’.
[Page, Waypoint, Ref, Scroll, Enter, Quit Buttons].
12. Find out the Bearing and Distance between Waypoint 001
and BD.
[Menu Page, Select Dist and Sun, Enter, feed From and To by
using Scroll, Enter]
13. Put ‘Off’ the GPS.
[Power Button]
14. Again put Ón’ the GPS by pressing Mark button along with
Power Button. You will see that all the waypoints etc.
would be deleted.
[Power, Mark Buttons]
FOR INSTRUCTORS
Ensure that there are as many GPS sets as the no. of trainees. Ensure that
before the tutorial, the batteries are charged/ fresh and waypoint list is empty.
Select the starting point as a place where signal strength is good.
DO NOT discuss features other than those discussed in the tutorial as otherwise
the flow would be disrupted and confusion will result.
Explain the meaning of various terms/ features included in the tutorial such as
BRG, TRK, DST, SPD, PAN etc.

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Chapter 23
Technical Terms Used in Map

Technical Terms Used in Map Reading

Reading
BEARING: The angle, measured clockwise, that a line makes
with a fixed zero line. Unless otherwise stated, the zero line is
north. A bearing may be a true bearing, measured from true
north-a magnetic bearing measured from magnetic north-or a
grid bearing measured from grid north.

CONTOUR: An imaginary line on the surface of the ground at

the same height above mean sea level throughout its length.
Contour lines are drawn on maps to show the shape of the
ground.

DATUM OR DATUM LEVEL: The level from which altitudes are

measured; generally mean sea level.

DETAIL: All the topographical information on a map.

FIXED POINT: Used in making a map to denote a point that has

been fixed on the paper by survey methods.

FORM LINE: An approximate contour, a sketched contour.

GRADIENT: A slope described by a fraction or in words-1/30 or

1 in 30 means a rise or fall of 1 foot in a horizontal distance of
30 feet.

GRATICULE: Lines of longitude and latitude drawn on a map as

the basis for a system of map references.

GRID: Lines, forming squares, drawn on a map as a basis for a

system of map references. The lines are drawn parallel on the
paper to north-south and east-west lines through a fixed origin.

(Note: Grid lines form true squares; graticules do not.)

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GRID NORTH: Except through the origin, grid lines do not lie true
north and south or east and west. Grid north is the direction of
the north-south grid lines on a map.

HACHURES: A conventional method of showing hill features by

shading in short lines drawn in the direction of the slope, thicker
at the top of the slope than at the bottom.

HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT (H.E.): The horizontal distance on the

ground between two adjacent contours.

ISOGONAL: A line drawn on a map through places having the

same magnetic variation.

LATITUDE: The latitude of a place is the arc of the meridian

from that place to the equator, expressed in degrees at the
centre of the earth. A line of latitude, or parallel, is a line drawn
through places of equal latitude.

LOCAL MAGNETIC ATTRACTION: Attraction due to the presence

of iron or magnetic iron ore, which causes a compass needle to
deviate from its correct position (not to be confused with
magnetic variation).

LONGITUDE: The longitude of a place is the angle at the pole

between the meridian of that place and some standard meridian
(generally that of Greenwich). A line of longitude is a line drawn
through places of equal longitude

MAGNETIC VARIATION OR DECLINATION: The angle between

true north and magnetic north.

MAGNETIC NORTH: The point, in the far north of Canada, to

which a compass needle points.

MERIDIAN: A true north and south line.

ORIENTING A MAP: Placing it so that its true north line points

true north (or magnetic or grid north line points magnetic or grid
north). Also used for air photographs. Also called setting a map.

PLOTTING: The process of transferring observations and

measurements to a map or sketch field.

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RAY: A line drawn from the position of the observer to fix the
direction of an object.

RESECTION: A method of fixing a position by observation of at

least two previously fixed points.

SECTION: A line drawn to represent the shape of the surface of

the ground along a line between two points.

SPOT HEIGHT: A point on a map whose height has been

determined by Survey methods. This height is printed alongside
the point.

TRIG POINT: A point fixed during the triangulation at the

beginning of a survey; marked on Ordnance Survey maps by a
small triangle, with the height.

TRUE NORTH: The direction of the North Pole from that point.

VERTICAL INTERVAL (V.I.): The difference in level between

adjacent contours on a map.

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Map Reading Practical Tutorials

Use of Prismatic Compass

1. Identify the following parts of the Prismatic Compass:

Tongue Direction mark
Tongue Notch Dial
Hair Line Lubber Line
Luminous Strip Prism
Milled vane Eye Hole
Setting vane Sighting Slit
Arrow Mark Thumb Ring

2. Read the Bearing and Back Bearing of Point A by using

Prism and Sighting Slit.
3. Read the Bearing and Back Bearing of Point B without using
Prism, i.e. by directly reading the Dial.
4. Set the given Bearings on the compass:
a. 1250: By use of markings on Milled vane and Clamping
Screw.
b. 2580: Without use of markings on Milled Vane, i.e. by
using Dial markings, Lubber line, Arrow and Direction
mark.
c. 1120: By use of markings of cardinal Points on the
body of Compass.
5. March to Point C whose Bearings and distance are known.
6. Chart out a route from Point D to Point E by dividing it into
bounds and finding out the bearings of next bound from the
earlier bound and prepare a marching chart in the following
format:

Start Point Destination Bearing Distance in

Point paces

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D Bound 1
Bound 1 Bound 2
Bound 2 Bound 3
Bound 3 E

For the Instructors

1. Have as many compasses as the total no. of trainees and

instructors.
2. There should be one instructor with every 4 trainees
3. Select a tutorial point and encircle it with lime.
4. Select point A, B and C before the tutorial and note down:
a. Bearing and back Bearings of A and B and Bearing of C
w.r.t. tutorial point.
b. Distance of C from tutorial point in meters (preferably
less than 200 meters)
5. While tackling SN 5, ensure that each trainee marches to C as
per compass direction and maintains compass alignment
during entire march.
6. While point D can be designated as Tutorial Point, Point E
should not be in straight line to D and for reaching E from D,
atleast two direction changes should be required if a
convenient path is followed. Straight Line path from D to E
should have obstacles.
7. While solving SN 6, the trainees should be asked as to why
would they not take bearing of point E from D directly and
march in straight line. How will they decide the route with the
help of map?

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Map Reading Practical Tutorial

Time: 30 Minutes

Introduction to Map K/7

1. To which area the map sheet pertains to?

2. What is the map sheet No.?
a. Which map sheet will you refer if you wanted details
about the area to the SW of this map sheet?
3. What is the scale of this map?
a. What distance on the map will equal a horizontal ground
distance of 4.8 kms.?
b. Use scale line and any linear object to measure
approximately the ground horizontal distance between
point A (GR 775306) and point B (GR 815338)? What are
the two features at these two GRs?
c. If you were to navigate in straight line from point A to
Point B, will the distance you would have to traverse
equal that calculated in (ii) above? If no, why?
4. What is the total area covered by this map sheet in square
kms.? What are the Longitude and Latitude extents of this
map?
5. What is the height of the point at GR 731284?
6. What are the heights at GRs 836222 and at GR 766274? What is
the difference between the two types of these heights?
7. With the help of a protractor, calculate the Grid Forward
Bearing of GR 815338 from GR 775315? What are the Grid Back
Bearing, True and Magnetic Bearings? Set this bearing on the
compass and look in the direction of the bearing?

Map Reading Practical Tutorials

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Time Allowed: 30 Minutes

Introduction to Map K/6

1. Identify the landmark at GR 727313 and GR 751285?

2. What do you understand by 5r at GR 835248?
3. What is the general topography of the area between Easting
67 to 71 and Northing 64 to 68?
4. Chart out a Route between GR 667655 to GR 668626 and
calculate ground distance and aerial distance? Also note down
the obstacles in between.
5. What is the area covered by Wailal Reserved Forest bounded
by E-66 to 71 and N-60 to 62?
6. Read out the height at GR 693576?
7. Workout the route between GR 679696 and GR 631725 and
calculate distance and justify the route? [Hint: Take aid of HT
lines]

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Notes

Map Reading Course

 Rs. 30/-
Printed at Academy Printing Press, SVPNPA, Hyderabad