 Cell

Cell is the smallest and the basic unit of living things.

All living things are composed of cells.
 Unicellular organisms
 living things consist of a single cell are called unicellular organisms
 Most of the unicellular organisms are invisible with naked eyes,
 but there are some exceptions like chicken egg cells which can be seen with naked eyes
 For example, paramecium is a unicellular organism..
 Multicellular organisms.
consist of many cells are called multicellular organisms
The body of multicellular organisms is composed of many cells
 The other groups of living things such as plants and animals
 Cell theory
 An English scientist, Robert Hooke was the first to observe cells and to use the word cell for
structures in living organisms.
 Living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
 .Cells are the smallest unit of life .
 Cells arise only by the division of a pre-existing cell
 Cells vary considerably in size and shape but they share certain common features:
a. Every cell is surrounded by a membrane,
b. Cells contain genetic material.
c. Many of these activities are chemical reactions, catalysed by enzymes
produced inside the cell.
d. Cells have their own energy release system
 Cell wall
 Cell wall is a rigid structure of a plant cell
 that provides structural support and gives shape to the cell.
 It is found external to the cell membrane.
 Fungal cells, some Protista cells such as algae and bacterial cells also have cell walls.
 Animal cells have no cell wall.
 Cell membrane
 Cell membrane is an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding
environment.
 Cell membrane is a very thin selectively permeable structure.
 Cell membrane controls what enters into and leaves a cell.
 It controls the entry of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of a cell.
Wastes, such as carbon dioxide also leave a cell by passing through a cell membrane.
 Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm is a thick fluid-filled region in the cell
 containing cell organelles.
 The fluid material of the cytoplasm consists of 70 to 80 percent water with different organic
(proteins, carbohydrates) and inorganic (ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium) molecules
 Nucleus
 Nucleus is the largest organelle surrounded by the double-membrane.
 Inside a nucleus, there are thread-like structures called chromosomes that contain a very long
molecule of DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid).
 The nucleus determines what the cell will be, for example, a blood cell, a liver cell, a muscle cell
or a nerve cell.
 The nucleus also controls cell division.
 Within a nucleus there is a darker area called the nucleolus, this is the site where new ribosomes
are made
 Ribosomes
 Ribosomes are small cellular structures that are found in large numbers in all cells.
 The function of ribosomes is to synthesize proteins.
 They are found either freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The endoplasmic reticulum is a complex system of interconnected double membranes.
 They contain fluid-filled spaces between the membranes which allow materials to be
transported throughout the cell.
 There are two distinct types of the endoplasmic reticulum
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 It gets its name from the dotted appearance of its surface.
 These dotted structures on it are the ribosomes.
 Proteins can be made by these ribosomes.
 Proteins can be made and stored in the rough endoplasmic reticulum
and transported around the cell in the small sacs called vesicles.
  Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 This is endoplasmic reticulum without ribosomes.
 It is important in the manufacturing of lipid
 Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are relatively large organelles found in the cells.
 It has a double membrane; the outer one controls the entry and exit of materials.
 The inner membrane forms many folds on which some of the chemical reactions of respiration
take place and the site for the synthesis of much energy.
 Mitochondria are often described as the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell since they are the sites of
respiration
 Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are little membrane-bound packages of digestive enzymes.
 They contain digestive enzymes which can be used to digest bacteria or other
cells taken into the cell .
 It is also break down unwanted or damaged organelles within the cell.
 Vacuoles
 These are organelles that consist simply of a single membrane with fluid inside.
 Many plant cells have large vacuoles that occupy more than half of the cell volume
 Chloroplasts
 Chloroplasts are also double membrane-bounded organelles that occur in the cell of
green plants, mostly in the cells of the leaves.
 They are the site for photosynthesis.
 They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll that can trap the sunlight energy for
the synthesis of carbohydrates.
 Vesicles
 Vesicles are a small stack-like collection of the membranous sac. T
 They store and transport and ship materials where they need to go.
 Unit 2
 Classification is the process of grouping things based on their similarities.
 The science of naming, identifying and classifying organisms is known as Taxonomy
 Scientists who study taxonomy are called taxonomists.
 the Greek philosopher Aristotle developed the first widely accepted biological
classification systems
 Carolus Linnaeus who is also known as the father of taxonomy, introduced a
taxonomic hierarchy of classification
 The kingdom is ranked the highest followed by Phylum (division), class, order, family,
genus, and species
 Each rank in a taxonomic hierarchy is termed taxon (plural, taxa).
 The domaineukarya includes groups such as protists, fungi, plants and animals.
 Prokaryotic cells: are unicellular organisms without a separate nucleus.
 Eukaryotic cells: cells with a nucleus and membranebound organelles.
 Five-kingdom scheme consists of animals, plants, fungi, monera and protists

 Kingdom Monera
 Monera includes Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
 Eubacteria is true bacteria have strong cell walls
 They exist in various shapes and forms
 Some eubacteria are heterotrophs; they make their food (autotrophs)
 Some Eubacteria cause diseases, like strep throat and pneumonia.
 Most Eubacteria, however, are harmless and helpful
 Archaebacteria (Archaea) have very different cell walls than bacteria
 archaebacteria make their own food.
 They are chemosynthetic and photosynthetic.
 Archaebacteria live in extreme environments.
 The environments in which the archaebacteria live often have no oxygen
 Important characteristics of monera:
Simple prokaryotic unicellular organisms
Lack a well-defined nucleus or any membrane bound organelles
Most have a rigid cell wall
Have various modes of nutrition. Could autotrophs or heterotrophs
Known as decomposers and mineralizers in the biosphere
 Kingdom Protista
 Kingdom protista contains the most diverse organisms of all the kingdoms
 There are single-celled (unicellular) protists as well as many-celled (multicellular)
protists.
 they are all Eukaryotes.
 Unicellular algae are the basis of aquatic food chains and produce much of the oxygen in
Earth’s atmosphere.
 Algae are photosynthetic and autotrophic
  Kingdom Fung
 Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include micro-organisms such as yeasts, moulds and
mushroom
 Except for unicellular yeasts, fungi are filamentous multicellular organisms
 Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae
 Fungi possess a cell wall
 Fungi are heterotrophic in nutrition.
 fungus absorbs nutrients from the environment outside of its body.
 Many fungi accomplish this task by secreting powerful enzymes into their surroundings
 most fungi absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence are called
Saprophytes (decomposers).
 Decomposer fungi break down and absorb nutrients from non-living organic material
 Fungi cannot make their own food. They are heterotrophs
 Fungi can reproduce either asexually by vegetative means (fragmentation, fission and
budding), asexual reproduction
 Yeast (saccharomyces service) is a very important fungus used for making injera rise and
allows us to make alcohol (Tej, Tella, Beer etc.)
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic, and multicellular autotrophic
organisms
 Plants make their own food through the process of photosynthesis.
 Plants have chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment,
 Photosynthesis also provides oxygen in the atmosphere
 Some parasitic.
 Nearly all live on land.
 Sexual reproduction predominates.
 They do not move from place to place; they are stationary.
 Their cells contain a rigid cell wall made up of cellulose.
 They reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation or sexually.
 Angiosperms: Most diverse seed plant group. Only group that makes flowers and
fruits.
 Bryophyte: is the common name for three lineages of plants: mosses, liverworts,
and horn-worts.
 Dicots: Most diverse groups of angiosperms; members have two seed leaves,
branching leaf veins.
 Embryophyta: land plants; photosynthetic species that protect and nourish the
embryo on the parental body
 Gymnosperm: Seed plant that does not make flowers or fruits; for example, a
conifer.
 Seed plant (spermatophyte): Plant that produces seeds and pollen; an angiosperm
or gymnosperm.
 Vascular plant: Plant having specialized tissues (xylem and phloem) that transport
water and sugar within the plant body